Physical parameter test

Objective:

To determine the physical parameters such as turbidity,

pH, and conductance of a water sample.
Theory:

It is needless to emphasize the importance of water in our

life. Without water, there is no life on our planet. We need
water for different purposes. We need water for drinking, for
industries, for irrigation, for swimming and fishing, etc.
Water for different purposes has its own requirements as to
composition and purity. Each body of water needs to be
analysed on a regular basis to confirm to suitability. The
types of analysis could vary from simple field testing for a
single analyte to laboratory based multi-component
instrumental analysis. The measurement of water quality is a
very exacting and time consuming process, and a large
number of quantitative analytical methods are used for this
purpose.
Turbidity:

Turbidity is the amount of particulate matter that is

suspended in water. Turbidity measures the scattering effect
that suspended solids have on light: the higher the intensity
of scattered light, the higher the turbidity.

Material that causes water to be turbid includes:

Clay.
Silt.
Finely divided organic and inorganic matter.
Soluble coloured organic compounds.
Plankton.
Microscopic organisms.
The turbidity of sample solution can be measured by using
Nephelometer. It is usually measured in nephelometric
turbidity units (NTU) or Jackson turbidity units (JTU).

Principle:

This method is based on a comparison of the intensity of

light scattered by the sample under defined conditions with
the intensity of light scattered by a standard reference
suspension under the same conditions. The higher the
intensity of scattered light, the higher the turbidity.
Commonly used primary standard reference suspension
is Formazin polymer. The turbidity of a specified
concentration of formazin suspension is defined as 400
NTU. (w.1)

Interference:

The presence of floating debris and coarse

sediments will give high readings.

Air bubbles will cause high results.

Coloured samples will cause low results.

Apparatus:

1.

Laboratory or process nephelometer consisting of a light

source for illuminating the sample and one or more
photoelectric detectors with a readout device to indicate
intensity of light scattered at 90 to the path of incident
light.
2.
Sample cells: Use sample cells or tubes of clear,
colourless glass or plastic. Keep cells scrupulously clean, both
inside and out, and discard if scratched or etched.
Reagents:
1. Dilution water:

High-purity water will cause some light scattering, which is

detected by nephleometers as turbidity. To obtain lowturbidity water for dilutions, nominal value 0.02 NTU, pass
laboratory reagent-grade water through a filter with pore size
sufficiently small to remove essentially all particles larger
than 0.1m.
The usual membrane filter used for
bacteriological examinations is not satisfactory. Rinse
collecting flask at least twice with filtered water and discard
the next 200 mL.
2. Stock primary standard formazin suspension:

2.1 Solution
(i):- Dissolve
1g
hydrazinesulphate
(NH2)2.H2SO4, in distilled water and dilute to 100 mL in a
volumetric flask.
[Caution: Hydrazine sulphate is a carcinogen; avoid
inhalation,
ingestion,
and
skin
contact.
Formazine
suspensions can contain residual hydrazine sulphate.]
2.2 Solution (ii):- Dissolve 10.0g hexamethylenetetramine,
(CH2)6N4, in distilled water and dilute to 100mL in a
volumetric flask.
2.3 In flask, mix 5.0 mL solution (i) and 5.0 mL solution (ii).
Let stand for 24 hr at 25 3C. This results in a 400-NTU
suspension. Transfer stock suspension into an amber glass or
other UV-light-blocking bottle for storage. Make dilutions
from this stock suspension. The stock suspension is stable
for up to 1 year when properly stored.
2.4 Dilute turbidity suspensions:- Dilute 400 NTU primary
standard suspensions with high-quality dilution water.
Prepare immediately before use and after use.
Working standards can be prepared by dilution of the
following quantities of the stock formazin turbidity
suspension (nominal 400 NTU) to 200 mL.
Dilute to Resultant
200 mL
NTU
10 mL
20
5 mL
10
2 mL
4

Dilute to Resultant
200 mL
NTU
0.5 mL
1
0.2 mL
0.4
0.0 mL
0
3. Secondary standards:

Secondary standards are standards that the manufacturer

has certified will give instrument calibration results
equivalent (within certain limits) to the results obtained
when the instrument is calibrated with the primary standard,
i.e., the user-prepared formazin.

Procedure:
a) General
measurement
techniques:Proper
measurement techniques are important in minimizing the
effects of instrument variables, as well as stray light and air
bubbles. Regardless of the instrument used, the
measurement will be more accurate, precise, and repeatable
if close attention is paid to proper measurement techniques.
b) Nephelometer calibration:- Follow the manufacturers
operating instructions. Run at least one standard in each
instrument range to be used. Make certain the nephelometer
gives stable readings in all sensitivity ranges used.
c) Measurement of turbidity:- Gently agitate sample. Wait
until air bubbles disappear and pour sample into cell. When
possible, pour well-mixed sample into cell and immerse it in
an ultrasonic bath for 1 to 2 S or apply vacuum degassing,

causing complete bubble release. Read turbidity directly from

instrument display.
d) Calibration of continuous turbidity monitors:Calibrate continuous turbidity monitors for low turbidities by
determining turbidity of the water flowing out of them using
a
laboratory-model
nephelometer. Or
calibrate
the
instruments according to manufacturers instructions with
formazin primary standard or appropriate secondary
standard.
Turbidity

NTU

Drinking
water

Between 5
NTU & 1
NTU

Varies from
Sea water 6-12
NTU

pH:
pH may be measured accurately using a pH meter. The pH
meter must be calibrated before making pH measurements.
For calibration standard buffers of pH 4.00, 7.00 and 10.00
are used. pH of water indicates the hydrogen ion
concentration in water. The concept of pH was put forward
by Sorenson in 1909. It is expressed as the logarithm of the
reciprocal of the hydrogen ion concentration in moles/litre at
a given temperature. While the alkalinity or acidity measures
the total resistance to the pH change or buffering capacity,
the pH gives the hydrogen ion activity. The pH scale extends
from 0 (very acidic) to 14 (very alkaline) with 7

corresponding to exact neutrality at 25C. pH is used in the

calculation of carbonate, bicarbonate and CO 2, corrosion,
stability index etc.

Practically every phase of water supply and waste water

treatment such as water softening, acid-base neutralization,
coagulation, precipitation, disinfectant and corrosion control
is pH dependent. The pH of a water sample measures its
hydrogen ion concentration and indicates whether the sample
is acidic, neutral or basic.
pH meter:

pH of various samples:

Samples

pH

Tap water

Sea water

Varies from
7.5 -8.4

Well water

Varies from
6.5-8.5

Distilled
water

5.8

Electrical conductivity:

Electrical conductivity (EC) is a measure of how conductive

the water is to electrical current. Greater the ion
concentration, greater is the EC. Generally higher the EC,
higher is the total dissolved solids. Electrical Conductivity is
an indirect measure for finding the total dissolved solids in a
water body. To convert the electrical conductivity of a water
sample (micro Siemens per cm, S/cm) to the concentration
of total dissolved solids (ppm), the conductivity must be
multiplied by a factor between 0.46 and 0.9 (depending on
the unique mixture of the dissolved materials). A widely
accepted conversion factor is 0.67. TDS (ppm) =
Conductivity { (S/cm) x 0.67}.The instrument used for
measuring conductivity is conductivity meter.

Reagents:

1. Conductivity water:- Any of several methods can be

used to prepare reagent-grade water. Conductivity should be
small compared to the value being measured.
2. Standard Potassium Chloride solution (KCl) 0.01
M:- Dissolve 745.6 mg anhydrous KCl in conductivity water
and dilute to 1000 mL in a class A volumetric flask at 25C

and store in a CO2-free atmosphere. This is the standard

reference solution, which at 25C has a conductivity of 1412
S/cm. It is satisfactory for most samples when the cell has
a constant between 1 and 2 cm-1. For other cell constants,
use stronger or weaker KCl solutions listed below table. Care
must be taken when using KCl solutions less than 0.001 M,
which can be unstable because of the influence of carbon
dioxide on pure water. For low conductivity standards,
standard reference material 3190, with a certified
conductivity of 25.0 S/cm0.3 S/cm, may be obtained
from NIST. Store in a glass-stoppered borosilicate glass
bottle.
KCl
Equivalent
concentration
conductivity(cm2ohm(M)
or 1
equiv-1)
equivalent/L
0
149.9
0.0001
148.9
0.0005
147.7
0.001
146.9
0.005
143.6
0.01
141.2
0.02
138.2
0.05
133.3
0.1
128.9
0.2
124.0
0.5
117.3
1
11.9
Procedure:

Conductivity,
ks mho/cm

14.9
73.9
146.9
717.5
1412
2765
6667
12890
24800
58670
111900

1. Determination of cell constant:- Rinse conductivity cell

with at least three portions of 0.01 M KCl solution. Adjust
temperature of fourth portions to 25.00.1C. If a
conductivity meter displays resistance, R ohms, measure
resistance of this portion and note temperature. Compute
cell constant, C.
C, cm-1 = (0.001412) (RKCl) [1+0.0191(t-25)].
Where, RKCl = measured resistance in ohms, and t =
observed temperature in C.
Conductivity meters often indicate conductivity directly.
Commercial probes commonly contain a temperature sensor.
With such instruments, rinse probe three times with 0.01M
KCl as above. Adjust temperature compensation dial to
0.0191 C-1. With probe in standard KCl solution, adjust to
read 1412 /cm. This procedure automatically adjusts cell
constant internal to the meter
2. Conductivity measurement:- Thoroughly rinse cell with
one or more portions of sample. Adjust temperature of a final
portion to about 25C. Measure sample resistance of
conductivity and note temperature to 0.1C.
Values of electrical conductivity:

Sample
Totally
pure
water
Typical
DI water
Distilled
water
Raw

S/cm
0.055
0.1
0.5
50-100

Sample
S/cm
water
Domesti
c
"tap" 500-800
water
Potable
water
1055
(max)
Sea
56,000
water
Brackish 1,00,00
water
0

Procedure:

Under the physical content, select the tests- pH,

turbidity or electrical conductivity.
a. Determination of pH of Water Sample

1.
2.
3.
4.

Calibration of pH meter

Select "Buffer solution 1 (4.0 pH)".

Switch on the pH meter.
pH meter will show the pH reading as 4.0
Change the buffer solution to "Buffer solution 2 (7.0
pH)".
5.
Again switch on the pH meter.
6.
Now pH meter will show 7.0
Your ph meter is calibrated successfuly!!!
1.
Select the water samples from the given list.
2.
Switch on the pH meter.

3.

pH meter will show the pH reading of the selected water

samples.
4.
Note down the readings.

b. Determination of Turbidity of Water Sample

Calibration of Nephelometer meter

1.

Select standard solution from the list, i.e, formazin

suspension (20 NTU)
2.
Load the sample into Nephelometer.
3.
Meter will show the turbidity reading as 20 NTU
Your Nephelometer is calibrated successfuly!!!
1.
Select the water samples from the given list.
2.
Switch on the Nephelometer.
3.
Note down the turbidity reading from Nephelometer.

c. Determination of Electrical Conductivity of Water

Sample

1.

Calibration of conductivity meter

Select the standard solution, KCl-0.01 M-1412

S/cm.
2.
Switch on the conductivity meter.
3.
conductivity meter will show the conductivity reading
as 1412 S/cm.
Your conductivity meter is calibrated successfuly!!!
1.
Select the water samples from the given list.
2.
Switch on the conductivity meter.

3.

Note douwn
conductivity meter.

the

conductivity

of

samples

from

Points to Remember while Performing the

Experiment in a Real Laboratory:
1.

Always wear lab coat and gloves when you are in the
lab. When you enter the lab, switch on the exhaust fan and
make sure that all the chemicals and reagents required for
the experiment are available. If they are not available,
prepare the reagents using the components for reagent
preparation.
2.
Properly adjust the flame of the Bunsen burner. The
proper flame is a small blue cone; it is not a large plume, nor
is it orange.
3.
Make sure to clean all your working apparatus with
chromic acid and distilled water and ensure that all the
apparatus are free from water droplets while performing the
experiment.
4.
Make sure to calibrate the electronic weigh balance
before taking the measurements.
5.
Clean all glassware with soap and distilled water. Once
the experiment is completed, recap the reagent bottles.
Switch off the light, exhaust fan and gas cylinder before
leaving the lab.
6.
Discard the used gloves in a waste bin.