Illuminated manuscript

In the strictest denition of illuminated manuscript, only

manuscripts with gold or silver, like this miniature of Christ in
Majesty from the Aberdeen Bestiary (folio 4v), would be considered illuminated.

The decoration of this page from a French Book of Hours,

ca.1400, includes a miniature, initials and borders

An illuminated manuscript is a manuscript in which

the text is supplemented with such decoration as initials,
borders (marginalia) and miniature illustrations. In the
strictest denition of the term, an illuminated manuscript
refers only to manuscripts decorated with gold or silver,
but in both common usage and modern scholarship, the
term refers to any decorated or illustrated manuscript
from Western traditions.

of a link of literacy oered by non-illuminated texts.

Had it not been for the monastic scribes of Late Antiquity, most literature of Greece and Rome would have
perished in Europe. As it was, the patterns of textual
survivals were shaped by their usefulness to the severely
constricted literate group of Christians. Illumination
of manuscripts, as a way of aggrandizing ancient documents, aided their preservation and informative value in
Comparable Far Eastern and Mesoamerican works are an era when new ruling classes were no longer literate, at
described as painted. Islamic manuscripts may be re- least in the language used in the manuscripts.
ferred to as illuminated, illustrated or painted, though us- The majority of surviving manuscripts are from
ing essentially the same techniques as Western works.
the Middle Ages, although many survive from the
Renaissance, along with a very limited number from
Late Antiquity. The majority of these manuscripts are
of a religious nature. However, especially from the 13th
century onward, an increasing number of secular texts
were illuminated. Most illuminated manuscripts were

The earliest surviving substantive illuminated

manuscripts are from the period AD 400 to 600,
produced in Italy and the Eastern Roman Empire. The
signicance of these works lies not only in their inherent
artistic and historical value, but also in the maintenance
1

created as codices, which had superseded scrolls. A

very few illuminated manuscript fragments survive on
papyrus, which does not last nearly as long as vellum or
parchment. Most medieval manuscripts, illuminated or
not, were written on parchment (most commonly of calf,
sheep, or goat skin), but most manuscripts important
enough to illuminate were written on the best quality of
parchment, called vellum.

HISTORY

dox and Eastern Christian areas. See Medieval art for

other regions, periods and types. Reusing parchments
by scraping the surface and reusing them was a common
practice; the traces often left behind of the original text
are known as palimpsests.
The Muslim World and in particular the Iberian Peninsula, with their traditions of literacy uninterrupted by
the Middle Ages, were instrumental in delivering ancient classic works to the growing intellectual circles and
universities of Western Europe all through the 1100s, as
books were produced there in large numbers and on paper
for the rst time in Europe, and with them full treatises
on the sciences, especially astrology and medicine where
illumination was required to have profuse and accurate
representations with the text.

Beginning in the late Middle Ages manuscripts began

to be produced on paper.[1] Very early printed books
were sometimes produced with spaces left for rubrics and
miniatures, or were given illuminated initials, or decorations in the margin, but the introduction of printing
rapidly led to the decline of illumination. Illuminated
manuscripts continued to be produced in the early 16th
century, but in much smaller numbers, mostly for the very The Gothic period, which generally saw an increase in
wealthy.
the production of these beautiful artifacts, also saw more
Manuscripts are among the most common items to sur- secular works such as chronicles and works of literature
vive from the Middle Ages; many thousands survive. illuminated. Wealthy people began to build up personal
They are also the best surviving specimens of medieval libraries; Philip the Bold probably had the largest perpainting, and the best preserved. Indeed, for many areas sonal library of his time in the mid-15th century, is esand time periods, they are the only surviving examples of timated to have had about 600 illuminated manuscripts,
painting.
whilst a number of his friends and relations had several
dozen.

History

Main article:
manuscript)

History of miniature (illuminated

Art historians classify illuminated manuscripts into their

historic periods and types, including (but not limited to) Late Antique, Insular, Carolingian manuscripts,
Ottonian manuscripts, Romanesque manuscripts, Gothic
manuscripts, and Renaissance manuscripts. There are a
few examples from later periods. The type of book that
was most often heavily and richly illuminated, sometimes
known as a display book, varied between periods. In
the rst millennium, these were most likely to be Gospel
Books, such as the Lindisfarne Gospels and the Book of
Kells. The Romanesque period saw the creation of many
huge illuminated complete Bibles one in Sweden requires three librarians to lift it. Many Psalters were also
heavily illuminated in both this and the Gothic period.
Single cards or posters of vellum, leather or paper were
in wider circulation with short stories or legends on them
about the lives of saints, chivalry knights or other mythological gures, even criminal, social or miraculous occurrences; popular events much freely used by story tellers
and itinerant actors to support their plays. Finally, the
Book of Hours, very commonly the personal devotional
book of a wealthy layperson, was often richly illuminated in the Gothic period. Other books, both liturgical
and not, continued to be illuminated at all periods. The
Byzantine world also continued to produce manuscripts
in its own style, versions of which spread to other Ortho-

Up to the twelfth century, most manuscripts were produced in monasteries in order to add to the library or after receiving a commission from a wealthy patron. Larger
monasteries often contained separate areas for the monks
who specialized in the production of manuscripts called
a scriptorium. Within the walls of a scriptorium were
individualized areas where a monk could sit and work
on a manuscript without being disturbed by his fellow
brethren. If no scriptorium was available, then separate little rooms were assigned to book copying; they were
situated in such a way that each scribe had to himself a
window open to the cloister walk.[2] The separation of
these monks from the rest of the cloister indicates just
how revered these monks were within their society.
By the fourteenth century, the cloisters of monks writing
in the scriptorium had almost fully given way to commercial urban scriptoria, especially in Paris, Rome and the
Netherlands.[3] While the process of creating an illuminated manuscript did not change, the move from monasteries to commercial settings was a radical step. Demand
for manuscripts grew to an extent that the Monastic libraries were unable to meet with the demand, and began
employing secular scribes and illuminators.[4] These individuals often lived close to the monastery and, in certain
instances, dressed as monks whenever they entered the
monastery, but were allowed to leave at the end of the
day. In reality, illuminators were often well known and
acclaimed and many of their identities have survived.[5]
First, the manuscript was sent to the rubricator, who
added (in red or other colors) the titles, headlines, the
initials of chapters and sections, the notes and so on; and
then if the book was to be illustrated it was sent to the

2.2

The process of illumination

illuminator.[2] In the case of manuscripts that were sold

commercially, the writing would undoubtedly have been
discussed initially between the patron and the scribe (or
the scribes agent,) but by the time that the written gathering were sent o to the illuminator there was no longer
any scope for innovation.[6]

tions from occurring a script was typically supplied rst,

and blank spaces were left for the decoration. This presupposes very careful planning by the scribe even before
he put pen to parchment. If the scribe and the illuminator were separate labors the planning period allowed for
adequate space to be given to each individual.

2.2 The process of illumination

Techniques

Illumination was a complex and frequently costly process.

It was usually reserved for special books: an altar Bible,
for example. Wealthy people often had richly illuminated
"books of hours" made, which set down prayers appropriate for various times in the liturgical day.
In the early Middle Ages, most books were produced in
monasteries, whether for their own use, for presentation,
or for a commission. However, commercial scriptoria
grew up in large cities, especially Paris, and in Italy and
the Netherlands, and by the late fourteenth century there
was a signicant industry producing manuscripts, including agents who would take long-distance commissions,
with details of the heraldry of the buyer and the saints
of personal interest to him (for the calendar of a Book of
hours). By the end of the period, many of the painters
were women, perhaps especially in Paris.

2.1

Text

In the making of an illuminated manuscript, the text was

usually written rst. Sheets of parchment or vellum, animal hides specially prepared for writing, were cut down
to the appropriate size. After the general layout of the
page was planned (e.g., initial capital, borders), the page
was lightly ruled with a pointed stick, and the scribe went
to work with ink-pot and either sharpened quill feather or A 13th-century manuscript illumination, the earliest known dereed pen.
piction of Thomas Becket's assassination
The script depended on local customs and tastes. The
sturdy Roman letters of the early Middle Ages gradu- The following steps outline the detailed labor involved to
ally gave way to scripts such as Uncial and half-Uncial, create the illuminations of one page of a manuscript:
especially in the British Isles, where distinctive scripts
such as insular majuscule and insular minuscule devel1. Silverpoint drawing of the design were executed
oped. Stocky, richly textured blackletter was rst seen
2. Burnished gold dots applied
around the 13th century and was particularly popular in
the later Middle Ages. Palaeography is the study of his3. The application of modulating colors
torical handwritten scripts, and codicology the related
study of other physical aspects of manuscript codexes.
4. Continuation of the previous three steps in addition
One of the most important features in the production
to the outlining of marginal gures
of an illuminated manuscript is the amount of time that
5. The penning of a rinceaux appearing in the border
was spent in the pre-production stages outlining the work.
of a page
Prior to the days of such careful planning, A typical
black-letter page of these Gothic years would show a
6. The nal step, the marginal gures are painted[8]
page in which the lettering was cramped and crowded
into a format dominated by huge ornamented capitals
that descended from uncial forms or by illustrations.[7] The illumination and decoration was normally planned
To prevent such poorly made manuscripts and illumina- at the inception of the work, and space reserved for it.

However, the text was usually written before illumination began. In the Early Medieval period the text and
illumination were often done by the same people, normally monks, but by the High Middle Ages the roles were
typically separated, except for routine initials and ourishes, and by at least the 14th century there were secular workshops producing manuscripts, and by the beginning of the 15th century these were producing most of the
best work, and were commissioned even by monasteries.
When the text was complete, the illustrator set to work.
Complex designs were planned out beforehand, probably
on wax tablets, the sketch pad of the era. The design was
then traced or drawn onto the vellum (possibly with the
aid of pinpricks or other markings, as in the case of the
Lindisfarne Gospels). Many incomplete manuscripts survive from most periods, giving us a good idea of working
methods.

TECHNIQUES

2.4 Paints
The medieval artists palette was broad; a partial list of
pigments is given below. In addition, unlikely-sounding
substances such as urine and earwax were used to prepare
pigments.[10]

2.5 Gilding

At all times, most manuscripts did not have images in

them. In the early Middle Ages, manuscripts tend to
either be display books with very full illumination, or
manuscripts for study with at most a few decorated initials
and ourishes. By the Romanesque period many more
manuscripts had decorated or historiated initials, and
manuscripts essentially for study often contained some
images, often not in color. This trend intensied in the
Gothic period, when most manuscripts had at least decorative ourishes in places, and a much larger proportion
had images of some sort. Display books of the Gothic
period in particular had very elaborate decorated borders
of foliate patterns, often with small drolleries. A Gothic
page might contain several areas and types of decoration:
a miniature in a frame, a historiated initial beginning a
passage of text, and a border with drolleries. Often different artists worked on the dierent parts of the decoration.
The 11th century Tyniec Sacramentary was written with gold on
purple background.

2.3

Use of color
manuscripts

in

illuminated

While the use of gold is by far one of the most captivating features of illuminated manuscripts, the bold
use of varying colors provided multiple layers of dimension to the illumination. From a religious perspective,
the diverse colors wherewith the book is illustrated,
not unworthily represent the multiple grace of heavenly
wisdom.[2] While religious authors view themselves as
instilling a part of Gods vast glory on the work, many illustrations can be linked to the history of the texts that
were required to be illustrated and the needs and tastes
of the readers of those manuscripts.[9] Color brought
the images on the page to life and captivated the readers. Without color the impact of the image would have
been completely lost.

An illuminated manuscript is not considered illuminated

unless one or many illuminations contained gold foil or
was brushed with gold specks, a process known as burnishing. The inclusion of gold on an illumination alludes
to many dierent possibilities for the text. If the text is of
religious nature the gold is a sign of exalting the text. In
the early centuries of Christianity, Gospel manuscripts
were sometimes written entirely in gold.[11] Aside from
adding ashy decoration to the text, scribes during the
time considered themselves to be praising God with their
use of gold. In one particular instance, The life of Christ
executed on gold backgrounds with much greater richness
in the midst of innumerable scenes of the chase, tourneys,
games and grotesque subjects.[12] Furthermore, gold was
used if a patron who had commissioned a book to be written wished to display the vastness of his riches. Eventually, the addition of gold to manuscripts became so frequent, that its value as a barometer of status with the
manuscript was degraded.[13] During this time period
the price of gold had become so cheap that its inclusion in

5
an illuminated manuscript accounted for only a tenth of
the cost of production.[14] By adding richness and depth
to the manuscript, the use of gold in illuminations created
pieces of art that are still valued today.
The application of gold leaf or dust to an illumination is
a very detailed process that only the most skilled illuminators can undertake and successfully achieve. The rst
detail an illuminator considered when dealing with gold
was whether to use gold leaf or specks of gold that could
be applied with a brush. When working with gold leaf the
pieces would be hammered and thinned until they were
thinner than the thinnest paper.[14] The use of this type
of leaf allowed for numerous areas of the text to be outlined in gold. There were several ways of applying gold to
an illumination one of the most popular included mixing
the gold with stags glue and then pour it into water and
dissolve it with your nger.[15] Once the gold was soft
and malleable in the water it was ready to be applied to
the page. Illuminators had to be very careful when applying gold leaf to the manuscript for fear ruining the color
already placed in the illumination. Gold leaf is able to
adhere to any pigment which had already been laid, ruining the design, and secondly the action of burnishing it
is vigorous and runs the risk of smudging any painting already around it. The careless implementing of gold could
ruin the labor already placed in the illumination and thus
cause the entire folio to be discarded.

4 Gallery
The illuminated letter P in the Malmesbury Bible.
The script is blackletter, also known as Gothic script
Saint Bernard of Clairvaux, in a medieval illuminated manuscript.
A monk-cellarer tasting wine from a barrel while
lling a jug. From Li Livres dou Sant by Aldobrandino of Siena (France, late 13th century).
The Book of Dimma, an 8th-century Irish pocket
Gospel Book.
Jewish Illuminated manuscript of the Haggadah for
Passover (fourteenth century).
The marriage of Girart to Bertha from the Roman
de Girart de Roussillon, ca. 1450
An illuminated capital letter P in a Bible of AD
1407, Malmesbury Abbey, Wiltshire, England
Armenian manuscript of 1053. Work of Johannes.
15th century Flemish illumination depicting
Alexander the Greats third victory over Darius
Founders and benefactors book of Tewkesbury
Abbey, early 16th century
The Rochefoucauld Grail, about 1315
Battle of Mnf, in the Hungarian Chronicon Pictum of 1360

Patrons of illumination

Many monasteries produced manuscripts for the collection in their own libraries, and wealthy individuals commissioned works as a sign of status within the community.
Commissioning these works, the wealthy individuals requested that the illuminator place them somewhere in the
illumination in a donor portrait. In a scene from the New
Testament, Christ would be shown larger than an apostle,
who would be bigger than a mere bystander in the picture,
while the humble donor of the painting or the artist himself might appear as a tiny gure in the corner.[9][16] The
inclusion of oneself in artistic endeavors dates back to the
time of Justinian and his wife, Theodora, who are prominently displayed in the Hagia Sophia. Additionally, these
wealthy individuals were presented on the rst page in
all their royal apparel; they are often surrounded by allegorical gures borrowed from antiquity.[12]
Displaying the amazing detail and richness of a text, the
addition of illumination was never an afterthought. The
inclusion of illumination is twofold, it added value to the
work, but more importantly it provides pictures for the
illiterate members of society to make the reading seem
more vivid and perhaps more credible.[17]

5 See also
Armenian illuminated manuscript
Book of Job in Byzantine illuminated manuscripts
Digital Scriptorium
English Apocalypse manuscripts
Gospel Book
Historiated initial
History of the book
Lala de Cizique
List of Hiberno-Saxon illuminated manuscripts
List of illuminated manuscripts
Manuscript culture
Miniature (illuminated manuscript)
Preservation of illuminated manuscripts
Michael Sull
International Association of Master Penmen, Engrossers and Teachers of Handwriting

References

[1] The untypically early 11th century Missal of Silos is from

Spain, near to Muslim paper manufacturing centres in AlAndaluz. Textual manuscripts on paper become increasingly common, but the more expensive parchment was
mostly used for illuminated manuscripts until the end of
the period.
[2] Putnam A.M., Geo. Haven. Books and Their Makers
During The Middle Ages. Vol. 1. New York: Hillary
House, 1962. Print.
[3] De Hamel, 45
[4] De Hamel, 57
[5] De Hamel, 65
[6] De Hamel, Christopher. Medieval Craftsmen: Scribes
and Illuminations. Bualo: University of Toronto, 1992.
p. 60.
[7] Anderson, Donald M. The Art of Written Forms: The
Theory and Practice of Calligraphy. New York: Holt,
Rinehart and Winston, Inc, 1969. Print.
[8] Calkins, Robert G. Stages of Execution: Procedures
of Illumination as Revealed in an Unnished Book of
Hours. International Center of Medieval Art 17.1 (1978):
6170. JSTOR.org. Web. 17 Apr. 2010. <http://www.
jstor.org/stable/766713>
[9] Manuscript.
http://arts.jrank.org/pages/9716/
Manuscript.html. Web. 17 Apr. 2010.
[10] Iberian manuscripts (pigments)
[11] De Hamel, Christopher. The British Library Guide
to Manuscript Illumination: History and Techniques.
Toronto: University of Toronto, 2001. Print,52.
[12] Brehier, Louis. Illuminated Manuscripts. The Catholic
Encyclopedia. Vol.9. New York: Robert Appelton Company, 1910. 17 Apr. 2010 http://www.newadvent.org/
cathen/09620a.htm
[13] De Hamel, Christopher. Medieval Craftsmen: Scribes
and Illuminations. Bualo: University of Toronto, 1992.
Print,49.
[14] Brehier, Louis. Illuminated Manuscripts. The Catholic
Encyclopedia. Vol.9. New York: Robert Appelton Company, 1910. 17 Apr. 2010 http://www.newadvent.org/
cathen/09620a.htm , page 45.
[15] Blondheim, D.S. An Old Portuguese Work on
Manuscript Illumination. The Jewish Quarterly Review,
New Series 19.2 (1928): 97135. JSTOR. Web. 17 Apr.
2010. <http://www.jstor.org/stable/1451766>.
[16] Hamel, Christopher de (2001-12-29). The British Library
Guide to Manuscript Illumination: History and Techniques
(1 ed.). University of Toronto Press, Scholarly Publishing
Division. p. 20. ISBN 0-8020-8173-8.

EXTERNAL LINKS

[17] Jones, Susan. Manuscript Illumination in Northern Europe. In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New
York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000. http://
www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/manu/hd_manu.htm (October 2002)

7 Further reading
Bland, David. A history of book illustration: the illuminated manuscript and the printed book (London:
Faber & Faber, 1958)
Coleman, Joyce. Mark Cruse, and Kathryn A.
Smith, eds.
The Social Life of Illumination:
Manuscripts, Images, and Communities in the Late
Middle Ages (Series: Medieval Texts and Cultures
in Northern Europe, vol. 21. Turnhout: Brepols
Publishing, 2013). xxiv + 552 pp online review
De Hamel, Christopher. A History of Illuminated
Manuscript (Phaidon, 1986)
De Hamel, Christopher. Medieval Craftsmen:
Scribes and Illuminations. Bualo: University of
Toronto, 1992.
Lazaris, Stavros. Lillustration des disciplines
mdicales dans lAntiquit : hypothses, enjeux,
nouvelles interprtations, in: La Collezione di testi
chirurgici di Niceta (Firenze, Biblioteca Medicea
Laurenziana, Plut. 74.7). Tradizione medica classica a Bisanzio, M. Bernab (ed.), Roma, 2010, p.
99-109 .
Lazaris, Stavros. Limage paradigmatique: des
Schmas anatomiques dAristote au De materia
medica de Dioscoride, Pallas, 93 (2013), p. 131164 .
Lazaris, Stavros. Art et science vtrinaire
Byzance: Formes et fonctions de limage hippiatrique. Turnhout: Brepols, 2010
Wieck, Roger. Folia Fugitiva: The Pursuit of the
Illuminated Manuscript Leaf. The Journal of the
Walters Art Gallery, Vol. 54, 1996.

8 External links
8.1 Images (mostly)
Medieval Illuminated Manuscripts Digitized illuminated manuscripts from the Dutch Royal Library
Museum of the Book, The Hague. Thematic introduction, with many examples illustrated

8.3

Modern

Project from Cambridge University colored numbers are links to good images from various collections; good for nding images of specic subjects
quickly
Illuminated Manuscripts in the J. Paul Getty Museum Los Angeles
Portal to manuscripts in French public collections
huge databases, in French
Illuminating the Manuscript Leaves Digitized illuminated manuscripts from the University of
Louisville Libraries

On-line demonstration of the production of an illuminated manuscript from the BNF, Paris. Text in
French, but mostly visual.
Nancy Ross, Resources for English Illuminated
Manuscripts.
British Library, Glossary of Manuscript Terms,
adapted from Michelle Brown, Understanding Illuminated Manuscripts: A Guide to Technical Terms
(1994), ISBN 0-89236-217-0
Herbert, J. A. (1911), Illuminated Manuscripts, online book.

Digitized illuminated manuscript from Kathrine

Zipista

Illuminated Manuscripts', Book by John W.

Bradley, from Project Gutenberg

Medieval and Renaissance manuscripts, including

lavishly decorated Books of Hours, Vulgates, and
Medicinal Texts, 12 - 17th century, Center for Digital Initiatives, University of Vermont Libraries

CORSAIR. Thousands of digital images from the

Morgan Library's renowned collection of medieval
and Renaissance manuscripts

Illuminated Manuscripts digital collection from the

Ball State University Digital Media Repository
Spanish Chant Manuscript A collection of Spanish illuminated manuscripts from the UBC Library
Digital Collections
Digitized Illuminated Manuscripts Complete
sets of high-resolution archival images of entire
manuscripts from the collection of the Walters Art
Museum

"Illuminated Manuscripts". Catholic Encyclopedia.

New York: Robert Appleton Company. 1913.
Diringer, David. The Book Before Printing: Ancient, Medieval and Oriental. New York: Dover
Publications, Inc, 1982. Print.
Greenia, George D. The Politics of Piety:
Manuscript Illumination and Narration in the
Cantigas of De Santa Maria. Hispanic Review
61.3 (1993): 32544. JSTOR. Web. 17 Apr. 2010.
<http://www.jstor.org/stable/475069>.

Manuscripts of Licheld Cathedral - Digital facsim

ile of the St Chad Gospels, 2010. Includes the ability
to overlay images captured with 13 dierent bands
of light, historical images (starting in 1887), multispectral visualizations, and sixteen interactive 3D
renderings. College of Arts & Sciences, University 8.3
of Kentucky

Historical Image Overlays - See how an illuminated

manuscript ages

8.2

Modern
The Saint Johns Bible: an illuminated Bible project
Ellen Frank Illumination Arts Foundation: the art of
illumination

Illumination Documentary produced by Full Focus

About St Johns Abby Illuminated Bible Project

Resources

UCLA Library Special Collections collection of

Medieval and Renaissance manuscripts
Digital Scriptorium
British Library,
manuscripts

3D for Presenting Illuminated Manuscripts - Explains 3D modeling for the 8th-century illuminated
St Chad Gospels

catalogue

of

illuminated

Collection of illuminated manuscripts. From the

Koninklijke Bibliotheek and Museum MeermannoWestreenianum in The Hague.
On-line demonstration of the production of an illuminated manuscript from the Fitzwilliam, Cambridge

9 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

9.1

Text

Illuminated manuscript Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illuminated_manuscript?oldid=670098104 Contributors: Vicki Rosenzweig, Greg Lindahl, Chuckhomann, William Avery, Renata, Mrwojo, Frecklefoot, D, Michael Hardy, JakeVortex, Dominus, Arpingstone, DavidWBrooks, Raven in Orbit, JASpencer, Adam Bishop, Nohat, Wikiborg, Will, Nightsky, Wetman, Lumos3, David Stapleton,
Altenmann, Henrygb, Ryanrs, Tom harrison, Mcapdevila, Dsmdgold, Solipsist, Darrien, Tagishsimon, Cyanoacry, Utcursch, J. 'mach'
wust, KenJensen, OwenBlacker, Neutrality, Trek011~enwiki, MakeRocketGoNow, Flex, Discospinster, Vsmith, Sperling, Dbachmann,
Stbalbach, Palladian, RaKojian~enwiki, Alansohn, Zxcvbnm, Prattora~enwiki, Thryduulf, Woohookitty, Scriberius, PoccilScript,
Madchester, Pol098, Je3000, Tabletop, MKleid, Plrk, Doric Loon, Mandarax, Sparkit, Jake Wartenberg, Brighterorange, Fred Bradstadt, Cjpun, Nivaca, DVdm, Bgwhite, Chwyatt, Roboto de Ajvol, RussBot, Pigman, SpuriousQ, Tonywiki, Gaius Cornelius, Grafen,
Rjensen, Irishguy, Aaron Brenneman, Moe Epsilon, Maunus, PyroGamer, Crystallina, SmackBot, Skeezix1000, Gilliam, Skizzik, El
Cubano, Durova, Thumperward, Lexlex, VMS Mosaic, Stevenmitchell, Makemi, Andrew c, Curly Turkey, Charivari, Ceoil, Anlace,
TheStripdOne, John, SabreMau, Onlim, Rizzoandz, Sailko, Melody Concerto, Beetstra, Danilot, ShakingSpirit, Michaelbusch, Courcelles, Bannanas, Tawkerbot2, Dfu2000, Adam Keller, Imrosemary, Charvex, Mateus Hidalgo, Future Perfect at Sunrise, Mato, Gogo
Dodo, Srajan01, Bookgrrl, DBaba, Barticus88, Jeandepierre, Coelacan, AntiVandalBot, Fayenatic london, Modernist, Sluzzelin, JAnDbot,
Boleslaw, VoABot II, CattleGirl, Rich257, Animum, , Patstuart, Gun Powder Ma, Erpbridge, MartinBot, Arjun01, Mercatorum,
Bus stop, Artaxiad, Johnbod, Bintubad, Balthazarduju, AntiSpamBot, Cometstyles, HighKing, VolkovBot, DSRH, Je G., Anna Lincoln, Una Smith, Amaryllis25, Jackfork, LeaveSleaves, NanhiEl, Andy Dingley, Why Not A Duck, Gerbis, Thebisch, SieBot, StAnselm,
Rachel.howard, LSpinks, Jack1956, Rombert~enwiki, Scorpion451, PeterKidd, Lightmouse, Deoxyribonucleic acid trip, Vanished user ewsn2348tui2f8n2o2utjfeoi210r39jf, Mippi283, Denisarona, Escape Orbit, Chri1977, ClueBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, Kafka Liz,
Place Clichy, Excirial, Abrech, Danmichaelo, Thehelpfulone, Kakofonous, Mattissa, BurgererSF~enwiki, Apparition11, Mszajewski, Hethurs, XLinkBot, MarmadukePercy, Addbot, Mabdul, Landon1980, CanadianLinuxUser, MrOllie, Numbo3-bot, Tide rolls, OlEnglish, First
Light, Valhallasw, Jarble, Luckas-bot, Fraggle81, Amirobot, Victoriaearle, Triquetra, Codicologist, Palaeography Room, AnomieBOT,
AdjustShift, Utensis, Materialscientist, Bobbybillyboy, Cureden, Grim23, Petropoxy (Lithoderm Proxy), Hwyjonz, Bigbear001, RibotBOT, Jmayz08, Mattis, FrescoBot, WikiDisambiguation, Girlwithgreeneyes, BenzolBot, Gdje je nestala dua svijeta, MarkGT, altay,
Suusion of Yellow, John of Reading, Tx130, Look2See1, Racerx11, Uvmcdi, St. Brigit, CMA1198, History345, AvicAWB, Rexprimoris, GrindtXX, Erianna, Mikescad, Mayur, Philafrenzy, Donner60, Sbcennini, Yclept:Berr, Mel22, ClueBot NG, CRJ200yer, Enoc46,
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9.2

Images

File:AberdeenBestiaryFolio004vChristInMajesty.jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6b/
AberdeenBestiaryFolio004vChristInMajesty.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Scan from the original work Original artist:
?
File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
File:Meister_des_Marchal_de_Boucicaut_001.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/15/Meister_des_
Mar%C3%A9chal_de_Boucicaut_001.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei.
DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. Original artist: Meister des Marchal de
Boucicaut
File:Sakramentarz_tyniecki_02.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a3/Sakramentarz_tyniecki_02.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Andrzej Kossowski (1990). Biblioteka Narodowa w Warszawie: zbiory i dziaalno. Biblioteka
Narodowa. ISBN 83-70090-44-3 Original artist: Unknown (Colognian scriptorium)
File:Thomas_Becket_Murder.JPG Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/Thomas_Becket_Murder.JPG
License: Public domain Contributors: various on-line versions, including http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/media/8797/
Murder-of-Thomas-Becket-illustration-from-an-English-psalter-1200; also cited on cover of Frank Barlows Thomas Becket Original
artist: Unknown

9.3

Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0