IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 23, NO.

4, OCTOBER 2008

2599

Implementation of the Numerical

Laplace Transform: A Review
Task Force on Frequency Domain Methods for EMT Studies, Working Group on Modeling and Analysis of System Transients
Using Digital Simulation, General Systems Subcommittee, IEEE Power Engineering Society

Pablo Moreno and Abner Ramirez

AbstractIn this paper a detailed description, an analysis, and

an assessment of a frequency-domain technique highly applicable
to power systems transient analysis (i.e., the numerical Laplace
transform) are presented. The errors due to truncation and sampling when converting a frequency-domain signal to the time domain are analyzed. Additionally, the use of odd and regular sampling is discussed. Two major goals of the paper are the revival of
the mentioned technique and its friendly description for power systems engineers. As an application, a transmission-line transient is
presented.
Index TermsFourier transform, frequency-domain (FD) analysis, Laplace transform, transient analysis.

I. INTRODUCTION

As a second objective, this work describes in a comprehensive manner the numerical issues of the NLT in such a way that
a power system engineer (without being a specialist in digital
signal processing) can understand the basic theory and develop
a FD program for handling transients. Since some of the references mentioned in this paper are old and/or out of reach for
most of power engineers, we repeat here many of the theory already contained in those papers.
Although the NLT technique is applied in this work to the
power systems transients area, it is deemed here that its applicability can be expanded to other Engineering areas.
Finally, a code section is included (Appendices A and B) that
allows to apply the NLT in Matlab.
II. HISTORY

REQUENCY dependence is an intrinsic characteristic of

electrical/electronic devices. Its effects are clearly visible
in the distortion of voltage/current waveforms.
A natural choice for mathematically handling frequency dependent elements is the frequency domain (FD). However, on
analyzing transients one needs to go back to time domain (TD)
where a more comprehensive way of interpreting results exists. In general, the mathematical FD expressions resulting from
practical studies are difficult, if not impossible, to be solved by
analytical means. This difficulty is, however, overcome by numerical methods.
Initially, the Inverse Fourier transform was applied to convert an FD signal into the TD. The direct integration brought up
certain errors caused by discretization and truncation of the FD
signal. Later on, the modified Fourier transform (MFT) and windowing techniques were introduced in order to decrease these
errors. Finally, slight modifications to the latter produced the
numerical Laplace transform (NLT) in its actual form.
This paper intends first to revive the interest in the NLT
through its detailed description and analysis.

Manuscript received October 14, 2007; revised December 17, 2007. First published May 7, 2008; current version published September 24, 2008. Paper no.
TPWRD-00600-2007.
P. Moreno and A. Ramirez are with CINVESTAV, Guadalajara 44550,
Mexico (e-mail: pmoreno@gdl.cinvestav.mx).
Task Force Members: J. L. Naredo (Task Force Chairperson), A. Ametani,
S. Carneiro, M. Davila, V. Dinavahi, J. A. de la O, F. de Leon, P. Gomez, J.
L. Guardado, B. Gustavsen, J. A. Gutierrez-Robles, J. R. Marti, J. A. MartinezVelasco, F. Moreira, P. Moreno, A. Morched, N. Nagaoka, W. A. Neves, T.
Noda, V. H. Ortiz-Muro, A. I. Ramirez, M. Rioual, A. C. Siqueira de Lima, F.
A. Uribe, K. Strunz, N. Watson, D. J. Wilcox.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TPWRD.2008.923404

One of the earliest numerical methods to invert Laplace

transform was developed in the 1960s by Bellman, Kalaba, and
Lockett [1]. From 1964 to 1973, Day, Mullineux, Battisson,
and Reed approached the problem of analyzing power system
transients using Fourier transforms and reported their results
in [2][5]. These researchers realized that, due to truncation of
the FD signal, the corresponding time functions were affected
by Gibbs phenomenon [2]. Additionally, since FD functions
have to be sampled, the corresponding TD waveforms were
affected by aliasing. To alleviate Gibbs errors they introduced
the use of window functions [4], and to decrease aliasing errors
they proposed the use of an artificial exponential damping, i.e.,
shifting the integration path away from the imaginary axis [3].
These authors named their technique the MFT.
Wedepohl and Mohamed, in 1969 and 1970, adopted the MFT
and applied it to the calculation of transients on multiconductor
power lines [6]. These authors further extended the technique
to applications including switching manoeuvres [7]. In 1973,
Wedepohl and Wilcox applied the MFT to the analysis of underground cable systems [8].
A major problem with the MFT was that it required very long
computational times. In 1973 Ametani introduced the use of the
fast Fourier transform (FFT) algorithm and the MFT became a
much more attractive transient analysis alternative [9]. In 1979,
Ametani proposed a numerical Fourier Transform with exponential sampling for handling electrical transients where a very
wide range of frequency or time is required [10].
In 1978, Wilcox formulated the MFT methods in terms of the
Laplace Transform theory and introduced the term numerical
Laplace transform [11].

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An application of the NLT to the solution of boundary value

problems using a similar approach to that due to Wilcox was
presented in 1979 [26].
An FD transient program that includes switching manoeuvres
and nonlinear lumped elements (using piecewise techniques)
was reported by Nagaoka and Ametani in 1988 [12].
An alternate approach was published in 1998 to the numerical
inversion of the Laplace transformation [27]. In this technique
the exponential function in the integrand is approximated by
a series expansion. The method presents truncation errors and
the errors associated with the approximation of the exponential
function. It is also reported the existence of difficulties when
dealing with some singularities in the excitation functions (i.e.,
the Laplace transform of a square function, and singularities
present in the response of distributed constant circuits).
Recently, a group of researchers have been successfully applying the NLT to analyze electromagnetic transients [13][16].

IV. ERRORS INCURRED IN THE NLT

Numerical evaluation of the inverse Laplace Transform introduces two types of errors: Gibbs oscillations due to truncation
of the integration range and aliasing due to discretization
of the continuous variable . Truncation errors are reduced
. Aliasing errors are
by introducing a window function
decreased by smoothing the frequency response of the system
by an appropriate choice of the convergence (damping) factor
[11].
Although we are dealing with the NLT, in this Section, the
illustration of the errors incurred while converting from the FD
to the TD is presented using the Fourier transform as a basis.
A. Truncation Error
Consider the rectangular pulse [see Fig. 1(a)]

(3a)

III. MATHEMATICAL BASIS

be a transient waveform and
be its FD image.
Let
These functions are related by the Laplace transform [25]

The Fourier image of

is given by [see Fig. 1(a)]

(3b)

(1a)

and the inverse Laplace transform

(1b)

.
where the period of oscillation is equal to
with maximum frequency
Suppose that a data window
is defined, we would like to obtain back
from the truncated integral

. correwhere the complex frequency is given by

sponds to the angular frequency variable and is a positive real
constant. Alternatively, (1a) and (1b) can be expressed as
(1c)

(4)

where
(5a)

and
(1d)

and the TD image of

is

(5b)

From (1c), one can observe that the Laplace transform

is equivalent to the Fourier transform of the damped signal
. This exponential damping makes it possible to deal
with dc components when using the Fourier transform instead
of the Laplace transform. In fact, this is the approach of the
modified Fourier transform introduced by Day, Mullineux,
Battisson, and Reed [2][5].
being a real and causal function, the inverse
With
Laplace transform can be written as

with a period of oscillation

. Fig. 1(b) depicts
and a partial view of
.
From (4), it is observed that the transform of the FD product
is equivalent to perform the TD convolution [illustrated in
Fig. 1(c)]

(2)

Additionally, from (6), we notice that the original function

has been degraded to
due to the truncation of the infinite frequency range, as shown in (4). Fig. 1 shows graphically

(6)

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One way to attenuate truncation errors is to introduce a

that averages
over one period of the
weighting factor
Gibbs oscillations, i.e.,

(7a)

where
is known as the window function in TD. For instance,
consider that
corresponds to the rectangular time window
function shown in Fig. 2(a). Then, the substitution of (4) into
, gives
(7a), and using

(7b)

Interchanging the integration order in (7b) and performing the

inner integral yields
(7c)

where
Fig. 2(a)]

is the Lanczos window given in the FD as [see

(7d)
Notice that for numerical implementation, only the central
lobe of Lanczos window is taken. The effect of truncating and
introducing the window function is represented in the FD and
in the TD by
(8a)
(8b)
respectively, and is illustrated by Fig. 2. Comparison of the
graphs in Figs. (1c) and (2b) shows the attenuation of Gibbs
oscillations in the latter due to the use of the window function.
B. Discretization Error

Fig. 1. Illustration of truncation phenomenon. (a) Original function. (b) Data

window. (c) Truncation effect.

In the numerical computation of the inverse Fourier transform, what it has actually done is transform an FD sampled
signal (instead of a continuous one) into the TD as follows:
(9)

the truncation process described by (3)(6). The ringing phe[see Fig. 1(c)] is known as Gibbs
nomenon appearing in
oscillations and has a period of oscillation that is equal to
[17]. The value of also corresponds to the minimum rise time
; that is, due to frequency truncation, the resulting funcof
tion not only presents Gibbs oscillations, it also has a finite rise
time.

corresponds to a train of regularly spaced Dirac

where
impulses [17]
(10)

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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 23, NO. 4, OCTOBER 2008

Fig. 2. Effect of windowing. (a) Lanczos window. (b) Windowed function

f (t).

In the TD, (9) becomes

(11)
where

is the TD image of

given by
(12)

Substitution of (12) into (11) gives

(13)
As an illustration of the discretization error, the functions described by (9)(13) are shown in Fig. 3 for a specific triangular
signal. Fig. 3(a) shows the TD triangular function and its FD
counterpart. The sampled FD signal is depicted in Fig. 3(b) and
its corresponding TD counterpart in Fig. 3(c).
As it can be noted from (13), the resulting TD function obtained after discretization of its FD image consists of a periodic
. According to the sampling
function with period
[17].
theorem, overlapping will exist if
To decrease the aliasing phenomenon, the NLT takes aim into
the fact that the inversion involves the function attenuated by a

Fig. 3. Illustration of discretization phenomenon. (a) TD original waveform

f (t) and its FD image F (! ). (b) Sampled version of F (! ) and (c) TD waveform of the sampled version.

damping coefficient . Several formulae have been proposed for

calculating this damping coefficient; some of these have been
obtained in a heuristic way. We will only mention those proposed by Wilcox [11] and by Wedepohl [18], respectively
(14a)
(14b)

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2603

equally spaced samwhere for time and frequency, we use

ples. Additionally, since the numerical integration of (2) requires finite integration limits, let us define as the maximum
frequency and as the observation time. The observation time
corresponds to the waveform repetition period which in this case
is given by
(15c)
Thus, we can establish the following relations [23]:

(16a)
(16b)
Equation (16b) is defined by the odd sampling procedure
and (16a) represents the minimum useful time step. This value
comes from the fact that truncation of the spectrum produces a
rise time of
(16c)
and the ratio
gives samples.
By using the sampling scheme defined by (15) (and including
the window function), (2) can be approximated numerically as

Fig. 4. Illustration of basic definitions: (a) TD and (b) FD.

Wilcoxs criterion often permits an accuracy of about

,
whereas with Wedepohls criterion, the numerical error level
. This is shown in Section VI. In
can be brought up to
the authors experience, the criteria presented provide good results; however, it is worthy to note that up to now, there is no
sound basis for choosing a suitable value for . On the one hand,
choosing a small value will not displace far enough from the
imaginary axis the integration path and, therefore, waveform
tails will not be damped enough. On the other hand, if is too
large, while the frequency response may then be very smooth,
the truncated integration contour might not enclose the significant poles and the resulting response would be unacceptably
distorted.

Substitution of definitions (15) and (16) into (17) yields

(18a)
where
(18b)
The term inside the square brackets in (18a) permits us to
utilize the fast Fourier transform (FFT) algorithm [17] which
in a very efficient manner when
makes the calculation of
is equal to an integer power of two.

V. NUMERICAL FORMULATION
A. Odd Sampling
The numerical evaluation of (2) requires the consideration of
and , as shown in Fig. 4. The numersampling intervals
ical formulation that will be described uses an odd discretization
, and normal time steps of
;
in the FD with spacing of
therefore, the following definitions are made:

for

(17)

(15a)

and

B. Choice of

, and

In this respect, one has several options [11]. For instance,

once the total observation time in the transient analysis is
is automatically defined by (16b); according to the
chosen,
(or the type of transient under analysis), one
bandwidth of
will be given
can choose the maximum frequency , and
by (16b);
is then calculated by (16a). Note that can be
calculated by either (14a) or (14b).
C. Regular Sampling

for
(15b)

Alternatively, (2) can be approximated numerically by using

regular sampling (i.e., equally spaced samples with spacing

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equal to
given by

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 23, NO. 4, OCTOBER 2008

). In this case, the relation corresponding to (17) is

(19)
where

is defined as in (16a), and (16b) becomes

(20a)

and

(and ) has been discretized as follows:

(20b)
Note that in (20b), the samples at the left hand side of the
imaginary axis have been flipped to the right and conjugated. In
, and should be modified accord(20), the selection of ,
ingly.
D. Direct Transform
For completeness of this paper, the numerical formulation of
the direct Laplace transform is provided in this subsection.
In order to obtain a useful formula for the frequency spectrum, the discretized TD function can be converted to a continuous analog time function. Since the behavior between samples
is unknown, it suffices to assume that time point
defines a
to
(sample
time rectangle of magnitude from
and hold operation). Hence, for the case of FD odd sampling,
(1c) can be expressed as follows:

(21a)

Fig. 5. Error from choosing the damping factor c corresponding to expressions:

(a) (14a) and (b) (14b).

VI. ASSESSMENT OF THE NLT

A. Damping Factor and Number of Samples

Solving the integral in (21a) by applying the rectangular rule

of integration gives the following formula that allows using the
FFT algorithm:

For the sake of illustration, we have taken the shifted unit step
(22a)

(21b)

whose Laplace image is

(22b)

Similarly, for the case of regular sampling

(21c)
where ,
, and , are given by (15a), (15b), and (20b),
respectively.
Since the analog function formed from is a train of rectangular pulses, a different formula for the frequency spectrum can
be obtained by summing the Laplace transforms of all pulses. In
the authors experience, (21b) and (21c) provide good results.

into the TD
The NLT is evaluated by first transforming
and then comparing the result with the exact function given by
(22a). In the graphs of Fig. 5, the delay has been assumed
of the
to be equal to 0.1 s and the decimal logarithm
error is presented for each of the two choices for selecting
[i.e., (14a) and (14b)]. The number of samples in the NLT has
been taken as 512, 1024, and 2048. The spikes seen in the plots
of Fig. 5 correspond to the error at the discontinuity of the unit
step, which is caused by the different rise times between the
exact formula in (22a) and the numerical solution.

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2605

TABLE I
DAMPING FACTOR c

Fig. 7. Odd sampling versus even sampling errors.

Fig. 6. Error from using different window functions.

Table I presents the damping coefficient corresponding to

the results shown in Fig. 5. Notice that from criterion (14a)
remains constant regardless the number of samples. Note also
that using (14b) the damping factor increases as increases.
B. Window Functions
The analysis of the NLT is now directed to the differences
given by the use of different window functions. As a basis, we
use the same function given by (22), choose from (14b), and
use 1024 samples. In Fig. 6, the errors obtained by using the
window functions by Hanning, Lanczos, and Blackman are presented. Additionally, the error without window function is also
shown. From Fig. 6, we notice that for engineering purposes,
the three windows give excellent results.
C. Odd Versus Regular Sampling
The comparison between the odd and regular sampling [expressions (18) and (19)] is shown in Fig. 7 for the specific case
and apof using Hanning window function with
plying (14b) in the numerical inversion of (22b). From Fig. 7,
one can notice that the error of the numerical inversion using
regular sampling is bigger than the one from using odd sampling. Besides, Gibbs phenomenon is less attenuated with the
former, as seen in Fig. 7. An explanation for the statement above
is that given the same observation time and number of samples,
while the actual samples spacing in both methods is the same
the maximum frequency for the odd sampling is twice the maximum frequency for the regular sampling.
The Matlab v.7 code that has been used for obtaining the results in Figs. 5 and 6 and Table I is presented in Appendix A.
In that code, the user can easily modify the number of samples,
the choice of , and the type of window function.

Fig. 8. Switching simulation. (a) Closing. (b) Opening.

VII. SWITCHING MANEUVERS SIMULATION

A. FD Switch Representation
Switching operations produce changes in network topology
that turn the network into a time-varying system, precluding at
first sight, the use of FD methods. However, for a linear network
by using the superposition principle, the NLT can still be applied
[12], [19].
On the one hand, an opened switch can be represented by a
that is equal to the potential difference bevoltage source
tween its terminals. Switch closing is accomplished by the series
with an equal magnitude
connection of a voltage source
so that
but opposite polarity to that of
[see Fig. 8(a)]. Therefore, the voltage source required to close
is given by
the switch at

(23)
is the TD waveform of the voltage between the
where
switch terminals for the whole observation time with the switch
opened and indicates the Laplace transform.
On the other hand, a closed switch is represented by a curthat is equal to the current flowing across it.
rent source
Switch opening is performed by connecting in parallel to
a current source
of equal magnitude but opposite polarity,
[see Fig. 8(b)]. Opening the switch
so that

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Fig. 9. (a) Ideal switch and (b) equivalent circuit.

Fig. 10. Scheme of closing condition.

when the current reaches its first zero value after a specified
opening time is accomplished by injecting the current source
(24)
is the current zero-crossing time and
is the TD
where
waveform of the current flowing through the closed switch for
the whole observation time.
It should be mentioned that when using a nodal formulation,
ideal voltage sources cannot be used to simulate switch closures.
must be accomplished
Hence, the injection of voltage
through a Norton equivalent current source
(25)
is a resistance with a very small value (or, alternawhere
tively, equal to the switch resistance).
Regarding the switch initial condition, a conductance of zero
for an
is assigned for an initial state of open and a value of
initial state of closed. In order to implement switching simulations, a topological change in the network nodal matrix must be
accomplished when a maneuver occurs. This topological change
is performed by introducing (closure) or extracting (opening)
from the network matrix before solving for the state due to
the injected current.
From the discussion before, a practical switch model suitable
for simulating closures and openings can be as the one shown
is given by
in Fig. 9. The injected current
closure
opening
and the Norton conductance

(27a)

is given by
closure
opening.

(27b)

When
is positive,
is introduced in the admittance
matrix, representing the connection between the switch nodes
is negative,
is subtracted, leaving the switch
and when
nodes disconnected.
After a switching operation, the complete system response
is obtained by adding the response existing before switching to

Fig. 11. Transmission system model.

that resulting from injecting the current source that performs

the switch maneuver. As can be seen in (23) and (24), switching
simulation requires going back and forth from the FD to the TD,
therefore to speed the development of an inhouse tool by the
reader. In Appendix B, a Matlab function for the direct Laplace
transform is provided.
B. Numerical Example
Consider the three-phase transmission line represented in
Fig. 10. Using a two-port admittance model for the transmission line (see Fig. 11) and the model shown in Fig. 9 for the
circuit breaker, the network nodal equation can be expressed as
follows:

(28)
where
and
are the two-port
admittance submatrices for the transmission line with characand propagation matrix [6], [23], [28],
teristic admittance
[29].
is the vector of Norton equivalent currents,
is
a diagonal conductance matrix that represents the three phase
is a diagonal matrix whose elements are
switch condition,
, and
is the load admittance (
for an open
, (28) represents the system state
ended line). When
before switching. For an initially opened three-phase switch
. In (28), all submatrices are of order 3 3; therefore, the system matrix is of order 9 9.
As an application example, consider the energization of a
203 km long transmission line. The line is equipped with two
Bluejay ACSR subconductors per bundle separated by 450 mm.
The average height and horizontal separation of the bundle centers are 40 m and 8.8 m, respectively. The earth resistivity is

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2607

Fig. 12. Voltage waveform calculated at the receiving end of phase B.

taken equal to 100

m. The three poles of the circuit breaker
are closed sequentially. The closing times are 3.0, 5.0, and 8.0
ms for phases A, B (center), and C, respectively. The switch reis set to 0.1 ,
and the receiving end
sistance
of the transmission line is left open. The number of samples is
.
Consider the first maneuver (closing of phase A). In order to
is set to zero, and the injected current
perform the operation,
is determined as follows:

(29)

where
is the unit step function. The topological change in
the admittance matrix is done by adding the switch conductance
matrix

(30)

After solving (28) for the node voltages due to the injection of , the complete voltage response is obtained by adding
the system response due to initial conditions (previous system
state). Closing the rest of the circuit-breaker poles is performed
in a likewise manner.
Fig. 12 shows the resulting voltage waveform of phase A at
the receiving end after closing the three phases using the method
presented in this work and using the PSCAD program. The cpu
time for this simulation with 1024 samples was 0.8125 s in a
Pentium IV with a 3 GHz processor.

The NLT is deemed here as a powerful tool for the analysis of

electromagnetic transients. Its evolution has permitted to refine
its numerical characteristics through the use of window functions, the choice of an integration path ( parameter), and the
use of the FFT.
As shown in Section VI-B, one can choose any of the three
window functions used here (Hanning, Lanczos, and Blackman)
achieving an accuracy far beyond the one required by engi). Nevertheless, the
neering applications (in the order of
NLT permits the implementation of any of the window functions from the literature.
Concerning the choice of parameter , in the authors
experience, (14b) gives the best results. Apparently (see
Table I), increasing produces better results; however, one
produces an
should be careful because using a larger
term in
amplification of Gibbs oscillations due to the
(2). In fact, the NLT technique suffers from numerical errors
in the waveform tails. This forces discarding the last 5 to
10% of the TD samples.
The NLT technique presented in this work uses odd sampling
and the utilization of the FFT speeds up the solution dramatically.
In the cases of electromagnetic transients, we can say that based
on (14b), 512 or 1024 samples are reasonable numbers for a
good definition of the TD response. Some algorithms using
a nonuniform sampling have been proposed [10], [20][22].
The problem with jagged behavior of the FD responses
caused by poles close to the integration axis was addressed
in [22], where an adaptive sampling scheme was proposed.
Aliasing was here avoided by integrating analytically between
samples and using linear variation, similarly as in [12]. The
use of splines was proposed in [24]. Although it is claimed
that such procedures could save computing time, their use
can become very cumbersome when switching occurs. In
fact, the most general sampling is the uniform one; it does
not need to know beforehand the behavior of the transient
(i.e., the fast dynamics appearing at the beginning followed
by the slow dynamics).
Despite the NLT being fundamentally oriented to linear problems, it is shown here that it can still be applied to nonlinear
events such as sequential switching [7], [8], [19]. Moreover
the NLT is capable of handling nonlinear elements in a piecewise manner [12], [14]. In addition to simulation of general
transients, the inverse transform is deemed here to be an invaluable tool for validation of frequency-dependent transmission-line models.
The authors believe that this paper will help power engineers
develop further insight into the field of electromagnetic transients. In addition, the presented NLT technique is an invaluable
complement for the more familiar TD analysis.

VIII. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

The basic theory of the NLT has been described in detail. We
have analyzed the main errors incurred in the numerical implementation of the NLT and discussed the way to diminish those
errors.

APPENDIX A
The Matlab v.7 code used for the assessment of the NLT in
Section VI is provided:

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clear all;

function

% Laplace data;

%;

; error

% ftd: values of the waveform for 0;

% dt,
% c: damping factor;

% choose a criterion to determine c;

%

% dt: time step;

%;
;

;
;

;
;

;
;

;
;

% function in the s-domain;

;

% choose a window function;

%

REFERENCES
; %Hanning;
;

%
%Lanczos;
%
; %Blackman;
% function in the time domain through NLT;

; %comment this line to make it without

window function;
;
;
% function in the time domain analytical;
;
;
%plotting;
;
figure, plot(t(1:Np),real(ftd(1:Np)),t(1:Np),ft(1:Np));
figure, plot(t(1:Np),log(abs(real(ftd(1:Np))-ft(1:Np))));

APPENDIX B
Matlab v.7 code for the direct Laplace transform with FD odd
sampling:

[1] R. E. Bellman, R. E. Kalaba, and J. Lockett, Numerical Inversion of the

Laplace Transform. New York: Elsevier, 1966.
[2] S. J. Day, N. Mullineux, and J. R. Reed, Developments in obtaining
transient response using Fourier transforms. Part I: Gibbs phenomena
and Fourier integrals, Int. J. Elect. Eng. Educ., vol. 3, pp. 501506,
1965.
[3] S. J. Day, N. Mullineux, and J. R. Reed, Developments in obtaining
transient response using Fourier transforms. Part II: Use of the modified
Fourier transform, Int. J. Elect. Eng. Educ., vol. 4, pp. 3140, 1966.
[4] S. J. Day, M. J. Battisson, N. Mullineux, and J. R. Reed, Developments in obtaining transient response using Fourier transforms. Part
III: Global response, Int. J. Elect. Eng. Educ., vol. 6, pp. 259265,
1968.
[5] N. Mullineux and J. R. Reed, Developments in obtaining transient
response using Fourier transforms: Part IV-Survey of the theory, Int.
J. Elect. Eng. Educ., vol. 10, pp. 259265, 1973.
[6] L. M. Wedepohl and S. E. T. Mohamed, Multiconductor transmission
lines. Theory of natural modes and Fourier integral applied to transient
analysis, Proc. Inst. Elect Eng., vol. 116, no. 9, pp. 15531563, Sep.
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