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Figure 1: The unstretched and elongated Rubbery Ruler, showing the increased wire separation and double helix structure. The capacitance changes with extension.
Electrically the Rubbery Ruler can be described as a distributed capacitor. The two wires
of the double helix constitute the electrodes of a variable gap capacitor. As the Ruler is
stretched, the two wires of the core separate in a uniform, reversible fashion controlled by
the elastomeric covering. Signal processing techniques can convert capacitance changes into
a frequency, current or voltage.
Filtering Signals
When dealing with DC signals, a pair of resistors in series forms a voltage divider. The
output voltage then depends on the relative values of the two resistors as:
Vout =
R2
Vin
R1 + R2
(1)
Vin
R1
Vout
R2
1
jC
(3)
where C is the capacitance, in farads (F), of the capacitor. We use the term j to represent
the imaginary component of the current through the capacitor to distinguish it from typical
current. We should note that the voltage across a capacitor lags behind the current through
the capacitor by a phase of /2.
The impedance, ZL , of an inductor is given by
ZL = jL
(4)
where L is the inductance, in henrys (H), of the inductor. We can also note that for an
inductor the voltage leads the current by /2.
Imagine we now replace one of the resistors shown in Figure 2 with one of these reactive
components. As the impedance of these components changes with frequency, we can make
a voltage divider where the output voltage depends on the input frequency. We have now
created a filter.
Resonance
Imagine a circuit as shown in Figure 3.
The total impedance of a series RLC circuit is a complex quantity, and can be expressed in
the form
Z = R + jL +
3
1
jC
(5)
1
=0
jo C
(6)
1
o =
LC
(7)
At this frequency, the phase angle will be zero (the two imaginary components have cancelled
out). A typical plot of the way the magnitude of the current varies with frequency for various
resonant circuits is shown in Figure 4. This plot is normalised to a maximum current of 100
mA. Note that it reaches a peak for a given frequency and tails off either side.
Quality factor, Q
A useful measure of the properties of reactive circuits is the quality factor, Q. This is a
measure of how sharp a resonance peak is, or how quickly the current rises to its peak
mA
100.0
Q=10
Q=5
50.0
Q=2
Q=1
0.0
100
frequency Hz
1000
Figure 4: A plot of frequency versus current, showing changes in the amplitude and the
quality factor Q.
4
and falls again as you scan through frequency. Its value can be obtained from Figure 4 by
measuring the width of the resonance peak at 21 of its maximum, this value is commonly
known as the full width at half maximum, or FWHM, and can represent a measure of the
sharpness of any peak. The quality factor is defined as
Q=
(8)
1 k
V2
7. Fit a linear trend line to your V vs I graph. For reactive circuits, V = IZ.
8. Use your trendline and the relationship below to determine a capacitance for each
rubbery ruler extension.
1
v
(10)
|Z| = =
i
C
9. Note that these values only apply at this frequency of f = 20 kHz.
Question 4 Show how the output voltage V1 compares to the voltage purely across the capacitor. Use your capacitance values, and compare the impedance of the Rubbery Ruler with
the resistance of the resistor, then use the equation for the voltage divider.
o L
R
(11)
the circuit. In this case the property needed to demodulate the incoming signal is called the
square law, where the output voltage is proportional to the square of the input voltage.
After rectification the signal will be passed through a low pass filter to remove the carrier and
any side carriers from the signal. This should just leave the amplitude of the desired audio
signal remaining.
Question 7 Why have we chosen this type of diode, specifically? Refer to the square law
and the properties that make germanium appropriate.
Question 8 You have a variety of inductors you can choose from. Use Equation 7, your
measured values of C and a frequency from the table of stations to determine which inductor
you will use.
47 M
Detection
10 pF
Filtering
621 kHz
693 kHz
774 kHz
927 kHz
1026 kHz
1179 kHz
1224 kHz
1341 kHz
1503 kHz
1593 kHz
1638 kHz