Determination

Transformer
J. H. McWHIRTER
MEMBER AIEE

Stresses within
Windings by Computers
of Impulse

C. D. FAHRNKOPF
MEMBER AIEE

Synopsis: A theoretical basis fordetermination of the short-time transient characteristics of transformer windings is presented. This theory was used to develop
an accurate, economical, and convenient
method of determining impulse voltage
stresses within transformer windings through
the use of modern digital and analogue computers. The method has been developed
for and applied to the shell form of construction, but the theory is equally applicable to other forms of construction.

Purpose
THE CONTINUING trend toward
higher transmission voltages, the desire to ship transformers with higher
power ratings without increasing the size
and weight, and the increased complexity of transformer designs have justified increased and more detailed consideration of the insulation of power transformers. A major portion of the core
opening of these transformers is occupied
by insulating materials. These materials
are inexpensive in themselves but they indirectly account for much of the copper
and iron required. The required insulation clearances are determined by the
voltage stresses. Since the impulse voltage stresses are the most difficult to determine and in most cases are the controlling
factor, it is well for the transformer designer to know these stresses at all parts of
the winding as accurately as possible.

History
In about 1930, design methods were
developed in the Westinghouse organization by which these impulse stresses could

be computed with fair accuracy. Basically, the method lumped the distributed
parameters into an equivalent circuit.
It had been experimentally discovered that
the voltage distribution was almost the

same whether or not the iron core was included in the measurements. For this
reason, the inductance parameters were
calculated on the basis of an air core.
Various mathematical and empirical improvements were made over the years.
One of these which reached the literature
was the work by Bellaschi and Palermo.'
Although there were errors imposed by
the basic assumption of air core induct-

FEBRUARY 1 957

J. H. STEELE

ASSOCIATE MEMBER AIEE

ances, these were obscured by the approximations of the simplified and often
empirical design methods which were
necessarily employed to make practical
use of the theory. A valuable tool was
developed in the form of a low-voltage
repetitive surge generator. This was
used to measure the voltage distribution
on a winding which had already been
built and it could also be used to test
models of winding arrangements. The
device has advantages in determining the
cause of a transformer failure on impulse
test and it is also useful as a function
generator in the equivalent circuit type of
analogue computer.
In 1953, one of the writers formulated
a theory which was the basis for a practical solution of the problem by means of
modern digital and analogue computers.
This theory forms the basis fpr the work
reported in this paper.
At about this same time Abetti2 reported his work on electromagneticmodels,
which represents a definite achievement
in this field and which is certainly
the most theoretically satisfying method
proposed to date. However, it was considered too expensive and it required an
excessive amount of time delay in the design as compared with the methods already in use. Because of this, and the
fact that impulse voltage distribution is
generally less of a problem in the shell
form of construction than in the core form,
these models were not applied at the Westinghouse Electric Corporation. The
method reported in this paper was developing and it promised equivalent results more quickly, conveniently, and
economically.

The first statement is justified in any

network with inductive coupling when the
leakage inductances are small compared
to the self-inductances and mutual inductances. This is true to a large degree
in closely coupled transformer windings
even if the core permeability is unity.
It is certainly valid if the effective permeability is more than one. The second
statement is true to the degree that the
leakage flux path is through air or to the
degree that the core permeability is
greater than one. Calculations of flux
penetration of the core at frequencies corresponding to impulse voltages show that
the effective permeability is high. This is
verified by tests.
A consideration of these statements discloses why the use of air core inductances
has met with such success. An interesting and perhaps surprising conclusion is
that it does not make a great deal of difference in most cases whether unity or
infinite permeability is assumed.
Assumptions are made to neglect all of
the winding, dielectric, and core losses,
and to assume linearity in the remaining
capacitance and inductance elements.
Finally, the usual liberty of lumping distributed parameters is taken.

AsSUMPTIONS

EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
To introduce the method by which the
problem is solved in terms of familiar
concepts, a simplified example willbeused.
Considering the schematic winding configuration in Fig. 1(A), a circuit can be
found which will be approximately
equivalent to the transformer.
Consider this as a 3-winding transformer by breaking the series connection.
The usual inductance diagram can then
be drawn on a reference turns basis. To
put these inductances on the proper turns
basis, "perfect" transformers are used in
the equivalent circuit. The terminals of
these perfect transformers are now
equivalent in inductance to the terminals
of the transformer. By reconnecting the
series connection and placing the winding
capacitances in the circuit, the complete
equivalent circuit is as shown in Fig. 1 (B).
This circuit is equivalent to the transformer under impulse conditions except
for the approximation brought about by

The method of determining impulse

stresses reported in this paper is based on
the general assumption of infinite core
permeability under impulse conditions.
This can be restated in two parts:
1. The summation of ampere-turns around
a magnetic circuit is zero.
2. The leakage flux paths and magnitudes
are the same under impulse conditions as
they are at low frequencies.

Paper 56-742, recommended by the AIEE Transformers Committee and Computing Devices Committee of the Communication and Electronics Division, and approved by the AIEE Committee on
Technical Operations for presentation at the AIEE
Summer and Pacific General Meeting, San Francisco, Calif., June 25-29, 1956. Manuscript submitted March 27, 1956; made available for printing May 10, 1956.
J. H. MCWHIRTER is with the Westinghouse Electric Corporation, Sharon, Pa.; and C. D. FAHRNKops and J. H. STEELE are with the Westinghouse
Electric Corporation, East Pittsburgh, Pa.

General Description

McWhirter, Fahrnkopf, Steele-Determining Impulse Stresses

1267

LV

HV

(3)

(I)

HV LV

(2 (4)
SERIES
CONNECTION
LV

LOW
VIOLTAGE

HIGH

VOLTAGE
(b)

LOW
VOLTAGE

(a)

(5)

(a)

(A) WINDING CONFIGURATION

LV

L(3)

HV

HV

(I07

LV

Hf2)

Lg4) SERIES CONNECTION(5)

/ CAPACITANCES

.<

<v 9
'm

WINDING CONN.

-_PERFECT TRANS-

< FORMATION

'--EQUIVALENT
INDUCTANCE

CIRCUIT

(B) COMPLETE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

Fig. 1. Example of transformer configuration

and simple equivalent circuit

lumping parameters. The impulse voltage to ground at the series connection

could be obtained by impulsing the circuit with the low-voltage repetitive imyulse generator mentioned previously.
The foregoing treatment could be extended to find other voltages within the
windings, alleviating the approximations
brought about by the lumping of parameters, by breaking the windings up further into four or more windings. Any
particular problem could be solved by
constructing the equivalent circuit and
impulsing it. However, although this
serves a purpose as an introduction to the
method, it has a number of disadvantages.
One of these is that some of the inductances in the equivalent circuit turn out to
be negative.

coefficients of simultaneous integrodifferential equations from the dimensions

and connections specified by the designer.
These integrodifferential equations are
solved by an electronic analogue computer.
In specifying the problem, the designer
must first decide what node voltages he
wishes to know, and then must consider
all winding parts which are bounded by
these nodes as lumped coil groups. The
schematic in Fig. 1 illustrates this. There
are, of necessity, limitations on the number of coil groups and node voltages which
can be simultaneously handled by the
digital program and also on the number of
unknown voltages which can be simultaneously handled by the analogue computer. The major limitation is in the
analogue computer. However, by dividing the windings up in several different
ways and repeating the process several
times, any number of unknown voltages
may be obtained.
MATHEMATICAL FoRM OF PROBLEM
The integrodifferential equations which
the analogue computer must solve are an
expression of Kirchoff's current law.
The Appendixes show that these equations are of the following general type
2il = 0 Cllpvl - C12PV2 -.P.. - CimpVm -

where
p =differential operator
C=capacitance in farads
r =inverse inductance in henrys1
v =voltage, volts
i =current, amperes
m =number of unknown voltages
n =designation of node where impulse voltage is applied

From these equations it can be seen

that the circuit of Fig. 2 is also equivalent
to the transformer in Fig. 1(A). In relating the coefficients in the equations to
the circuit in Fig. 2, it should be noted
that Cj = Cjj. Cit is the summation of
the capacitance terms terminating at

node i, i.e.

C11 = C1G + E C1{

Similar relations hold for the inverse inductance elements.
For purposes of bookkeeping, and to
keep the mathematics orderly, it is desirable to adopt the matrix concept and
system of writing simultaneous equations.' This concept has been built into
the analogue computer. The equation
can then be written
0O

il- C12. .

~~

CinPvn+rPnv//p-r12v2/p- *.--

rPmvm/P- rlnvn/p

C2npvn r2P Vi/p + r22 V2/P

-

Cln

I~x
X

-lm-ln 1

F22 .. . -r2m-2n

Ix

r2mVm/P -r2nVn/P

Solution of Problem

Pvn

The problem is solved by the use of both

digital and analogue computers. The
digital computer is used to calculate the

- 21

pV2 I

L Cmi-Cm2. Cmm-Cmnj

.
r1 l r-2.
pvl

i2 = 0 =-C1PVI + C2-PV2-. .- C2PVm

Cl

=-C21 C22. ..C2m-C2n

IM2. rmm-rmmj
L-rml-m

VI/P

Mim = O=-CmlPds-Cm2PV2-. . . +

CmmPvm - CmmP

n- rml

vil/P -

Fm2 V2/P-. * * +rmm Vm/P-

rmn

V2/P

vn/P

VM/P
This can be abbreviated to

{O} = [CNI |PVN} +-rPN] {VN/P}

DIGITAL COMPUTER
Initially, the digital portion of this
problem was done on the International
Business Machines card-programmed cal-

Fig. 2 (left).
Alternate equivalent circuit of
transformer in
Fig. 1(A)

(A)

(B)

(C)

INPUT DATA
CHECKS

CALCULATION OF
LEAKAGE

FORMATION OF
INDUCTANCE

(E)
TRANSFOR14

| INVERSION

(D)
CALCULATION OF

INDUCTANCES

ELEMENTARY

CAFACITANCES

Fig. 3 (right).
Flow chart of
digital calculations

1268

TO

NODAL FORM

(G)
FORMATION OF
CAPACITANCE
MATRIX

McWhirter, Fahrnkopf, Steele-Determining Impulse Stresses

(H)

TRANSFON

MATRIX
(F)

OF

INDUCTANCE

MATRIX
(I)

CALCULAION

OF

ANALOG

TO

COMPUTER

NODAL FORM

SETTINGS

FEBRUARY 1 957

/-

- -- -- -- -- -- -- - ---

/coo Cs0 Cob> Csb Cbc Csc CcdCck

I'_
<F i
--' ~_

.COIL

GROLaP
a
GO

Csk

H---------f

HF HY -i

COIL

GROUP
b
G

COIL

_K

G_

q7C Tc

CCk

/
/
/
CkO /
/
COIL /
/
/
G /

Fig. 4. Schematic cross section oF core opening showing element.

ary coil groups and capacitances

a,i

X2

aXi

X3

VO

bi

-ab1x-b2X2-a3b3X3

a3 b3

aO IC

(a) SUMMER-INVERTER

Xi

- qSatabIx1dt-Sta2b2x2dt

X2

X3

_TCa3b3c3dt-a0V0

(b) INTEGRATOR-INVERTER
Fig. 5. Two principal analogue computer elemenb and their
functions
culator. The limited memory and the
necessity for a fixed program placed a
practical restriction on the size of the
problem which could be handled by the
card-programmed calculator. The acquisition of the International Business
Machines 650 with a larger memory,
stored program, and higher speed made it
possible to refine the methods as well as to
shorten the calculation time.
The digital part of the solution may
best be explained by reference to the flow
chart of Fig. 3. In block b, the leakage
inductance coefficients between all combinations of the coil groups are calculated. In block c these are combined to
form the inductance matrix [LIJK] shown
in Appendix I. This matrix is then inverted in d and expanded by the method
shown in Appendix I. Block e is the
transformation of the inverse inductance
coefficients from a coil group basis to a
nodal basis. The mathematics of this
transformation are described in Appendix
II.
Calculation of the capacitance values,
Fig. 4, of the transformer are made in
blockf. These are then combined in block
g of Fig. 3 to form the capacitance matrix
described in Appendix I. A matrix transformation of this elementary capacitance
matrix h puts the capacitances on the
same nodal basis as the inverse inductances.

FEBRUARY 1957

Fig. 6. Electronic
Associates 16-31R
analogue computer
showing pre-patch
panel

Finally, in block i, the inverse inductance and capacitance matrices are converted to a form suitable for the analogue
computer. This involves a time-scale
change of 105 and division of the rows of
the inductance and capacitance matrices
by the respective diagonal term of the
capacitance matrix. Each row of the inverse inductance marix is then divided by
1, 10, or 100, as necessary, to make all of
the terms less than ten. These divisors
are printed and are the b and c coefficients in the analogue computer setup.
In effect, this portion of the digital computer program calculates the analogue
computer settings.
Checks on the program and on the
computer operation may be made by repeating all of the calculations in reverse
order. The matrix inversion and some of
the other calculations may be checked for
accuracy. Some redundancy is included

in the input data so that checks can be

made of these data for errors or omissions.
Portions of the input data are limited to
certain values and checks are automatically made on these data.

ANALOGUE COMPUTER
The basic equations are solved by
means of an electronic analogue computer; i.e., the type employing high-gain
d-c amplifiers in conjunction with passive
elements to form integrators and summers. This type of computer is covered
by Korn and Korn4 and, for purposes of
this paper, it is sufficient to indicate the
function of the computer elements in
Fig. 5. The analogue computer used is
an Electronic Assoeiates, Inc., model 1631 R which has been expanded to include
33 amplifiers and modified by the addition of 60 single-pole double-throw
switches, fifteen 5-position selector

McWhirter, Fahrnkopf, Steele-Determining Impulse Stresses

1269

switch bank is used to select the nonzero

elements of the capacitance matrix.
5. Pot bank 3 contains the potentiometers used for generating the impulse
function and a number of potentiometers
used for miscellaneous purposes or spares.
The coefficients of the integrodifferential equations are modified in such a way
as to facilitate setting up the switch and
potentiometer matrices. Consider the
first of the equations. The digital computer provides the coefficients for the following form of the equations
p2V,- Cl2'p2v . - C]5'PV5-C16'p2V6+

(a1,rl,'v1- a.T12'v!

..

aj,r15'v5-a16rj6'v16)bjci =0

Since in almost all cases a given node

will be capacitively coupled with only
three or fewer other nodes, there will
usually be a total of only four, or fewer,
p2 terms in the equation. If the three
nodes which are capacitively coupled with
node 1 are designated as i, j, and k, this
equation is written as
p2V,-C,i p2Vi-Clj 'p2Vj-Cc'P2Vk +

Fig. 7. Potentiometer and switch panels of analogue computer

switches, and potentiometers. The number of these elements and their layout on
the machine are designed to solve simultaneously for five unknown impulse voltages with the impulse voltage being applied at a sixth node. Thus, the capacitance and inductance matrices are 5 by 6.
The computer circuit also has provision
for generating a standard impulse voltage.
The problem is permanently wired on a
removable patch panel so that only
minor wiring changes are required to set
up an individual problem. This patch

00z

z~~~~Ic.

ox:

(fZ

COL.

COL.
COL.
COL.
COL.
COL.

panel is shown in Fig. 6. All of the components which were added to the basic
computer are terminated at the patch
panel so that they may conveniently be
used on any problem other than the one
for which they were especially designed.
Following is an explanation of Fig. 7.
1. Pot bank 1 and switch bank 2 are used
to set the magnitudes of the inductance
matrix. 2. Switch bank 1 is used for setting the signs of the inductance matrix.
3. Pot bank 2 is used to set the capacitance matrix values. 4. The selector

LOOP GAIN WIRING

(SCALE FACTOR)

The following restrictions are imposed

on these coefficients:
1. The b and c coefficients are either one
or ten. They are chosen so that the largest
(ar') term in an equaton is between one and
ten.
2. The a coefficient is one or ten.
3. The r1 terms are then less than one.
The C and r' terms will be potentiometer settings and the a, b, and c terms
will be summer or integrator gains of one
or ten.
The analogue computer wiring for the
solution of this equation is shown in Fig.
8. The signs of the r coefficients are set
on switch bank 1, row 1. The r' terms
are set on pot bank 1, row 1. The a
terms are set on switch bank 2, row 1.
Thus, the output of the first integrator is

2
3
4
5
6
INDUCTANCE
COEFFICIENTS

OFF
3
4

a-0

-JOI

C,)

1270

(a,Fiti'v1 -aj,r12'V,.
a 1,r,5'v5 -a,6r716'v6) bic1 = 0

0IWO

0-

Fig. 8 (left). Portion of analogue computer pre-patch

panel wiring
Fig. 9 (above). Schematic cross section of core openof transformer used for comparison of measured
and computer results

ing

McWhirter, Fahrnkopf, Steele-Determining Impulse Stresses

FEBRUARY 1957

_r~swvo

TIME- MICROSECONOS

TIME- MICROSECONDS

a
49
0I
0.

41

IL
0

se

l.I

U.
0

101q

NODE-9

>

-20'

or

60
30
40
50
TIME- MICROSECONDS

20

10

70

80

90

gn
a

:;

-%
-i

NO1DE-8
IL)

--

--

U. 0

7'

-- - ------ -

.1

if
--- -

.1

--

N-...

0 >

OR

TIME- MICROSECONDS

-20

10

20

iL

60
TIME - MICROSECONDS

30

40

50

70

80

90

TIME- MICROSECONDS

TIME- MICROSECONDS

I)
0
w

a
4
!Li
41
IL.
0

100

0
49

410

0.

49
U*.
0

k-

TIME - MICROSECONDS

Fig. 1 0. Comparison of transformer measurements and computer results

-alPll'vl/p+al2]l2'v2/p.

This is equal to

ft

Clj'PVJ Clk 'pvp) /bic,

This term is integrated in integrator 2
with a gain of (b1), producing an output of
(pV1i Cl'PV2

ANA LOG COMPUTER

-NODE10

FERUARY 1957

20

_I__

(-VI + Cli Vi + C1J'vj + Clk'Vk) /cI

TRANSFORME R hlEASUIRFMIkENS-

20

.+

alr,,r5'v,;,p +0 161'i6'VI6/p

__

---

__

60
50
30
40
TIME- MICROSECONDS

__
70

__
80

This term is put into summer four with

the capacitance terms. The actual nodes
corresponding to the subscripts i, j, and k
are selected on selector switches, row 1,
and the C' values are set on pot bank 2.
The output of summer 3 is then v1 and

FMcWhirter, Fahtrnkopf, Steele-Determining Impulse Stresses

1271

the output of summer 4 is -v1. These

terms and similar terms from the other
equations are connected to the appropriate points to the left in the circuit.
Similar circuits produce the voltages 2
through 5.
SOLUTION PROCEDURE
A procedure has been set up for the
maximum convenience of the designer.
In spite of the fact that the digital computer is presently located about 70 miles
from the designer, he will obtain his
answers in from one to two days after
completely specifying the problem. In a
short time, a larger and faster digital
computer will be installed at the transformer division which should reduce this
time. This makes it possible to redesign
several times, to obtain the best design,
in a short period of time. The procedure
is as follows:
1. A form is filled out by the designer
specifying the essential information pertaining to the transformer dimensions and con-

nections.
2. This information is punched onto cards
and the cards are fed into an International
Business Machines card transceiver which
reproduces them at the location of the digital computer.
3. The data cards together with the program cards are fed into the computer. The
computations are then made, taking about
50 minutes' time.
4. The digital answers are punched onto
cards which are returned to the transformer
plant via transceiver.
5. The digital answers are printed onto a
form which is designed to facilitate the settings of the analogue computer.
6. The potentiometers and switches are
set up from the digital report sheet and the
voltages recorded on a 6-channel recorder.
This step requires about 30 minutes for one
solution. Subsequent solutions for impulsing another line terminal, with the same
unknown voltages and transformer configuration, canl be obtained in an additional
ten minutes.
7. The designer then compares the voltages with his insulation clearances and
makes any necessary changes in his design.

4. The effect of applying steep-front and

chopped-wave voltages instead of a full
wave can be determined.

solution to the problem of designing transformers to withstand impulse stresses.

Experimental Results

transformers.

Fig. 9 is the schematic winding layout

of a shell-form transformer. This unit
had a voltage distribution which deviated
considerably more from uniformity than
the typical shell-form unit and was therefore selected for these tests in order to
bring out the merits of the method.
The impulse voltage distribution of this
unit was measured under fully assembled
conditions. Fig. 10 is a comparison of the
measured distribution with the calculated
at several points within the impulsed highvoltage winding and also within the lowvoltage winding.
In this particular case most of the calculated voltages are a little less than the
measured values with the average error in
the voltage crests being 2% (per cent) of
the applied voltage crest. The standard
deviation of the errors is 3.7%.

Future Developments
Since this method of determining impulse voltages is mathematical, it holds
promise for future development. At present, it is felt that economically and for
flexibility, the analogue computer is best
suited for solving the integrodifferential
equations. However, later it may be
desirable to solve these equations with
the same digital computer that calculates
the equation coefficients. It then may
become possible to eliminate the human
being from the design loop. That is, the
machine will compare the calculated
stresses with the strengths and make the
appropriate changes. The machine will
automatically go through this process
several times until the optimum design is
obtained. This is harder to do than to
talk about but in view of what has already been done along this line,' it appears
quite feasible.
Although this development has been

SPECIAL FEATURES
A number of special modifications to
the problem are available with a small
amount of patch-panel rewiring. These
are as follows:

carried out for the shell form of construction, the theory is also applicable to
the core form, where the benefits would be
even greater because of the inherently
greater problems involved.

1. The differences of voltages can be obtained accurately, and recorded.

2. The impulse generator and the loading
effect of the transformer on its output wave
shape can be simulated.
3. A failure internal to the transformer can
be simulated. Its effect on other voltages
and its effect on the voltage and ground current measurements can be determined.

Conclusions

1272

The following conclusions are reached:

1. This method of determining impulse
voltages stresses is based on simple and
logical assumptions.
2. The use of computers in applying the
method affords a practical and economical

3. The method is one which lends itself to

more complete automation in the design of

Appendix 1. Derivation of
Currents for Elementary Coil
Groups
The windings in any transformer, for purposes of this analysis, can be broken down
into the elements shown in Fig. 4. Each of
these elements comprises a coil group, a
through or series capacitance, capacitances
from both ends to other windings or to the
core, and capacitances from both ends to
ground. The first steps in writing the equations for the complete transformer are:

1. Write the equations for the coil group

currents in terms of the coil group voltages.
2. Write the equations for the capacitance
currents in terms of the voltages at the terminals of the coil groups.

Coil Group Currents

In any system of coupled windings, as
indicated schematically in Fig. 11, the currents and voltages are related as indicated
in the following equations
Va = LaaPia + MabPib. .. + MakPik

Vb= MbaPia +Lbbpib.. + MbkPik

Vk = Akca Pia +

fIkbPiOb. LkkPik

The self-inductances and mutual inductances can be expressed in terms of the turns
and an inductance coefficient. That is

Laa

Mab

Laa'Na2
=

Mlab 'NaNb, etc

Making these substitutions in the equa-

tions gives

Va/Na =Laa'NaPia +ab'NAlPib* +

Mak'NkPik
vb/Nb l=ba 'NaPia +Lbb NbPib* +
Mbk Nkpik
jk/Nk=Mka NaPia+ AIkbNbti. .. +
Lkk'NkPik
At this point, the assumption that the
summation of ampere-turns is zero is employed by making the substitution

Nkik = -(Naia Nbib

...

Nji,)

The equations then are

VaINa (Laa' -Mak') NaPia + (Mab'Mak') NbPij+... + (AMaj'-Afack') NjPij

Vb/Nb (Mba'-Mbk) NaPia +(Lbb'Mb') NbPib .* + (Mbj'-Mbk ) NJPij
=

vkl/Nk = (Mka'-Lkk')NaPia +(Mkb'

Lkk') NbPib+ . . . + (Mkfj'-Lkk') NJPi

Subtracting the last equation from each
of the others and substituting the relationship gives

McWhirter, Fahrnkopf, Steele-Determining Impulse Stresses

FEBRUARY 1957

LIJ" =-LI'-2M,,'+LJJ'

{picI = [rC] {VC}

where L1j3" is the leakage inductance between coils I and J. The equations then
become

where the subscript C refers to the elementary coil group quantities.

Va/Na-kl/Nk=LaakNaPia+Loak,NbPib.**

LajkNjPij
Vb/Nb-Vk/Nk =LbakNaPia +LbbkNbPib * * * +
LbjkNjPi,

VjNj -vt/Nk = LjakNaPia +LjbkNbPib +

LjjkNjpij
where LIJK =(L,'K'-L','LJ'KI')/2
By a process of matrix inversion, coil
group currents can be expressed in terms of
coil group voltages, thereby establishing the
coefficients of a new set of equations as the
following

The capacitance currents relating to the

left terminals of the elementary coil groups
are designated i' and those relating to the
right as it. From inspection of Fig. 4, a
matrix equation can be written relating the
currents leaving these terminals and their
voltages to ground.

~t
It

Caa+Csa+CGa

-Csa
-

Cab+CsaCGa"
Cab
0

0
0

Njpij = rja (va(Na -vk/Nk) + rjb(vb/Nb -

vl/N) . .. +rjj(vj/Nj -Vk/Nk)

- Cab
Cab + Csb + Cao,
- CSB

V2

0 0
V3
0-1-1_ V4

[ T1 {VN}

where the subscript N refers to nodal quantities. [ TI is called a transformation matrix.

A matrix equation is available in Appendix I relating the coil group currents to
the coil group voltages. An equation relating the nodal currents and voltages of the
following type is desired.

SiN}

= [FNI {VN}

According to a proof given by Kron6 the

nodal inverse inductance matrix is obtained
by the following matrix operation

References

ANALYSIS OF TRANSIENT VOLTAGES IN NETBellaschi, A. J. Palermo. AIEE

Transactions, vol. 59, 1940, pp. 973-81.
2. TRANSFORMER MODELS FOR THE DETERMINATION OP TRANSIENT VOLTAGES, P. A. Abetti. Ibid.,
vol. 72, pt. III, June 1953, pp. 468-80.
3. MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS AND PHYSICISTS
(book), L. A. Pipes. McGraw-Hill Book Company,
Inc., New York, N. Y., 1946, chapt. IV.
4. ELECTRONIC ANALOG COMPUTERS (book), G. A.
Korn, T. M. Korn. McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, N. Y., 1946.
5. APPLICATION OF A DIGITAL COMPUTER TO THE
DESIGN OF POWER TRANSFORMERS TO SPECIFICATION, C. L. Moore, W. T. Duboc, P. A. Zaphyr.
AIEE Transactions, vol. 75, pt. I, May 1956, pp.
1.

WORKS, P. L.

These equations can be expressed in

matrix form as

raafrab'.. rakt' Va

Pib H rba rb I ... rbk'

Pik

=L0-1
_0 0

0-1

A similar procedure is followed in transforming the capacitances to a nodal capacitance matrix.

where

Pia

lVC )

Capacitance Currents

O
O

(rkk/Nk2) Vt

Pir,

Va

[rN] = [TTn [rcI [TI

where [TT] is the transpose matrix of [T].

(rbk/NbNak)Vt

VI
s

{Vc I

iak
ikbI

* *

Elementary coupled windings

In abbreviated form, this is

Pik= (rka//NtkNa) Va+(rkb/NkNb) Vb + *

11.

VC
'1k
Ii

V5

Vk/Nk)
I/NJ -Vk/NN)
NbPib = rba(Va/Na -Vk/Nk) +rbb(vb/Nb Vk/Nk)... + rbj (vI/Nj -Vk/Nk)

(I'ak/NaNk)vk
pib =(rb /N NOva + (rbb/Nb2) Vb + . . +

Fig.

l'b

iaI

. . . + raj(V

Pie = (raa/Na2)Va +(rab/iaNb)b+** +

'b

Capacitance Currents

Napia = raa(va/Na -Vk/Nk) + rab(Vb/Nb-

Again using the assumption that the summation of ampere-turns is zero, the equations can be expanded to the Kth order as
follows:

l0a

Appendix 11. Matrix

Transformations
Coil Group Currents

If the elementary coil groups in Fig. 4 are

connected to form windings, equations can
be written relating the coil group voltages
to the nodal voltages. To be specific, consider the case of the winding arrangement in
Fig. 1.
The matrix equation relating the coil
group voltages to the node voltages is

Vb

Lrkarkbb. . trkk IVt

where rj'= r1,/N,.1N7

In abbreviated form, this is

134-38.
6. TE:NSOR ANALYSIS OF NETWORKS (book), G.
Kron. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, N. Y.,
1939, chapt. IV.

Discussion

device which computes either voltages or

voltage differences anywhere in the winding.

R. B. Kaufman (General Electric Company,

Pittsfield, Mass.): This is a good step-bystep description of the use of recognized
mathematical methods modernized by automatic computers and applied to a solution
of a particular problem. The approach differs from Abetti's approach in that Abetti's

electromagnetic model is strictly an analogue

FEBRUARY 1957

I assume that the authors' method may not

be practicable for the computation of voltages between the centers of two adjacent
coil sections, for example, or across a winding break, or between the terminals of a tap
changer.
The electromagnetic model is used at the
General Electric Company with a full iron
core to assure that the model voltages will

agree closely with those actually appearing

in the finished transformer. It is possible
that under some conditions the authors'
assumptions concerning the core would lead
to an even larger error in shell-form transformers than in core form because the shell
transformer might have longer natural
periods than core transformers. This is particularly true in high-voltage transformers
with many turns.
Fig. 10 shows good agreement between

McWhirter, Fahrnkopf, Steele-Determining Impulse Stresses

1273

measured and computed node voltages to

ground, if only the envelope of oscillations
is considered. This is confirmed by the
authors' figure of 2% of applied voltage as
an average error for voltage crests. However, the designer is frequently interested in
maximum voltages appearing across ducts
or parts of windings, and here the error may
exceed 2%. For example, in the region of
15 microseconds, subtraction of the node-2
voltage from the node-i voltage results in a
duct voltage of approximately 15% computed versus 30% measured, a rather large
error and not in the conservative direction.
It would be interesting to see voltageversus-time oscillograms of voltages between nodes, particularly for steep-front and
chopped-wave applied voltages. Would
the authors care to state if static plates were
used on either or both the high-voltage and
low-voltage winding?

sign and construction and, recently, method

2 (the model method) has been devisedwhich
is perhaps some improvement on method 3,
but is still not wholly adequate for design

F. J. Vogel (Allis-Chalmers Manufacturing

Company, Milwaukee, Wisc.): The methods
used and described are somewhat similar to
those developed in the 1930's, with the use
of lumped constants. The use of computer
methods with the changed assumptions as
to the core to determine the inductance and
capacitance values is new, as is the combination with the analogue computer to obtain the specific internal voltages desired.
These have been obtained in the past by
graphic means for the circuit voltages. The
precisions shown are not far different from
that obtained by calculation, and are amply
accurate for design purposes.
It is rather difficult to compare the computer and calculation methods when they
have not been used. Whether the time
saved is appreciable or not, it may be that
the standardization obtained is valuable.
The older lumped circuit methods have
been used for quite complicated core-type
transformer winding arrangements, and it
does not appear to me that core types have
inherently any greater problems than those
in connection with shell types.

still not a simple and straightforward calculation, with it the effect of variation of coil
constants and connections can be much
more readily determined. The method can
be classed as a design tool rather than a test
tool, the first design tool available to transformer designers which permits them to design for optimum strength and economy.
It is no longer necessary to assume a factor
of ignorance in making transformers, and
large reductions in size, weight, and costs of
transformers, and improvement in efficiencies should ultimately result.

E. C. Wentz (Westinghouse Electric Corporation, Sharon, Pa.): This paper presents what is undoubtedly the best method
so far devised for determination of impulse
stresses within transformer windings. The
problem of determining impulse voltage distribution can, in general, be approached in
any of three ways, as follows:

1. Calculate the voltages with adequate

accuracy in advance (the new method).
2. Estimate the performance from the
best rules of thumb which may be available
and build a model to see if the estimated
performance is correct (see reference 2 of
the paper).
3. Estimate the performance from the best
rules of thumb available and proceed to
build a complete transformer, with the hope
that the performance will be adequate.
The third method was, of course, the first
method used by transformer designers when
transformers were first built. The rules of
thumb have been very much improved over
the half-century, or so, of transformer de-

1274

purposes.
The desirability of the new method has
long been appreciated but the essential difficulties of the problem have prevented a
solution until computer means, as described
in the paper, were devised to eliminate the
great amount of numerical work required for
a solution. This new method not only permits accurate determination of performance
of the design but permits design of the winding to effect optimum performance under
certain conditions. Of course, it is true
that the optimum design can be obtained by
either full-scale or model building, if enough
models or enough transformers are built and
tested. However, the over-all result is uncertain and will usually require an unreasonably long time and an unreasonably
large expense. Although determination of
the optimum design by the new method is

J. H. McWhirter, C. D. Fahrnkopf, and J.

H. Steele: In reply to Mr. Kaufman's assumption that the method is not practical
for the computation of voltage differences,
if the problem has been set up to determine
the voltages to ground at two points in the
winding, then the difference between voltages can be obtained by the use of summers
in the analogue computer. The ability to
do this is quite important, and this feature
is frequently used. The voltage difference
between centers of adjacent coil sections can
be obtained by interpolatiug the voltage
differences between the ends of adjacent
coil sections. Very little accuracy would be
lost in doing this. There is no fundamental
reason why these particular voltage differences could not be obtained directly if the
digital computer had been so programmed.
However, the critical voltage gradients are
usually at the edges of the coil sections and
(except for tap voltages) the designer does
not particularly need to know these voltages.
The question of how to treat the core in
this problem is somewhat paradoxical. Mr.
Vogel in his discussion claims good accuracy
for the old method which neglects the core
entirely (unit permeability). The authors
have assumed that the core acts as a structure with infinite permeability, and accuracies are demonstrated which are all that
could be desired. If both of these views are
accepted, and they must be to a degree, the
only conclusion possible is that the core isn't
very important. Undoubtedly, the magnetic flux distribution in thecoreis quite complicated and if the flux determination were
the object of our efforts the model method
might be the only solution. But our object

is to determine the winding voltages and

we demonstrate that all of the complicated
processes in the core have a negligible effect
on the winding voltages.
We feel that the assumptions made concerning the core would be more valid in the
case of windings with longer natural periods
on the basis that the lower frequency oscillations will result in more uniform flux dis
tribution in the core. To consider a limiting case, certainly no one would deny that
the authors' analysis is valid at 60 cycles'
frequency.
Mr. Kaufman has subtracted the voltage
at node 2 from that at node 1 for both the
calculated and the measured results, and
shows a large discrepancy. First, let us
recognize that a small voltage is more likely
to have a greater error expressed in per cent
of its own crest value than larger voltages.
This is true if the voltage is measured on a
full-size transformer, or on a model, or if the
voltage is calculated by some means.
Secondly, Mr. Kaufman has obtained his
stresses by a process which is likely to introduce errors. The greatest stress between
nodes 1 and 2 occurs at one microsecond
and is 30% of the applied. This figure was
obtained on the analogue computer and is
accurate. Unfortunately, the voltage difference between these points was not
measured directly on the transformer and
the only method available to the authors is
the one employed by Mr. Kaufman. His
figure of 30% agrees closely with the figure
obtained from the computer.
We have estimated the cost in design
time and money of the model method to be
about ten times that of the computer
method, with equivalent results. Obviously,
then, the computer method is not only

greatly advantageous from the standpoint

of time and money but it can be applied to
many more units. Static plates were used
on both the high- and low-voltage windings.
The methods described by Mr. Vogel are,
we believe, essentially the same as those
used for many years by experts in their use
in our organization. In the absence of data
from Mr. Vogel it is difficult to compare his
calculations objectively. However, we have
found that in certain cases the old methods
may be dangerously erroneous. There are
other cases where the hand calculations involved are too long and tedious to undertake.
The method described in thepaper is suitable for straightforward application by any
transformer designer or even an engineering
clerk after a few hours of instruction. The
older methods mentioned by Mr. Vogel are
so time-consuming to use with rigor that a
great deal of engineering judgment must be
used in neglecting certain factors. This is
fraught with danger and even the most
skilled occasionally are wrong. The application of this new method will require about 2
hours of the engineer's time for a given solution including the running of the analogue
solution.
Core-form transformers with pancal-etype coils have an impulse voltage distribution less uniform than the shell form; consequently there is greater voltage oscillation.
This is the justification for the statement
that the core-form transformers have inherently greater impulse distribution problems.

McWhirter, Fahrnkopf, Steele-Determining Impulse StressesF

FEBRUARY 1 957