MARKETING RESEARCH

UNIT-1
Applications of Market Research
Marketing research uses include: Advertising testing research, branding research, customer
satisfaction research, pricing research, product positioning research, new product assessments,
marketing due diligence, and segmentation research. We conduct these marketing research studies for
firms of most sizes from venture funded start ups to middle-market and large enterprises.
Applications of Market Research

Pricing Research
We provide pricing strategy consulting backed by strong pricing research capabilities. Our perspective
is broad when dealing with pricing research and pricing strategy decisions, and focus on finding for
your business optimum price-product-feature configurations in the context of market positioning
opportunities. We employ both qualitative and quantitative pricing research tools.

Product Research
Product market research serves several goals: new product design and market validation research, or
assessing existing product strength and line extension potential. We follow the product development
cycle integrating research with creative positioning and technical product design efforts.

Concept Testing
Concept testing research evaluates advertising concepts, ad theme concepts and appeals, new product
concepts, pricing, brand concepts, brand names, and positioning strategy concepts. We select
techniques -- qualitative and quantitative -- to both develop concepts, refine, and screen to assess
market potential.

Positioning Research

We offer experienced market positioning and creative branding research capabilities to define and goto-market with a high-impact positioning strategy. First, it requires understanding the market
positioning concept, your current and potential markets, and the process needed to generate brand
name impact.

Marketing Due Diligence

We support venture investment firms with primary and secondary marketing research in a stand alone
or component marketing due diligence study.

Customer Satisfaction Research

The buzz and interest around customer satisfaction research sometimes deflates if the research design
does not lead to actionable results. Also, customer expectations generally rise overtime as advances in
technology in many categories boost the consumer consciousness of what to expect. We build into our
customer satisfaction study design "action indicators" to point to immediate use of customer
satisfaction results.

Branding Research
Branding decisions drive branding marketing research strategy. Corporate, product and advertising
brand development is a mix of creativity and marketing information to uncover brand positioning
opportunities in cluttered market spaces.

Brand Equity Research

Brand equity research measures the breadth and depth of brand power in your target markets. We use
both standard and custom tailored brand equity survey measurements. A key to research design is the
goal of a brand equity measurement study.

Advertising Research
Advertising research design is determined by specific advertising goals and the stage of ad
development, or campaign. We use a broad range of advertising research techniques including ad
recall surveys, message and theme salience and impact measures, buying motivation and association
with the ad message or positioning theme. We employ both qualitative and quantitative pricing
research tools.

Market Segmentation
Market segmentation research maintains focus and delivers needed marketing information in today's
moving economy where new markets and new product categories emerge and traditional market
segments fade away. Market segmentation research is a way to keep 'your eye on the ball.' Often we
start the market segmentation process with qualitative research to the range and breadth of customers.
Then we follow with quantitative research using appropriate multivariate analysis (cluster, k-means
factor, etc) to define meaningful segments.

Sales Analysis
Data mining -- finding gems of insight from sophisticated or basic analysis of your internal customer
and sales and margin trend data -- is a key first step in product and brand analysis. Simply put, a
marketing analysis data mining effort searches for meaning and insight among the stacks of sales data
and marketing data already within a sales and marketing organization. Through these tools we can
better target your best customers, find which advertising and promotion methods are most efficient
and effective.

Limitations of Marketing Research

Following are the main limitations of Marketing Research:

Marketing Research (MR) is not an exact science though it uses the techniques of
science. Thus, the results and conclusions drawn upon by using MR are not very
accurate.

The results of MR are very vague as MR is carried out on consumers, suppliers,

intermediaries, etc. who are humans. Humans have a tendency to behave artificially
when they know that they are being observed. Thus, the consumers and respondents
upon whom the research is carried behave artificially when they are aware that their
attitudes, beliefs, views, etc are being observed.

MR is not a complete solution to any marketing issue as there are many dominant
variables between research conclusions and market response.

MR is not free from bias. The research conclusions cannot be verified. The
reproduction of the same project on the same class of respondents give different
research results.

Inappropriate training to researchers can lead to misapprehension of questions to be

asked for data collection.

Many business executives and researchers have ambiguity about the research problem
and its objectives. They have limited experience of the notion of the decision-making

process. This leads to carelessness in research and researchers are not able to do
anything real.

There is less interaction between the MR department and the main research
executives. The research department is in segregation. This all makes research
ineffective.

MR faces time constraint. The firms are required to maintain a balance between the
requirement for having a broader perspective of customer needs and the need for
quick decision making so as to have competitive advantage.

Huge cost is involved in MR as collection and processing of data can be costly. Many
firms do not have the proficiency to carry wide surveys for collecting primary data,
and might not also able to hire specialized market experts and research agencies to
collect primary data. Thus, in that case, they go for obtaining secondary data that is
cheaper to obtain.

MR is conducted in open marketplace where numerous variables act on research

settings.

Four Factors to Consider When Creating a Market Research Function. /Organising the
Marketing Research Function

Todays marketers need to remember that one of their primary jobs is providing the rest of the
company with a window into the customer. This takes research.
Research enables you to:

Ask the questions you want to ask

Begin with and test a hypothesis

Predict what might happen in the future

If improving your ability to retain and grow business with existing customers is important to
you, then conduct research. Research in its most basic form is to inquire, to examine. There
is a rigor to research. Research begins with a question and the question helps you formulate
your approach or methodology.
In addition to conducting research, a number of companies are exploring adding a market
research function to their organization. Weve had a number of questions regarding what
factors should be considered when assessing workload requirements. Here are four key
factors to consider:
Project complexity. The number and type of people you will need to staff your own research
department is going to depend how complex the research projects are going to be. Secondary
research projects require different skills sets than primary research efforts. Short, closed
ended online web surveys that require little statistical analysis will require different skills and
people than conducting in-person product validation research around the world.

Frequency of research. A couple of research projects a year will require different resources
than a couple of research projects a month. If you havent created a research calendar, this is
a good starting point. At a minimum the calendar should identify the research topic, timing,
methodology, participant profile, and purpose.
Project alignment. Market research is frequently aligned by brand and the staff allocations
for each brand are based on the products lifecycle and category. The number of brands and
markets and the number of products and complexity of these products in each brand will
affect the staff and budget requirements. The research calendar will help you determine staff
and budget requirements.
Market potential. A products market potential can influence the number of analysts
assigned to a research project. It is common for companies to have more analysts assigned to
research projects related to larger brands or products with the greatest potential. It helps to
have a way to evaluate each research effort. One way to do this is to use a 2X2 grid, with one
axis for business/marketing value/ impact (high to low) and one axis for effort or investment
(high to low). Those research efforts in the high value/impact quadrant should be prioritized
first. We often recommend tackling some of the easiest efforts first as a way to rack up some
fast wins.

What are the various types of research design?

Various types of research design are as follow:
1. Research design for exploratory or formulative studies
In this type of design, a vague problem is selected and understood and is then followed
by an exploratory research to find a new hypothesis and then carrying out conclusion
research decisions to finally get new ideas.
Aims at finding a new hypothesis.
Individual surveys, referring to secondary sources of data etc. play an important role in
such research designs.
Reviewing related literature, following or surveying people having practical experience
in the problem related field act as very important and most commonly used methods by
an exploratory researcher.
2. Research design for conclusive studies
Also referred to as the research design for the descriptive studies and is further divided
as follows
a. Case Study method
Finds extensive use in commerce and industry.
Very respectable method of teaching and research in management.
Helps greatly in knowing the causes and the results of the incident of the phenomenon.

b. Statistical method
Also trying to find its place in commerce and industry.
Act as method of correlation and regressions, analysis, chi square etc.
Has been made very rigorous and sophisticated by coming up of the computers.
3. Research design for experimental studies
Explains the structure of an experiment.
Involve plans for the testing of the causal hypothesis.
Decides the number of observations to be taken and also the order in which
experiments are to be carried out.
Which randomization method to be used.
Which mathematical model to be used for explaining the experiment.
This research design can be further categorized into the following
1. Informal experimental design
After only design.
After only with control design.
Before and after without control design.
Before and after with control design.
2. Formal experimental design
Completely randomized design.
Randomized block design.
Latin square design.
Factorial design.

UNIT-2

Data Collection Methods

Data Collection is an important aspect of any type of research study. Inaccurate data collection can
impact the results of a study and ultimately lead to invalid results.
Data collection methods for impact evaluation vary along a continuum. At the one end of this
continuum are quantatative methods and at the other end of the continuum are Qualitative methods for
data collection.
Quantitative and Qualitative Data collection methods
The Quantitative data collection methods, rely on random sampling and structured data collection
instruments that fit diverse experiences into predetermined response categories. They produce results
that are easy to summarize, compare, and generalize.

Quantitative research is concerned with testing hypotheses derived from theory and/or being able to
estimate the size of a phenomenon of interest. Depending on the research question, participants may
be randomly assigned to different treatments. If this is not feasible, the researcher may collect data on
participant and situational characteristics in order to statistically control for their influence on the
dependent, or outcome, variable.If the intent is to generalize from the research participants to a larger
population, the researcher will employ probability sampling to select participants.
Typical quantitative data gathering strategies include:

Experiments/clinical trials.

Observing and recording well-defined events (e.g., counting the number of patients waiting in
emergency at specified times of the day).

Obtaining relevant data from management information systems.

Administering surveys with closed-ended questions (e.g., face-to face and telephone
interviews, questionnaires etc).

Interviews
In Quantitative research(survey research),interviews are more structured than in Qualitative research.
In a structured interview,the researcher asks a standard set of questions and nothing more.(Leedy and
Ormrod, 2001)
Face -to -face interviews have a distinct advantage of enabling the researcher to establish rapport
with potential partiocipants and therefor gain their cooperation.These interviews yield highest
response rates in survey research.They also allow the researcher to clarify ambiguous answers and
when appropriate, seek follow-up information. Disadvantages include impractical when large samples
are involved time consuming and expensive.(Leedy and Ormrod, 2001)
Telephone interviews are less time consuming and less expensive and the researcher has ready access
to anyone on the planet who hasa telephone.Disadvantages are that the response rate is not as high as
the face-to- face interview but cosiderably higher than the mailed questionnaire.The sample may be
biased to the extent that people without phones are part of the population about whom the researcher
wants to draw inferences.
Computer Assisted Personal Interviewing (CAPI): is a form of personal interviewing, but instead
of completing a questionnaire, the interviewer brings along a laptop or hand-held computer to enter
the information directly into the database. This method saves time involved in processing the data, as
well as saving the interviewer from carrying around hundreds of questionnaires. However, this type of
data collection method can be expensive to set up and requires that interviewers have computer and
typing skills.
Questionnaires
Paper-pencil-questionnaires can be sent to a large number of people and saves the researcher time
and money.People are more truthful while responding to the questionnaires regarding controversial
issues in particular due to the fact that their responses are anonymous. But they also have

drawbacks.Majority of the people who receive questionnaires don't return them and those who do
might not be representative of the originally selected sample.(Leedy and Ormrod, 2001)
Web based questionnaires : A new and inevitably growing methodology is the use of Internet based
research. This would mean receiving an e-mail on which you would click on an address that would
take you to a secure web-site to fill in a questionnaire. This type of research is often quicker and less
detailed.Some disadvantages of this method include the exclusion of people who do not have a
computer or are unable to access a computer.Also the validity of such surveys are in question as
people might be in a hurry to complete it and so might not give accurate responses.
(http://www.statcan.ca/english/edu/power/ch2/methods/methods.htm)
Questionnaires often make use of Checklist and rating scales.These devices help simplify and
quantify people's behaviors and attitudes.A checklistis a list of behaviors,characteristics,or other
entities that te researcher is looking for.Either the researcher or survey participant simply checks
whether each item on the list is observed, present or true or vice versa.A rating scale is more useful
when a behavior needs to be evaluated on a continuum.They are also known as Likert scales. (Leedy
and Ormrod, 2001)

Qualitative data collection methods play an important role in impact evaluation by providing
information useful to understand the processes behind observed results and assess changes in peoples
perceptions of their well-being.Furthermore qualitative methods can beused to improve the quality of
survey-based quantitative evaluations by helping generate evaluation hypothesis; strengthening the
design of survey questionnaires and expanding or clarifying quantitative evaluation findings. These
methods are characterized by the following attributes:

they tend to be open-ended and have less structured protocols (i.e., researchers may change
the data collection strategy by adding, refining, or dropping techniques or informants)

they rely more heavily on iteractive interviews; respondents may be interviewed several times
to follow up on a particular issue, clarify concepts or check the reliability of data

they use triangulation to increase the credibility of their findings (i.e., researchers rely on
multiple data collection methods to check the authenticity of their results)

generally their findings are not generalizable to any specific population, rather each case
study produces a single piece of evidence that can be used to seek general patterns among
different studies of the same issue

Regardless of the kinds of data involved,data collection in a qualitative study takes a great deal of
time.The researcher needs to record any potentially useful data thououghly,accurately, and
systematically,using field notes,sketches,audiotapes,photographs and other suitable means.The data
collection methods must observe the ethical principles of research.
The qualitative methods most commonly used in evaluation can be classified in three broad
categories:

indepth interview

observation methods

document review

The following link provides more information on the above three methods.

Primary Data Collection:

In primary data collection, you collect the data yourself using qualitative and quantitative methods.
The key point here is that the data you collect is unique to you and your research and, until you
publish, no one else has access to it.
There are many methods of collecting primary data. The main methods include:

questionnaires

interviews

focus group interviews

observation

case-studies

scientific experiments

Ten Steps to Design a Questionnaire

Designing a questionnaire involves 10 main steps:
1. Write a study protocol
This involves getting acquainted with the subject, making a literature review, decide on objectives,
formulate a hypothesis, and define the main information needed to test the hypothesis.
2. Draw a plan of analysis
This steps determines how the information defined in step 1 should be analysed. The plan of analysis
should contain the measures of association and the statistical tests that you intend to use. In addition,
you should draw dummy tables with the information of interest. The plan of analysis will help you to
determine which type of results you want to obtain. An example of a dummy table is shown below.
Exposure
Tomato salad
Chicken breast

nr Cases (%)

Total

Attack Rate

RR (CI95%)

3. Draw a list of the information needed

From the plan of analysis you can draw a list of the information you need to collect from participants.
In this step you should determine the type and format of variables needed.
4. Design different parts of the questionnaire
You can start now designing different parts of the questionnaire using this list of needed information.
5. Write the questions
Knowing the education and occupation level of the study population, ethnic or migration background,
language knowledge and special sensitivities at this step is crucial at this stage. Please keep in mind
that the questionnaire needs to be adapted to your study population. Please see "Format of Questions"
section for more details.
6. Decide on the order of the questions asked
You should start from easy, general and factual to difficult, particular or abstract questions. Please
consider carefully where to place the most sensitive questions. They should be rather placed in the
middle or towards the end of the questionnaire. Make sure, however, not to put the most important
item last, since some people might not complete the interview.
7. Complete the questionnaire
Add instructions for the interviewers and definitions of key words for participants. Insure a smooth
flow from one topic to the next one (ex. "and now I will ask you some questions about your own
health..."). Insert jumps between questions if some questions are only targeted at a subgroup of the
respondents.
8. Verify the content and style of the questions
Verify that each question answers to one of the objectives and all your objectives are covered by the
questions asked. Delete questions that are not directly related to your objectives. Make sure that each
question is clear, unambiguous, simple and short. Check the logical order and flow of the questions.
Make sure the questionnaire is easy to read and has an clear layout. Please see the Hints to Design a
good Questionnaire section for more details.
9. Conduct a pilot study
You should always conduct a pilot study among the intended population before starting the
study. Please see thePiloting Questionnaires section for more details.
10. Refine your questionnaire
Depending on the results of the pilot study, you will need to amend the questionnaire before the main
survey starts.
Guidelines on how to design a good questionnaire

Good questionnaire should not be too lengthy. Simple English should be used and the
question shouldnt be difficult to answer. A good questionnaire requires sensible language,
editing, assessment, and redrafting.

Questionnaire Design Process

1. State the information required- This will depend upon the nature of the problem,
the purpose of the study and hypothesis framed. The target audience must be
concentrated on.
2. State the kind of interviewing technique- interviewing method can be telephone,
mails, personal interview or electronic interview. Telephonic interview can be
computer assisted. Personal interview can be conducted at respondents place or at
mall or shopping place. Mail interview can take the form of mail panel. Electronic
interview takes place either through electronic mails or through the internet.
3. Decide the matter/content of individual questions- There are two deciding factors
for thisa. Is the question significant? - Observe contribution of each question. Does the
question contribute for the objective of the study?
b. Is there a need for several questions or a single question? - Several questions
are asked in the following cases:

When there is a need for cross-checking

When the answers are ambiguous

When people are hesitant to give correct information.

4. Overcome the respondents inability and unwillingness to answer- The

respondents may be unable to answer the questions because of following reasonsa. The respondent may not be fully informed
b. The respondent may not remember
c. He may be unable to express or articulate
The respondent may be unwilling to answer due tod. There may be sensitive information which may cause embarrassment or harm
the respondents image.
e. The respondent may not be familiar with the genuine purpose
f. The question may appear to be irrelevant to the respondent
g. The respondent will not be willing to reveal traits like aggressiveness (For
instance - if he is asked Do you hit your wife, sister, etc.)
To overcome the respondents unwillingness to answer:

a. Place the sensitive topics at the end of the questionnaire

b. Preface the question with a statement
c. Use the third person technique (For example - Mark needed a job badly and he
used wrong means to get it - Is it right?? Different people will have different
opinions depending upon the situation)
d. Categorize the responses rather than asking a specific response figure (For
example - Group for income levels 0-25000, 25000-50000, 50000 and above)
ii.

Decide on the structure of the question- Questions can be of two types:

a. Structured questions- These specify the set of response alternatives and the
response format. These can be classified into multiple choice questions
(having various response categories), dichotomous questions (having only 2
response categories such as Yes or No) and scales (discussed already).
b. Unstructured questions- These are also known as open-ended question. No
alternatives are suggested and the respondents are free to answer these
questions in any way they like.

b.

Determine the question language/phrasing- If the questions are poorly

worded, then either the respondents will refuse to answer the question or they
may give incorrect answers. Thus, the words of the question should be
carefully chosen. Ordinary and unambiguous words should be used. Avoid
implicit assumptions, generalizations and implicit alternatives. Avoid biased
questions. Define the issue in terms of who the questionnaire is being
addressed to, what information is required, when is the information required,
why the question is being asked, etc.

c.

Properly arrange the questions- To determine the order of the question, take
decisions on aspects like opening questions (simple, interesting questions
should be used as opening questions to gain co-operation and confidence of
respondents), type of information (Basic information relates to the research
issue, classification information relates to social and demographic
characteristics, and identification information relates to personal information
such as name, address, contact number of respondents), difficult questions
(complex, embarrassing, dull and sensitive questions could be difficult), effect
on subsequent questions, logical sequence, etc.

d.

Recognize the form and layout of the questionnaire- This is very essential
for self-administered questionnaire. The questions should be numbered and
pre-coded. The layout should be such that it appears to be neat and orderly,
and not clattered.

e.

Reproduce the questionnaire- Paper quality should be good. Questionnaire

should appear to be professional. The required space for the answers to the
question should be sufficient. The font type and size should be appropriate.
Vertical response questions should be used, for example:

Do you use brand X of shampoo?

a. Yes
b. No

Pre-test the questionnaire- The questionnaire should be pre-tested on a small

number of respondents to identify the likely problems and to eliminate them.
Each and every dimension of the questionnaire should be pre-tested. The
sample respondents should be similar to the target respondents of the survey.

Finalize the questionnaire- Check the final draft questionnaire. Ask yourself
how much will the information obtained from each question contribute to the
study. Make sure that irrelevant questions are not asked. Obtain feedback of
the respondents on the questionnaire.

Secondary Data
Secondary data is the data that have been already collected by and readily available from other
sources. Such data are cheaper and more quickly obtainable than the primary data and also may be
available when primary data cannot be obtained at all.
Advantages of Secondary data
1. It is economical. It saves efforts and expenses.
2. It is time saving.
3. It helps to make primary data collection more specific since with the help of secondary data,
we are able to make out what are the gaps and deficiencies and what additional information
needs to be collected.
4. It helps to improve the understanding of the problem.
5. It provides a basis for comparison for the data that is collected by the researcher.
Disadvantages of Secondary Data
1. Secondary data is something that seldom fits in the framework of the marketing research
factors. Reasons for its non-fitting are:a. Unit of secondary data collection-Suppose you want information on disposable
income, but the data is available on gross income. The information may not be same
as we require.
b. Class Boundaries may be different when units are same.
Before 5 Years

After 5 Years

2500-5000

5000-6000

5001-7500

6001-7000

7500-10000

7001-10000

c. Thus the data collected earlier is of no use to you.

2. Accuracy of secondary data is not known.
3. Data may be outdated.
Evaluation of Secondary Data
Because of the above mentioned disadvantages of secondary data, we will lead to evaluation of
secondary data. Evaluation means the following four requirements must be satisfied:1. Availability- It has to be seen that the kind of data you want is available or not. If it is not
available then you have to go for primary data.
2. Relevance- It should be meeting the requirements of the problem. For this we have two
criterion:a. Units of measurement should be the same.
b. Concepts used must be same and currency of data should not be outdated.
3. Accuracy- In order to find how accurate the data is, the following points must be considered:
a. Specification and methodology used;
b. Margin of error should be examined;
c. The dependability of the source must be seen.
4. Sufficiency- Adequate data should be available.
Robert W Joselyn has classified the above discussion into eight steps. These eight steps are sub
classified into three categories. He has given a detailed procedure for evaluating secondary data.
1. Applicability of research objective.
2. Cost of acquisition.
3. Accuracy of data.

Measurement scales

A topic which can create a great deal of confusion in social and educational research is that of
types of scales used in measuring behaviour.
It is critical because it relates to the types of statistics you can use to analyse your data. An
easy way to have a paper rejected is to have used either an incorrect scale/statistic
combination or to have used a low powered statistic on a high powered set of data.

Nominal

Ordinal

Interval

Ratio

Nominal
The lowest measurement level you can use, from a statistical point of view, is a
nominal scale.
A nominal scale, as the name implies, is simply some placing of data into categories,
without any order or structure.
A physical example of a nominal scale is the terms we use for colours. The underlying
spectrum is ordered but the names are nominal.
In research activities a YES/NO scale is nominal. It has no order and there is no
distance between YES and NO.
and statistics
The statistics which can be used with nominal scales are in the non-parametric
group. The most likely ones would be:
mode
crosstabulation - with chi-square
There are also highly sophisticated modelling techniques available for nominal
data.

Ordinal
An ordinal scale is next up the list in terms of power of measurement.

The simplest ordinal scale is a ranking. When a market researcher asks you to rank 5
types of beer from most flavourful to least flavourful, he/she is asking you to create an
ordinal scale of preference.
There is no objective distance between any two points on your subjective scale. For
you the top beer may be far superior to the second prefered beer but, to another
respondant with the same top and second beer, the distance may be subjectively small.
An ordinal scale only lets you interpret gross order and not the relative positional
distances.
and statistics
Ordinal data would use non-parametric statistics. These would include:
Median and mode
rank order correlation
non-parametric analysis of variance
Modelling techniques can also be used with ordinal data.

Interval
The standard survey rating scale is an interval scale.
When you are asked to rate your satisfaction with a piece of software on a 7 point
scale, from Dissatisfied to Satisfied, you are using an interval scale.
It is an interval scale because it is assumed to have equidistant points between each of
the scale elements. This means that we can interpret differences in the distance along
the scale. We contrast this to an ordinal scale where we can only talk about differences
in order, not differences in the degree of order.
Interval scales are also scales which are defined by metrics such as logarithms. In
these cases, the distances are note equal but they are strictly definable based on the
metric used.
and statistics
Interval scale data would use parametric statistical techniques:
Mean and standard deviation
Correlation - r
Regression

Analysis of variance
Factor analysis
Plus a whole range of advanced multivariate and modelling techniques
Remember that you can use non-parametric techniques with interval and ratio
data. But non-paramteric techniques are less powerful than the parametric
ones.

Ratio
A ratio scale is the top level of measurement and is not often available in social
research.
The factor which clearly defines a ratio scale is that it has a true zero point.
The simplest example of a ratio scale is the measurement of length (disregarding any
philosophical points about defining how we can identify zero length).
The best way to contrast interval and ratio scales is to look at temperature. The
Centigrade scale has a zero point but it is an arbitrary one. The Farenheit scale has its
equivalent point at -32o. (Physicists would probably argue that Absolute Zero is the
zero point for temperature but this is a theoretical concept.) So, even though
temperture looks as if it would be a ratio scale it is an interval scale. Currently, we
cannot talk about no temperature - and this would be needed if it were a ration scale.
and statistics
The same as for Interval data
Comparative scaling techniques

Pairwise comparison scale a respondent is presented with two items at a time and asked to
select one (example : Do you prefer Pepsi or Coke?). This is an ordinal level technique when a
measurement model is not applied. Krus and Kennedy (1977) elaborated the paired comparison
scaling within their domain-referenced model. TheBradleyTerryLuce (BTL) model (Bradley
and Terry, 1952; Luce, 1959) can be applied in order to derive measurements provided the data
derived from paired comparisons possess an appropriate structure. Thurstone's Law of
comparative judgment can also be applied in such contexts.

Rasch model scaling respondents interact with items and comparisons are inferred between
items from the responses to obtain scale values. Respondents are subsequently also scaled based
on their responses to items given the item scale values. The Rasch model has a close relation to
the BTL model.

Rank-ordering a respondent is presented with several items simultaneously and asked to

rank them (example : Rate the following advertisements from 1 to 10.). This is an ordinal level
technique.

Bogardus social distance scale measures the degree to which a person is willing to
associate with a class or type of people. It asks how willing the respondent is to make various
associations. The results are reduced to a single score on a scale. There are also non-comparative
versions of this scale.

Q-Sort Up to 140 items are sorted into groups based on rank-order procedure.

Guttman scale This is a procedure to determine whether a set of items can be rank-ordered
on a unidimensional scale. It utilizes the intensity structure among several indicators of a given
variable. Statements are listed in order of importance. The rating is scaled by summing all
responses until the first negative response in the list. The Guttman scale is related to Rasch
measurement; specifically, Rasch models bring the Guttman approach within a probabilistic
framework.

Constant sum scale a respondent is given a constant sum of money, script, credits, or
points and asked to allocate these to various items (example : If you had 100 Yen to spend on
food products, how much would you spend on product A, on product B, on product C, etc.). This
is an ordinal level technique.

Magnitude estimation scale In a psychophysics procedure invented by S. S.

Stevens people simply assign numbers to the dimension of judgment. The geometric mean of
those numbers usually produces a power law with a characteristic exponent. In cross-modality
matching instead of assigning numbers, people manipulate another dimension, such as loudness
or brightness to match the items. Typically the exponent of the psychometric function can be
predicted from the magnitude estimation exponents of each dimension.

Non-comparative scaling techniques[edit]

Continuous rating scale (also called the graphic rating scale) respondents rate items by
placing a mark on a line. The line is usually labeled at each end. There are sometimes a series of
numbers, called scale points, (say, from zero to 100) under the line. Scoring and codification is
difficult.

Likert scale Respondents are asked to indicate the amount of agreement or disagreement
(from strongly agree to strongly disagree) on a five- to nine-point response scale (not to be
confused with a Likert scale). The same format is used for multiple questions. It is the
combination of these questions that forms the Likert scale. This categorical scaling procedure can

easily be extended to a magnitude estimation procedure that uses the full scale of numbers rather
than verbal categories.

Phrase completion scales Respondents are asked to complete a phrase on an 11-point

response scale in which 0 represents the absence of the theoretical construct and 10 represents the
theorized maximum amount of the construct being measured. The same basic format is used for
multiple questions.

Semantic differential scale Respondents are asked to rate on a 7 point scale an item on
various attributes. Each attribute requires a scale with bipolar terminal labels.

Stapel scale This is a unipolar ten-point rating scale. It ranges from +5 to 5 and has no
neutral zero point.

Thurstone scale This is a scaling technique that incorporates the intensity structure among
indicators.

Mathematically derived scale Researchers infer respondents evaluations mathematically.

Two examples are multi dimensional scaling and conjoint analysis.

Types of Sampling Designs

When conducting research, it is almost always impossible to study the entire population that you are
interested in. For example, if you were studying political views among college students in the United
States, it would be nearly impossible to survey every single college student across the country. If you
were to survey the entire population, it would be extremely timely and costly. As a result, researchers
use samples as a way to gather data.
A sample is a subset of the population being studied.
It represents the larger population and is used to draw inferences about that population. It is a research
technique widely used in the social sciences as a way to gather information about a population
without having to measure the entire population.
There are several different types and ways of choosing a sample from a population, from simple to
complex.
Non-probability Sampling Techniques
Non-probability sampling is a sampling technique where the samples are gathered in a process that
does not give all the individuals in the population equal chances of being selected.

Reliance On Available Subjects. Relying on available subjects, such as stopping people on a street
corner as they pass by, is one method of sampling, although it is extremely risky and comes with
many cautions. This method, sometimes referred to as aconvenience sample, does not allow the
researcher to have any control over the representativeness of the sample. It is only justified if the
researcher wants to study the characteristics of people passing by the street corner at a certain point in
time or if other sampling methods are not possible.
The researcher must also take caution to not use results from a convenience sample to generalize to a
wider population.
Purposive or Judgmental Sample. A purposive, or judgmental, sample is one that is selected based
on the knowledge of a population and the purpose of the study. For example, if a researcher is
studying the nature of school spirit as exhibited at a school pep rally, he or she might interview people
who did not appear to be caught up in the emotions of the crowd or students who did not attend the
rally at all. In this case, the researcher is using a purposive sample because those being interviewed fit
a specific purpose or description.
Snowball Sample. A snowball sample is appropriate to use in research when the members of a
population are difficult to locate, such as homeless individuals, migrant workers, or undocumented
immigrants. A snowball sample is one in which the researcher collects data on the few members of the
target population he or she can locate, then asks those individuals to provide information needed to
locate other members of that population whom they know. For example, if a researcher wishes to
interview undocumented immigrants from Mexico, he or she might interview a few undocumented
individuals that he or she knows or can locate and would then rely on those subjects to help locate
more undocumented individuals. This process continues until the researcher has all the interviews he
or she needs or until all contacts have been exhausted.
Quota Sample. A quota sample is one in which units are selected into a sample on the basis of prespecified characteristics so that the total sample has the same distribution of characteristics assumed
to exist in the population being studied. For example, if you a researcher conducting a national quota
sample, you might need to know what proportion of the population is male and what proportion is
female as well as what proportions of each gender fall into different age categories, race or ethnic
categories, educational categories, etc. The researcher would then collect a sample with the same
proportions as the national population.
Probability Sampling Techniques

Probability sampling is a sampling technique where the samples are gathered in a process that gives
all the individuals in the population equal chances of being selected.
Simple Random Sample. The simple random sample is the basic sampling method assumed
in statistical methods and computations. To collect a simple random sample, each unit of the target
population is assigned a number. A set of random numbers is then generated and the units having
those numbers are included in the sample. For example, lets say you have a population of 1,000
people and you wish to choose a simple random sample of 50 people. First, each person is numbered
1 through 1,000. Then, you generate a list of 50 random numbers (typically with a computer program)
and those individuals assigned those numbers are the ones you include in the sample.
Systematic Sample. In a systematic sample, the elements of the population are put into a list and then
every kth element in the list is chosen (systematically) for inclusion in the sample. For example, if the
population of study contained 2,000 students at a high school and the researcher wanted a sample of
100 students, the students would be put into list form and then every 20th student would be selected
for inclusion in the sample. To ensure against any possible human bias in this method, the researcher
should select the first individual at random. This is technically called a systematic sample with a
random start.
Stratified Sample. A stratified sample is a sampling technique in which the researcher divided the
entire target population into different subgroups, or strata, and then randomly selects the final subjects
proportionally from the different strata. This type of sampling is used when the researcher wants to
highlight specific subgroups within the population. For example, to obtain a stratified sample of
university students, the researcher would first organize the population by college class and then select
appropriate numbers of freshmen, sophomores, juniors, and seniors. This ensures that the researcher
has adequate amounts of subjects from each class in the final sample.
Cluster Sample. Cluster sampling may be used when it is either impossible or impractical to compile
an exhaustive list of the elements that make up the target population. Usually, however, the population
elements are already grouped into subpopulations and lists of those subpopulations already exist or
can be created. For example, lets say the target population in a study was church members in the
United States. There is no list of all church members in the country. The researcher could, however,
create a list of churches in the United States, choose a sample of churches, and then obtain lists of
members from those churches.

10 Interviewing Rules

In the current job market, you'd better have your act together, or you won't stand a chance
against the competition. Check yourself on these 10 basic points before you go on that allimportant interview.
1. Do Your Research
Researching the company before the interview and learning as much as possible about its
services, products, customers and competition will give you an edge in understanding and
addressing the company's needs. The more you know about the company and what it stands
for, the better chance you have of selling yourself in the interview. You also should find out
about the company's culture to gain insight into your potential happiness on the job.
2. Look Sharp
Select what to wear to the interview. Depending on the industry and position, get out your
best interview clothes and check them over for spots and wrinkles. Even if the company has a
casual environment, you don't want to look like you slept in your outfit. Above all, dress for
confidence. If you feel good, others will respond to you accordingly.
3. Be Prepared
Bring along a folder containing extra copies of your resume, a copy of your references and
paper to take notes. You should also have questions prepared to ask at the end of the
interview. For extra assurance, print a copy of Monster's handy interview take-along
checklist.
4. Be on Time
Never arrive late to an interview. Allow extra time to arrive early in the vicinity, allowing for
factors like getting lost. Enter the building 10 to 15 minutes before the interview.
5. Show Enthusiasm
A firm handshake and plenty of eye contact demonstrate confidence. Speak distinctly in a
confident voice, even though you may feel shaky.
6. Listen

One of the most neglected interview skills is listening. Make sure you are not only listening,
but also reading between the lines. Sometimes what is not said is just as important as what is
said.
7. Answer the Question Asked
Candidates often don't think about whether they are actually answering the questions their
interviewers ask. Make sure you understand what is being asked, and get further clarification
if you are unsure.
8. Give Specific Examples
One specific example of your background is worth 50 vague stories. Prepare your stories
before the interview. Give examplesthat highlight your successes and uniqueness. Your past
behavior can indicate your future performance.
9. Ask Questions
Many interviewees don't ask questions and miss the opportunity to find out valuable
information. The questions you askindicate your interest in the company or job.
10. Follow Up
Whether it's through email or regular mail, the interview follow-up is one more chance to
remind the interviewer of all the valuable traits you bring to the job and company. Don't miss
this last chance to market yourself.
It is important to appear confident and cool for the interview. One way to do that is to be
prepared to the best of your ability. There is no way to predict what an interview holds, but by
following these important rules you will feel less anxious and will be ready to positively
present yourself.

UNIT-3

Data processing
Data processing is, broadly, "the collection and manipulation of items of data to
produce meaningful information."[1] In this sense it can be considered a subset of information
processing, "the change (processing) of information in any manner detectable by an observer." [note 1]

The term is often used more specifically in the context of a business or other organization to refer to
the class of commercial data processing applications. [2]
Contents
Data processing functions[edit]
Data processing may involve various processes, including:

Validation Ensuring that supplied data is "clean, correct and useful"

Sorting "arranging items in some sequence and/or in different sets."

Summarization reducing detail data to its main points.

Aggregation combining multiple pieces of data.

Analysis the "collection, organization, analysis, interpretation and presentation of data.".

Reporting list detail or summary data or computed information.

Classification separates data into various categories.

History
The United States Census Bureau illustrates the evolution of data processing from manual through
electronic procedures.
Manual data processing[edit]
Although widespread use of the term data processing dates only from the nineteen-fifties[3] data
processing functions have been performed manually for millennia. For examplebookkeeping involves
functions such as posting transactions and producing reports like the balance sheet and the cash flow
statement. Completely manual methods were augmented by the application of mechanical or
electronic calculators. A person whose job it was to perform calculations manually or using a
calculator was called a "computer."
The 1850 United States Census schedule was the first to gather data by individual rather
than household. A number of questions could be answered by making a check in the appropriate box
on the form. From 1850 through 1880 the Census Bureau employed "a system of tallying, which, by
reason of the increasing number of combinations of classifications required, became increasingly
complex. Only a limited number of combinations could be recorded in one tally, so it was necessary to
handle the schedules 5 or 6 times, for as many independent tallies." [4] "It took over 7 years to publish
the results of the 1880 census"[5] using manual processing methods.
Automatic data processing[edit]
The term automatic data processing was applied to operations performed by means of unit record
equipment, such as Herman Hollerith's application of punched card equipment for the 1890 United

States Census. "Using Hollerith's punchcard equipment, the Census Office was able to complete
tabulating most of the 1890 census data in 2 to 3 years, compared with 7 to 8 years for the 1880
census. ... It is also estimated that using Herman Hollerith's system saved some $5 million in
processing costs"[5] (in 1890 dollars) even with twice as many questions as in 1880.
Electronic data processing[edit]
Computerized data processing, or Electronic data processing represents the further evolution, with the
computer taking the place of several independent pieces of equipment. The Census Bureau first made
limited use of electronic computers for the 1950 United States Census, using a UNIVAC I system,
[4]
delivered in 1952.
Further evolution[edit]
"Data processing (DP)" has also previously been used to refer to the department within an
organization responsible for the operation of data processing applications. [6] The termdata
processing has mostly been subsumed under the newer and somewhat more general term information
technology (IT).[citation needed] "Data processing" has acquired a negative connotation, suggesting use of
older technologies. As an example, in 1996 the Data Processing Management Association (DPMA)
changed its name to the Association of Information Technology Professionals. Nevertheless, the terms
are roughly synonymous.
Applications[edit]
Commercial data processing[edit]
Main article: Electronic data processing
Commercial data processing involves a large volume of input data, relatively few computational
operations, and a large volume of output. For example, an insurance company needs to keep records
on tens or hundreds of thousands of policies, print and mail bills, and receive and post payments.
Data analysis[edit]
Main article: Data analysis
In a science or engineering field, the terms data processing and information systems are considered
too broad, and the more specialized term data analysis is typically used. Data analysis makes use of
specialized and highly accurate algorithms and statistical calculations that are less often observed in
the typical general business environment.
One divergence of culture between data processing and data analysis is shown by the numerical
representations generally used; In data processing, measurements are typically stored
as integers, fixed-point or binary-coded decimal representations of numbers, whereas the majority of
measurements in data analysis are stored as floating-pointrepresentations of rational numbers.
For data analysis, packages like SPSS or SAS, or their free counterparts such
as DAP, gretl or PSPP are often used.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Processing and Analysis of Data

The data, after collection, has to be processed and analysed in accordance with the outline
laid down for the purpose at the time of developing the research plan. This is essential for a
scientific study and for ensuring that we have all relevant data for making contemplated
comparisons and analysis. Technically speaking, processing implies editing, coding,
classification and tabulation of collected data so that they are amenable to analysis. The term
analysis refers to the computation of certain measures along with searching for patterns of
relationship that exist among data-groups. Thus, in the process of analysis, relationships or
differences supporting or conflicting with original or new hypotheses should be subjected to
statistical tests of significance to determine with what validity data can be said to indicate any
conclusions.1 But there are persons (Selltiz, Jahoda and others) who do not like to make
difference between processing and analysis. They opine that analysis of data in a general way
involves a number of closely related operations which are performed with the purpose of
summarising the collected data and organising these in such a manner that they answer the
research question(s). We, however, shall prefer to observe the difference between the two
terms as stated here in order to understand their implications more clearly.
PROCESSING OPERATIONS
1.
Editing: Editing of data is a process of examining the collected raw data (specially in
surveys) to detect errors and omissions and to correct these when possible. As a matter of
fact, editing involves a careful scrutiny of the completed questionnaires and/or schedules.
Editing is done to assure that the data are accurate, consistent with other facts gathered,
uniformly entered, as completed as possible and have been well arranged to facilitate
coding and tabulation.
With regard to points or stages at which editing should be done, one can talk of field editing
and central editing. Field editing consists in the review of the reporting forms by the
investigator for completing (translating or rewriting) what the latter has written in
abbreviated and/or in illegible form at the time of recording the respondents responses.
This type of editing is necessary in view of the fact that individual writing styles often can
be difficult for others to decipher. This sort of editing should be done as soon as possible
after the interview, preferably on the very day or on the next day. While doing field editing,
the investigator must restrain himself and must not correct errors of omission by simply
guessing what the informant would have said if the question had been asked.
Central editing should take place when all forms or schedules have been completed and
returned to the office. This type of editing implies that all forms should get a thorough
editing by a single editor in a small study and by a team of editors in case of a large inquiry.
Editor(s) may correct the obvious errors such as an entry in the wrong place, entry recorded
in months when it should have been recorded in weeks, and the like. In case of
inappropriate on missing replies, the editor can sometimes determine the proper answer by
reviewing the other information in the schedule. A t times, the respondent can be contacted
for clarification. The editor must strike out the answer if the same is inappropriate and he
has no basis for determining the correct answer or the response. In such a case an editing

entry of no answer is called for. All the wrong replies, which are quite obvious, must be
dropped from the final results, especially in the context of mail surveys.
Editors must keep in view several points while performing their work:They should be
familiar with instructions given to the interviewers and coders as well as with the editing
instructions supplied to them for the purpose.While crossing out an original entry for one
reason or another, they should just draw a single line on it so that the same may remain
legible. They must make entries (if any) on the form in some distinctive colur and that too
in a standardised form. They should initial all answers which they change or supply.
Editors initials and the date of editing should be placed on each completed form or
schedule.
2.
Coding: Coding refers to the process of assigning numerals or other symbols to
answers so that responses can be put into a limited number of categories or classes. Such
classes should be appropriate to the research problem under consideration. They must also
possess the characteristic of exhaustiveness (i.e., there must be a class for every data item)
and also that of mutual exclusively which means that a specific answer can be placed in one
and only one cell in a given category set. Another rule to be observed is that of
unidimensionality by which is meant that every class is defined in terms of only one
concept.
Coding is necessary for efficient analysis and through it the several replies may be reduced
to a small number of classes which contain the critical information required for analysis.
Coding decisions should usually be taken at the designing stage of the questionnaire. This
makes it possible to precode the questionnaire choices and which in turn is helpful for
computer tabulation as one can straight forward key punch from the original questionnaires.
But in case of hand coding some standard method may be used. One such standard method
is to code in the margin with a coloured pencil. The other method can be to transcribe the
data from the questionnaire to a coding sheet. Whatever method is adopted, one should see
that coding errors are altogether eliminated or reduced to the minimum level.
3.
Classification: Most research studies result in a large volume of raw data which must
be reduced into homogeneous groups if we are to get meaningful relationships. This fact
necessitates classification of data which happens to be the process of arranging data in
groups or classes on the basis of common characteristics. Data having a common
characteristic are placed in one class and in this way the entire data get divided into a
number of groups or classes. Classification can be one of the following two types,
depending upon the nature of the phenomenon involved:
o
Classification according to attributes: As stated above, data are classified on
the basis of common characteristics which can either be descriptive (such as literacy, sex,
honesty, etc.) or numerical (such as weight, height, income, etc.). Descriptive
characteristics refer to qualitative phenomenon which cannot be measured quantitatively;
only their presence or absence in an individual item can be noticed. Data obtained this
way on the basis of certain attributes are known as statistics of attributes and their
classification is said to be classification according to attributes.
Such classification can be simple classification or manifold classification. In simple
classification we consider only one attribute and divide the universe into two classesone
class consisting of items possessing the given attribute and the other class consisting of
items which do not possess the given attribute. But in manifold classification we consider
two or more attributes simultaneously, and divide that data into a number of classes (total
number of classes of final order is given by 2n, where n = number of attributes
considered). Whenever data are classified according to attributes, the researcher must see
that the attributes are defined in such a manner that there is least possibility of any
doubt/ambiguity concerning the said attributes.

Classification according to class-intervals: Unlike descriptive characteristics,

the numerical characteristics refer to quantitative phenomenon which can be measured
through some statistical units. Data relating to income, production, age, weight, etc. come
under this category. Such data are known as statistics of variables and are classified on the
basis of class intervals. For instance, persons whose incomes, say, are within Rs 201 to Rs
400 can form one group, those whose incomes are within Rs 401 to Rs 600 can form
another group and so on. In this way the entire data may be divided into a number of
groups or classes or what are usually called, class-intervals. Each group of class-interval,
thus, has an upper limit as well as a lower limit which are known as class limits. The
difference between the two class limits is known as class magnitude. We may have classes
with equal class magnitudes or with unequal class magnitudes. The number of items
which fall in a given class is known as the frequency of the given class. All the classes or
groups, with their respective frequencies taken together and put in the form of a table, are
described as group frequency distribution or simply frequency distribution. Classification
according to class intervals usually involves the following three main problems:
How may classes should be there? What should be their magnitudes?
There can be no specific answer with regard to the number of classes. The decision about
this calls for skill and experience of the researcher. However, the objective should be to
display the data in such a way as to make it meaningful for the analyst. Typically, we may
have 5 to 15 classes. With regard to the second part of the question, we can say that, to the
extent possible, class-intervals should be of equal magnitudes, but in some cases unequal
magnitudes may result in better classification. Hence researchers objective judgement
plays an important part in this connection. Multiples of 2, 5 and 10 are generally preferred
while determining class magnitudes. Some statisticians adopt the following formula,
suggested by H.A. Sturges, determining the size of class interval:
i = R/(1 + 3.3 log N)
where
i = size of class interval;
R = Range (i.e., difference between the values of the largest item and smallest item among
the given items);
N = Number of items to be grouped.
It should also be kept in mind that in case one or two or very few items have very high or
very low values, one may use what are known as open-ended intervals in the overall
frequency distribution. Such intervals may be expressed like under Rs 500 or Rs 10001 and
over. Such intervals are generally not desirable, but often cannot be avoided. The researcher
must always remain conscious of this fact while deciding the issue of the total number of
class intervals in which the data are to be classified.
How to choose class limits?
While choosing class limits, the researcher must take into consideration the criterion that
the mid-point (generally worked out first by taking the sum of the upper limit and lower
limit of a class and then divide this sum by 2) of a class-interval and the actual average of
items of that class interval should remain as close to each other as possible. Consistent with
this, the class limits should be located at multiples of 2, 5, 10, 20, 100 and such other
figures. Class limits may generally be stated in any of the following forms:
Exclusive type class intervals: They are usually stated as follows:
1020
2030
3040

4050
The above intervals should be read as under:
10 and under 20
20 and under 30
30 and under 40
40 and under 50
Thus, under the exclusive type class intervals, the items whose values are equal to the upper
limit of a class are grouped in the next higher class. For example, an item whose value is
exactly 30 would be put in 3040 class interval and not in 2030 class interval. In simple
words, we can say that under exclusive type class intervals, the upper limit of a class
interval is excluded and items with values less than the upper limit (but not less than the
lower limit) are put in the given class interval.
Inclusive type class intervals: They are usually stated as follows:
1120
2130
3140
4150
In inclusive type class intervals the upper limit of a class interval is also included in the
concerning class interval. Thus, an item whose value is 20 will be put in 1120 class
interval. The stated upper limit of the class interval 1120 is 20 but the real limit is
20.99999 and as such 1120 class interval really means 11 and under 21.
When the phenomenon under consideration happens to be a discrete one (i.e., can be
measured and stated only in integers), then we should adopt inclusive type classification.
But when the phenomenon happens to be a continuous one capable of being measured in
fractions as well, we can use exclusive type class intervals.
How to determine the frequency of each class?
This can be done either by tally sheets or by mechanical aids. Under the technique of tally
sheet, the class-groups are written on a sheet of paper (commonly known as the tally sheet)
and for each item a stroke (usually a small vertical line) is marked against the class group in
which it falls. The general practice is that after every four small vertical lines in a class
group, the fifth line for the item falling in the same group, is indicated as horizontal line
through the said four lines and the resulting flower (IIII) represents five items. All this
facilitates the counting of items in each one of the class groups. An illustrative tally sheet
can be shown as under:
An Illustrative Tally Sheet for Determining the Number of 70 Families in Different
Income Groups

Alternatively, class frequencies can be determined, specially in case of large inquires and
surveys, by mechanical aids i.e., with the help of machines viz., sorting machines that are
available for the purpose. Some machines are hand operated, whereas other work with

electricity. There are machines which can sort out cards at a speed of something like 25000
cards per hour. This method is fast but expensive.
4.
Tabulation: When a mass of data has been assembled, it becomes necessary for the
researcher to arrange the same in some kind of concise and logical order. This procedure is
referred to as tabulation. Thus, tabulation is the process of summarising raw data and
displaying the same in compact form (i.e., in the form of statistical tables) for further
analysis. In a broader sense, tabulation is an orderly arrangement of data in columns and
rows. Tabulation is essential because of the following reasons.
o
It conserves space and reduces explanatory and descriptive statement to a
minimum.
o
It facilitates the process of comparison.
o
It facilitates the summation of items and the detection of errors and omissions.
o
It provides a basis for various statistical computations.
Tabulation can be done by hand or by mechanical or electronic devices. The choice depends
on the size and type of study, cost considerations, time pressures and the availaibility of
tabulating machines or computers. In relatively large inquiries, we may use mechanical or
computer tabulation if other factors are favourable and necessary facilities are available.
Hand tabulation is usually preferred in case of small inquiries where the number of
questionnaires is small and they are of relatively short length. Hand tabulation may be done
using the direct tally, the list and tally or the card sort and count methods. When there are
simple codes, it is feasible to tally directly from the questionnaire. Under this method, the
codes are written on a sheet of paper, called tally sheet, and for each response a stroke is
marked against the code in which it falls. Usually after every four strokes against a particular
code, the fifth response is indicated by drawing a diagonal or horizontal line through the
strokes. These groups of five are easy to count and the data are sorted against each code
conveniently. In the listing method, the code responses may be transcribed onto a large worksheet, allowing a line for each questionnaire. This way a large number of questionnaires can
be listed on one work sheet. Tallies are then made for each question. The card sorting method
is the most flexible hand tabulation. In this method the data are recorded on special cards of
convenient size and shape with a series of holes. Each hole stands for a code and when cards
are stacked, a needle passes through particular hole representing a particular code. These
cards are then separated and counted. In this way frequencies of various codes can be found
out by the repetition of this technique. We can as well use the mechanical devices or the
computer facility for tabulation purpose in case we want quick results, our budget permits
their use and we have a large volume of straight forward tabulation involving a number of
cross-breaks.
Tabulation may also be classified as simple and complex tabulation. The former type of
tabulation gives information about one or more groups of independent questions, whereas the
latter type of tabulation shows the division of data in two or more categories and as such is
deigned to give information concerning one or more sets of inter-related questions. Simple
tabulation generally results in one-way tables which supply answers to questions about one
characteristic of data only. As against this, complex tabulation usually results in two-way
tables (which give information about two inter-related characteristics of data), three-way
tables (giving information about three interrelated characteristics of data) or still higher order
tables, also known as manifold tables, which supply information about several interrelated
characteristics of data. Two-way tables, three-way tables or manifold tables are all examples
of what is sometimes described as cross tabulation.

Data analysis
Research Process
Definition:
Researchers who are attempting to answer a research question employ the research process.
Though presented in a liner format, in practice the process of research can be less straightforward.
This said, researchers attempt to follow the process and use it to present their research findings in
research reports and journal articles.
Identifying research problems
Research problems need to be researchable and can be generated from practice, but must be
grounded in the existing literature. They may be local, national or international problems, that
need addressing in order to develop the existing evidence base.
Searching the existing literature base
A thorough search of the literature using data bases, internet, text and expert sources should
support the need to research the problem. This should be broad and in depth, showing a
comprehensive search of the problem area.
Critical appraisal of the literature
A critical appraisal framework should be employed to review the literature in a systematic way.
Developing the questions/ and or hypothesis
A more specific research question and /or hypothesis may be developed from the literature review,
that provides the direction for the research, which aims to provide answers to the question
/hypothesis posed.
Theoretical base
The research may employ a theoretical base to examining the problem, especially seen in masters
level research and in many research studies. In the health and social care field this might come
from the social sciences, psychology or anthropology.
Sampling strategies
Sampling is the method for selecting people, events or objects for study in research. Nonprobability and probability sampling strategies enable the researcher to target data collection
techniques. These may need to be of a specific size (sometimes determined by a power
calculation) or composition.
Data collection techniques
These are the tools and approaches used to collect data to answer the research question
/hypothesis. More than one technique can be employed, the commonest are questionnaires and
interviews.
Approaches to qualitative and quantitative data analysis
This component is more fully explored in the site, but can involve qualitative and quantitative
approaches, dependent on the type of data collected.
Interpretation of results
The results are interpreted, drawing conclusions and answering the research question /hypothesis.
Implications for practice and further research are drawn, which acknowledge the limitations of the
research.

Dissemination of research
The research and results can be presented through written reports, articles, papers and
conferences, both in print and electronic forms.

5 Steps To Data Processing

Data is an integral part of all business processes. It is the invisible backbone that supports all the
operations and activities within a business. Without access to relevant data, businesses would get
completely paralyzed. This is because quality data helps formulate effective business strategies and
fruitful business decisions.
Therefore, the quality of data should be maintained in good condition in order to facilitate smooth
business proceedings. In order to enhance business proceedings, data should be made available in all
possible forms in order to increase the accessibility of the same.
Data processing refers to the process of converting data from one format to another. It transforms
plain data into valuable information and information into data. Clients can supply data in a variety of
forms, be it .xls sheets, audio devices, or plain printed material. Data processing services take the raw
data and process it accordingly to produce sensible information. The various applications of data
processing can convert raw data into useful information that can be used further for business
processes.
Companies and organizations across the world make use of data processing services in order to
facilitate their market research interests. Data consists of facts and figures, based on which important
conclusions can be drawn. When companies and organizations have access to useful information, they
can utilize it for strategizing powerful business moves that would eventually increase the company
revenue and decrease the costs, thus expanding the profit margins. Data processing ensures that the
data is presented in a clean and systematic manner and is easy to understand and be used for further
purposes.
Here are the 5 steps that are included in data processing:
Editing
There is a big difference between data and useful data. While there are huge volumes of data available
on the internet, useful data has to be extracted from the huge volumes of the same. Extracting relevant
data is one of the core procedures of data processing. When data has been accumulated from various
sources, it is edited in order to discard the inappropriate data and retain relevant data.
Coding
Even after the editing process, the available data is not in any specific order. To make it more sensible
and usable for further use, it needs to be aligned into a particular system. The method of coding
ensures just that and arranges data in a comprehendible format. The process is also known as netting
or bucketing.
Data Entry
After the data has been properly arranged and coded, it is entered into the software that performs the
eventual cross tabulation. Data entry professionals do the task efficiently.
Validation

After the cleansing phase, comes the validation process. Data validation refers to the process of
thoroughly checking the collected data to ensure optimal quality levels. All the accumulated data is
double checked in order to ensure that it contains no inconsistencies and is utterly relevant.
Tabulation
This is the final step in data processing. The final product i.e. the data is tabulated and arranged in a
systematic format so that it can be further analyzed.
All these processes make up the complete data processing activity which ensures the said data is
available for access.

Data Analysis is the process of systematically applying statistical and/or logical techniques
to describe and illustrate, condense and recap, and evaluate data. According to Shamoo and
Resnik (2003) various analytic procedures provide a way of drawing inductive inferences
from data and distinguishing the signal (the phenomenon of interest) from the noise
(statistical fluctuations) present in the data..
While data analysis in qualitative research can include statistical procedures, many times
analysis becomes an ongoing iterative process where data is continuously collected and
analyzed almost simultaneously. Indeed, researchers generally analyze for patterns in
observations through the entire data collection phase (Savenye, Robinson, 2004). The form of
the analysis is determined by the specific qualitative approach taken (field study, ethnography
content analysis, oral history, biography, unobtrusive research) and the form of the data
(field notes, documents, audiotape, videotape).
An essential component of ensuring data integrity is the accurate and appropriate analysis of
research findings. Improper statistical analyses distort scientific findings, mislead casual
readers (Shepard, 2002), and may negatively influence the public perception of research.
Integrity issues are just as relevant to analysis of non-statistical data as well.
Considerations/issues in data analysis
There are a number of issues that researchers should be cognizant of with respect to data
analysis. These include:

Having the necessary skills to analyze

Concurrently selecting data collection methods and appropriate analysis

Drawing unbiased inference

Inappropriate subgroup analysis

Following acceptable norms for disciplines

Determining statistical significance

Lack of clearly defined and objective outcome measurements

Providing honest and accurate analysis

Manner of presenting data

Environmental/contextual issues

Data recording method

Partitioning text when analyzing qualitative data

Training of staff conducting analyses

Reliability and Validity

Extent of analysis

Having necessary skills to analyze

A tacit assumption of investigators is that they have received training sufficient to
demonstrate a high standard of research practice. Unintentional scientific misconduct' is
likely the result of poor instruction and follow-up. A number of studies suggest this may be
the case more often than believed (Nowak, 1994; Silverman, Manson, 2003). For example,
Sica found that adequate training of physicians in medical schools in the proper design,
implementation and evaluation of clinical trials is abysmally small (Sica, cited in Nowak,
1994). Indeed, a single course in biostatistics is the most that is usually offered (Christopher
Williams, cited in Nowak, 1994).
A common practice of investigators is to defer the selection of analytic procedure to a
research team statistician. Ideally, investigators should have substantially more than a basic
understanding of the rationale for selecting one method of analysis over another. This can
allow investigators to better supervise staff who conduct the data analyses process and make
informed decisions
Concurrently selecting data collection methods and appropriate analysis
While methods of analysis may differ by scientific discipline, the optimal stage for
determining appropriate analytic procedures occurs early in the research process and should
not be an afterthought. According to Smeeton and Goda (2003), Statistical advice should be
obtained at the stage of initial planning of an investigation so that, for example, the method of
sampling and design of questionnaire are appropriate.
Drawing unbiased inference
The chief aim of analysis is to distinguish between an event occurring as either reflecting a
true effect versus a false one. Any bias occurring in the collection of the data, or selection of
method of analysis, will increase the likelihood of drawing a biased inference. Bias can occur
when recruitment of study participants falls below minimum number required to demonstrate
statistical power or failure to maintain a sufficient follow-up period needed to demonstrate an
effect (Altman, 2001).

Inappropriate subgroup analysis

When failing to demonstrate statistically different levels between treatment groups,
investigators may resort to breaking down the analysis to smaller and smaller subgroups in
order to find a difference. Although this practice may not inherently be unethical, these
analyses should be proposed before beginning the study even if the intent is exploratory in
nature. If it the study is exploratory in nature, the investigator should make this explicit so
that readers understand that the research is more of a hunting expedition rather than being
primarily theory driven. Although a researcher may not have a theory-based hypothesis for
testing relationships between previously untested variables, a theory will have to be
developed to explain an unanticipated finding. Indeed, in exploratory science, there are no a
priori hypotheses therefore there are no hypothetical tests. Although theories can often drive
the processes used in the investigation of qualitative studies, many times patterns of behavior
or occurrences derived from analyzed data can result in developing new theoretical
frameworks rather than determined a priori (Savenye, Robinson, 2004).
It is conceivable that multiple statistical tests could yield a significant finding by chance
alone rather than reflecting a true effect. Integrity is compromised if the investigator only
reports tests with significant findings, and neglects to mention a large number of tests failing
to reach significance. While access to computer-based statistical packages can facilitate
application of increasingly complex analytic procedures, inappropriate uses of these packages
can result in abuses as well.
Following acceptable norms for disciplines
Every field of study has developed its accepted practices for data analysis. Resnik (2000)
states that it is prudent for investigators to follow these accepted norms. Resnik further states
that the norms are based on two factors:
(1) the nature of the variables used (i.e., quantitative, comparative, or qualitative),
(2) assumptions about the population from which the data are drawn (i.e., random
distribution, independence, sample size, etc.). If one uses unconventional norms, it is crucial
to clearly state this is being done, and to show how this new and possibly unaccepted method
of analysis is being used, as well as how it differs from other more traditional methods. For
example, Schroder, Carey, and Vanable (2003) juxtapose their identification of new and
powerful data analytic solutions developed to count data in the area of HIV contraction risk
with a discussion of the limitations of commonly applied methods.
If one uses unconventional norms, it is crucial to clearly state this is being done, and to show
how this new and possibly unaccepted method of analysis is being used, as well as how it
differs from other more traditional methods. For example, Schroder, Carey, and Vanable
(2003) juxtapose their identification of new and powerful data analytic solutions developed to
count data in the area of HIV contraction risk with a discussion of the limitations of
commonly applied methods.
Determining significance
While the conventional practice is to establish a standard of acceptability for statistical

significance, with certain disciplines, it may also be appropriate to discuss whether attaining
statistical significance has a true practical meaning, i.e., clinical significance. Jeans (1992)
defines clinical significance as the potential for research findings to make a real and
important difference to clients or clinical practice, to health status or to any other problem
identified as a relevant priority for the discipline.
Kendall and Grove (1988) define clinical significance in terms of what happens when
troubled and disordered clients are now, after treatment, not distinguishable from a
meaningful and representative non-disturbed reference group. Thompson and Noferi (2002)
suggest that readers of counseling literature should expect authors to report either practical or
clinical significance indices, or both, within their research reports. Shepard (2003) questions
why some authors fail to point out that the magnitude of observed changes may too small to
have any clinical or practical significance, sometimes, a supposed change may be described
in some detail, but the investigator fails to disclose that the trend is not statistically significant
.
Lack of clearly defined and objective outcome measurements
No amount of statistical analysis, regardless of the level of the sophistication, will correct
poorly defined objective outcome measurements. Whether done unintentionally or by design,
this practice increases the likelihood of clouding the interpretation of findings, thus
potentially misleading readers.
Provide honest and accurate analysis
The basis for this issue is the urgency of reducing the likelihood of statistical error. Common
challenges include the exclusion of outliers, filling in missing data, altering or otherwise
changing data, data mining, and developing graphical representations of the data (Shamoo,
Resnik, 2003).
Manner of presenting data
At times investigators may enhance the impression of a significant finding by determining
how to present derived data (as opposed to data in its raw form), which portion of the data is
shown, why, how and to whom (Shamoo, Resnik, 2003). Nowak (1994) notes that even
experts do not agree in distinguishing between analyzing and massaging data. Shamoo (1989)
recommends that investigators maintain a sufficient and accurate paper trail of how data was
manipulated for future review.
Environmental/contextual issues
The integrity of data analysis can be compromised by the environment or context in which
data was collected i.e., face-to face interviews vs. focused group. The interaction occurring
within a dyadic relationship (interviewer-interviewee) differs from the group dynamic
occurring within a focus group because of the number of participants, and how they react to
each others responses. Since the data collection process could be influenced by the
environment/context, researchers should take this into account when conducting data
analysis.

Data recording method

Analyses could also be influenced by the method in which data was recorded. For example,
research events could be documented by:
a. recording audio and/or video and transcribing later
b. either a researcher or self-administered survey
c. either closed ended survey or open ended survey
d. preparing ethnographic field notes from a participant/observer
e. requesting that participants themselves take notes, compile and submit them to researchers.
While each methodology employed has rationale and advantages, issues of objectivity and
subjectivity may be raised when data is analyzed.
Partitioning the text
During content analysis, staff researchers or raters may use inconsistent strategies in
analyzing text material. Some raters may analyze comments as a whole while others may
prefer to dissect text material by separating words, phrases, clauses, sentences or groups of
sentences. Every effort should be made to reduce or eliminate inconsistencies between
raters so that data integrity is not compromised.
Training of Staff conducting analyses
A major challenge to data integrity could occur with the unmonitored supervision of
inductive techniques. Content analysis requires raters to assign topics to text material
(comments). The threat to integrity may arise when raters have received inconsistent training,
or may have received previous training experience(s). Previous experience may affect how
raters perceive the material or even perceive the nature of the analyses to be conducted. Thus
one rater could assign topics or codes to material that is significantly different from another
rater. Strategies to address this would include clearly stating a list of analyses procedures in
the protocol manual, consistent training, and routine monitoring of raters.
Reliability and Validity
Researchers performing analysis on either quantitative or qualitative analyses should be
aware of challenges to reliability and validity. For example, in the area of content analysis,
Gottschalk (1995) identifies three factors that can affect the reliability of analyzed data:

stability , or the tendency for coders to consistently re-code the same data in the same
way over a period of time

reproducibility , or the tendency for a group of coders to classify categories

membership in the same way

accuracy , or the extent to which the classification of a text corresponds to a standard

or norm statistically

The potential for compromising data integrity arises when researchers cannot consistently
demonstrate stability, reproducibility, or accuracy of data analysis

According Gottschalk, (1995), the validity of a content analysis study refers to the
correspondence of the categories (the classification that raters assigned to text content) to the
conclusions, and the generalizability of results to a theory (did the categories support the
studys conclusion, and was the finding adequately robust to support or be applied to a
selected theoretical rationale?).
Extent of analysis
Upon coding text material for content analysis, raters must classify each code into an
appropriate category of a cross-reference matrix. Relying on computer software to determine
a frequency or word count can lead to inaccuracies. One may obtain an accurate count of
that word's occurrence and frequency, but not have an accurate accounting of the meaning
inherent in each particular usage (Gottschalk, 1995). Further analyses might be appropriate
to discover the dimensionality of the data set or identity new meaningful underlying
variables.
Whether statistical or non-statistical methods of analyses are used, researchers should be
aware of the potential for compromising data integrity. While statistical analysis is typically
performed on quantitative data, there are numerous analytic procedures specifically designed
for qualitative material including content, thematic, and ethnographic analysis. Regardless of
whether one studies quantitative or qualitative phenomena, researchers use a variety of tools
to analyze data in order to test hypotheses, discern patterns of behavior, and ultimately
answer research questions. Failure to understand or acknowledge data analysis issues
presented can compromise data integrity.

Bivariate analysis
Bivariate analysis is one of the simplest forms of quantitative (statistical) analysis.[1] It
involves the analysis of two variables (often denoted as X, Y), for the purpose of determining
the empirical relationship between them.[1] In order to see if the variables are related to one
another, it is common to measure how those two variables simultaneously change together
(see also covariance).[2]
Bivariate analysis can be helpful in testing simple hypotheses of association and causality
checking to what extent it becomes easier to know and predict a value for the dependent
variable if we know a case's value of the independent variable (see also correlation).[2]
Bivariate analysis can be contrasted with univariate analysis in which only one variable is
analysed.[1] Furthermore, the purpose of a univariate analysis is descriptive. Subgroup
comparison the descriptive analysis of two variables can be sometimes seen as a very
simple form of bivariate analysis (or as univariate analysis extended to two variables). [1] The
major differentiating point between univariate and bivariate analysis, in addition to the latter's
looking at more than one variable, is that the purpose of a bivariate analysis goes beyond
simply descriptive: it is the analysis of the relationship between the two variables. [1] Bivariate

analysis is a simple (two variable) special case of multivariate analysis (where multiple
relations between multiple variables are examined simultaneously).[
Types of Bivariate analysis[edit]
Common forms of bivariate analysis involve creating a percentage table or a scatterplot graph
and computing a simple correlation coefficient.[1] The types of analysis that are suited to
particular pairs of variables vary in accordance with the level of measurement of the variables
of interest (e.g. nominal/categorical, ordinal, interval/ratio). If the dependent variablethe
one whose value is determined to some extent by the other, independent variable is a
categorical variable, such as the preferred brand of cereal, then probit or logitregression
(or multinomial probit or multinomial logit) can be used. If both variables are ordinal,
meaning they are ranked in a sequence as first, second, etc., then a rank
correlation coefficient can be computed. If just the dependent variable is ordinal, ordered
probit or ordered logit can be used. If the dependent variable is continuouseither interval
level or ratio level, such as a temperature scale or an income scalethen simple
regression can be used.
If both variables are time series, a particular type of causality known as Granger causality can
be tested for, and vector autoregression can be performed to examine the intertemporal
linkages between the variables.
Four Steps for Conducting Bivariate Analysis
The statistics we use for bivariate analysis are determined by levels of measurement for the
two variables. We normally will want to take four steps in conducting a bivariate analysis.
Keep in mind, we use statistics to test a bivariate hypothesis. In commonsense terms, we are
using statistics to explain the relationship between the two variables and to determine the
strength and significance of the relationship. I will use the relationship between gender and
party identification to illustrate a bivariate analysis.
Here are the four steps:
Step 1: Define the nature of the relationship in terms of how the values of the independent
variables relate to the values of the dependent variable.
For example, if I am testing the relationship between gender and party identification, then I
will ultimately say something to the effect of:
The data show a relationship between gender and party identification; women are more
likely than men to call themselves Democrats; and men are more likely than women to call
themselves Republicans. About 39% of women call themselves Democrats compared with
just 30% of men; and about 29% of men call themselves Republicans compared with about
23% of women. The crosstab shows that men are slightly more likely to be independents, but

the difference is so small (about 2% points), that a difference among the population is
unlikely.
Step 2: Identify the type and direction (if applicable) of the relationship.
Ex: In the example above, gender is nominal and party identification is ordinal, so it is a
correlative relationship.
Step 3: Determine if the relationship is statistically significant, i.e. different from the null
hypothesis (meaning there is no expected relationship), and generalizable to the population.
Ex: We use Chi-square to determine the statistical significance of a relationship with at least
one nominal variable; and looking at the chi-square table, we see that the relationship is
significant at beyond the .05 level.
Step 4: Identify the strength of the relationship, i.e. the degree to which the values of the
independent variable explain the variation in the dependent variable.
Ex: We can use Lambda or Cramers V to measure strength, and we see that on a scale from 0
to 1, a symmetric value of .01 for Lamba and .098 for Cramers V places strength on the low
end of the scale. Thus, this is not a strong relationship, although it is statistically significant.

Multivariate analysis
Multivariate analysis (MVA) is based on the statistical principle of multivariate statistics, which
involves observation and analysis of more than one statistical outcome variable at a time. In design
and analysis, the technique is used to perform trade studies across multiple dimensions while taking
into account the effects of all variables on the responses of interest.
Uses for multivariate analysis include:

Design for capability (also known as capability-based design)

Inverse design, where any variable can be treated as an independent variable

Analysis of Alternatives (AoA), the selection of concepts to fulfill a customer need

Analysis of concepts with respect to changing scenarios

Identification of critical design drivers and correlations across hierarchical levels.

Multivariate analysis can be complicated by the desire to include physics-based analysis to calculate
the effects of variables for a hierarchical "system-of-systems." Often, studies that wish to use
multivariate analysis are stalled by the dimensionality of the problem. These concerns are often eased

through the use of surrogate models, highly accurate approximations of the physics-based code. Since
surrogate models take the form of an equation, they can be evaluated very quickly. This becomes an
enabler for large-scale MVA studies: while a Monte Carlo simulation across the design space is
difficult with physics-based codes, it becomes trivial when evaluating surrogate models, which often
take the form of response surface equations.

Factor analysis
Main article: Factor analysis
Overview: Factor analysis is used to uncover the latent structure (dimensions) of a set of
variables. It reduces attribute space from a larger number of variables to a smaller number of
factors. Factor analysis originated a century ago[when?] with Charles Spearman's attempts to
show that a wide variety of mental tests could be explained by a single underlying
intelligence factor.
Applications:
To reduce a large number of variables to a smaller number of factors for data modeling
To validate a scale or index by demonstrating that its constituent items load on the same
factor, and to drop proposed scale items which cross-load on more than one factor.
To select a subset of variables from a larger set, based on which original variables have the
highest correlations with some other factors.
To create a set of factors to be treated as uncorrelated variables as one approach to handling
multi-collinearity in such procedures as multiple regression
Factor analysis is part of the general linear model (GLM) family of procedures and makes
many of the same assumptions as multiple regression, but it uses multiple outcomes.

Experimental Research
Experimental research is commonly used in sciences such as sociology and psychology,
physics, chemistry, biology and medicine etc.
It is a collection of research designs which use manipulation and controlled testing to
understand causal processes. Generally, one or more variables are manipulated to determine
their effect on a dependent variable.

Aims of Experimental Research

Experiments are conducted to be able to predict phenomenons. Typically, an experiment is
constructed to be able to explain some kind of causation. Experimental research is important
tosociety - it helps us to improve our everyday lives.
Identifying the Research Problem
After deciding the topic of interest, the researcher tries to define the research problem. This
helps the researcher to focus on a more narrow research area to be able to study it
appropriately. Defining the research problem helps you to formulate a research hypothesis,
which is tested against the null hypothesis.
The research problem is often operationalizationed, to define how to measure the research
problem. The results will depend on the exact measurements that the researcher chooses and
may be operationalized differently in another study to test the main conclusions of the study.
An ad hoc analysis is a hypothesis invented after testing is done, to try to explain why the
contrary evidence. A poor ad hoc analysis may be seen as the researcher's inability to accept
that his/her hypothesis is wrong, while a great ad hoc analysis may lead to more testing and
possibly a significant discovery.
Constructing the Experiment
There are various aspects to remember when constructing an experiment. Planning ahead
ensures that the experiment is carried out properly and that the results reflect the real world,
in the best possible way.
Sampling Groups to Study
Sampling groups correctly is especially important when we have more than one condition in
the experiment. One sample group often serves as a control group, whilst others are tested
under the experimental conditions.
Deciding the sample groups can be done in using many different sampling
techniques.Population sampling may chosen by a number of methods, such as randomization,
"quasi-randomization" and pairing.
Reducing sampling errors is vital for getting valid results from experiments. Researchers
often adjust the sample size to minimize chances of random errors.
Here are some common sampling techniques:

probability sampling
non-probability sampling

simple random sampling

convenience sampling
stratified sampling
systematic sampling
cluster sampling
sequential sampling
disproportional sampling
judgmental sampling
snowball sampling
quota sampling
Creating the Design
The research design is chosen based on a range of factors. Important factors when choosing
the design are feasibility, time, cost, ethics, measurement problems and what you would like
to test. The design of the experiment is critical for the validity of the results.
Typical Designs and Features in Experimental Design

Pretest-Posttest Design
Check whether the groups are different before the manipulation starts and the effect of the
manipulation. Pretests sometimes influence the effect.
Control Group
Control groups are designed to measure research bias and measurement effects, such as
the Hawthorne Effect or the Placebo Effect. A control group is a group not receiving the
same manipulation as the experimental group. Experiments frequently have 2 conditions,
but rarely more than 3 conditions at the same time.
Randomized Controlled Trials
Randomized Sampling, comparison between an Experimental Group and a Control Group
and strict control/randomization of all other variables
Solomon Four-Group Design
With two control groups and two experimental groups. Half the groups have a pretest and
half do not have a pretest. This to test both the effect itself and the effect of the pretest.
Between Subjects Design
Grouping Participants to Different Conditions
Within Subject Design
Participants Take Part in the Different Conditions - See also: Repeated Measures Design
Counterbalanced Measures Design
Testing the effect of the order of treatments when no control group is available/ethical
Matched Subjects Design
Matching Participants to Create Similar Experimental- and Control-Groups
Double-Blind Experiment
Neither the researcher, nor the participants, know which is the control group. The results
can be affected if the researcher or participants know this.
Bayesian Probability
Using bayesian probability to "interact" with participants is a more "advanced"
experimental design. It can be used for settings were there are many variables which are

hard to isolate. The researcher starts with a set of initial beliefs, and tries to adjust them to
how participants have responded
Pilot Study
It may be wise to first conduct a pilot-study or two before you do the real experiment. This
ensures that the experiment measures what it should, and that everything is set up right.
Minor errors, which could potentially destroy the experiment, are often found during this
process. With a pilot study, you can get information about errors and problems, and improve
the design, before putting a lot of effort into the real experiment.
If the experiments involve humans, a common strategy is to first have a pilot study with
someone involved in the research, but not too closely, and then arrange a pilot with a person
who resembles the subject(s). Those two different pilots are likely to give the researcher good
information about any problems in the experiment.
Conducting the Experiment
An experiment is typically carried out by manipulating a variable, called the independent
variable, affecting the experimental group. The effect that the researcher is interested in,
thedependent variable(s), is measured.
Identifying and controlling non-experimental factors which the researcher does not want to
influence the effects, is crucial to drawing a valid conclusion. This is often done
by controlling variables, if possible, or randomizing variables to minimize effects that can be
traced back tothird variables. Researchers only want to measure the effect of the independent
variable(s) when conducting an experiment, allowing them to conclude that this was the
reason for the effect.
Analysis and Conclusions
In quantitative research, the amount of data measured can be enormous. Data not prepared to
be analyzed is called "raw data". The raw data is often summarized as something called
"output data", which typically consists of one line per subject (or item). A cell of the output
data is, for example, an average of an effect in many trials for a subject. The output data is
used for statistical analysis, e.g. significance tests, to see if there really is an effect.
The aim of an analysis is to draw a conclusion, together with other observations. The
researcher might generalize the results to a wider phenomenon, if there is no indication
ofconfounding variables "polluting" the results.
If the researcher suspects that the effect stems from a different variable than the independent
variable, further investigation is needed to gauge the validity of the results. An experiment is
often conducted because the scientist wants to know if the independent variable is having any
effect upon the dependent variable. Variables correlating are not proof that there is causation.

Experiments are more often of quantitative nature than qualitative nature, although it
happens.

Experimental Study Design

An experimental study is a type of evaluation that seeks to determine whether a program or

intervention had the intended causal effect on program participants. There are three key components
of an experimental study design: (1) pre-post test design, (2) a treatment group and a control group,
and (3) random assignment of study participants.
A pre-post test design requires that you collect data on study participants level of performance before
the intervention took place (pre-), and that you collect the same data on where study participants are
after the intervention took place (post). This design is the best way to be sure that your intervention
had a causal effect.
To get the true effects of the program or intervention, it is necessary to have both a
treatment group and acontrol group. As the name suggests, the treatment group receives the
intervention. The control group, however, gets the business-as-usual conditions, meaning they only
receive interventions that they would have gotten if they had not participated in the study. By having
both a group that received the intervention and another group that did not, researchers control for the
possibility that other factors not related to the intervention (e.g., students getting accustomed to a test,
or simple maturation over the intervening time) are responsible for the difference between the pre-test
and post-test results. It is also important that both the treatment group and the control group are of
adequate size to be able to determine whether an effect took place or not. While the size of the sample
ought to be determined by specific scientific methods, a general rule of thumb is that each group
ought to have at least 30 participants.
Finally, it is important to make sure that both the treatment group and the control group are
statistically similar. While no two groups will ever be exactly alike, the best way to be sure that they
are as close as possible is having a random assignment of the study participants into the treatment
group and control group. By randomly assigning participants, you can be sure that any difference
between the treatment group and control group is due to chance alone, and not by a selection bias.

Study design