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discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: http://www.researchgate.net/publication/14596463

A meta-analytic examination of the correlates

of the three dimensions of job burnout.
ARTICLE in JOURNAL OF APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY MAY 1996
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Journal of Applied Psychology

1996, Vol. S I . No. 2, 123-133

Copyright 1996 by the American Psychological Association, Inc.

002I-90IO/96/S3.00

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This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.

A Meta-Analytic Examination of the Correlates of the

Three Dimensions of Job Burnout
Raymond T. Lee

Blake E. Ashforth

University of Manitoba

Concordia University

This meta-analysis examined how demand and resource correlates and behavioral and
attitudinal correlates were related to each of the 3 dimensions of job burnout. Both the
demand and resource correlates were more strongly related to emotional exhaustion than
to either depersonalization or personal accomplishment. Consistent with the conservation of resources theory of stress, emotional exhaustion was more strongly related to the
demand correlates than to the resource correlates, suggesting that workers might have
been sensitive to the possibility of resource loss. The 3 burnout dimensions were differentially related to turnover intentions, organizational commitment, and control coping.
Implications for research and the amelioration of burnout arc discussed.

Over the past dozen years, the phenomenon of job

burnout has been investigated in a variety of service occupations and settings. The construct has been linked to
job stress and is thought to represent a unique response
to frequent and intense client-patient interactions
(Cordes&Dougherty, 1993; Maslach, 1982).
According to Maslach (1982), burnout consists of
three dimensions: emotional exhaustion, depersonalization (felt distance from others), and diminished personal
accomplishment. Recent efforts have been made toward
understanding how various correlates are associated with
each of the three dimensions (Burke & Richardsen,
1993; Cordes& Dougherty, 1993;Shirom, 1989).
The conservation of resources theory of stress
(Hobfoll, 1989; Hobfoll & Freedy, 1993) provides a
framework for understanding how such correlates are re-

lated to burnout. The theory suggests that burnout occurs when certain valued resources are lost, are inadequate to meet demands, or do not yield the anticipated
returns. The major demands of work include role ambiguity, role conflict, stressful events, heavy workload, and
pressure. The major resources include social support
from various sources; job enhancement opportunities,
such as control, participation in decision making, and autonomy; and reinforcement contingencies (Burke & Richardsen, 1993; Cordes& Dougherty, 1993). The theory
also states that certain behavioral and attitudinal outcomes arc likely to occur as a result of resource loss and
burnout. The major outcomes include behavioral coping
responses; turnover intentions; and erosion of organizational commitment, job involvement, and job satisfaction (Burke & Richardsen, 1993; Kahili, 1988).
Using the conservation of resources framework, recent
studies have investigated how certain demand and resource predictors are associated with each of the burnout
dimensions (Lee & Ashforth, 1993a; Leiter, 1993;Leiter
& Maslach, 1988). Leiter and Maslach suggested that
work demands and resources are potential sources of
stress in the stress-strain-coping-self-evaluation process
(Cummings & Cooper, 1979; Lazarus & Folkman,

Raymond T. Lee, Department of Business Administration.

University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada; Blake
E. Ashforth, Department of Management, Concordia University, Montreal. Quebec, Canada.
Portions of this study were presented at the 13th World Congress of Sociology: Sociology of Mental Health Working Group,
Bielefeld, Germany, July 1994.
This study was funded in part by a 1993-1994 University of
Manitoba, Faculty of Management research support grant.
We are indebted to Monica Filz for assistance with the data
collection and Stephen Hladkyj for assistance with the metaanalysis.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed
to Raymond T. Lee, Department of Business Administration,
Faculty of Management, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg,
Manitoba, Canada R3T 2N2. Electronic mail may be sent via
Bitnet to lee@ccm.umanitoba.ca.

1984). Emotional exhaustion as a form of strain is directly affected by these correlates, whereas depersonalization as a form of defensive coping and personal accomplishment as a form of self-evaluation are indirectly
affected through emotional exhaustion.
Leiter and Maslach's (1988) model has received partial support. Lee and Ashforth (1993a, 1993b) found
several of the correlates to be associated with emotional
exhaustion and depersonalization, but the correlates

123

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124

LEE AND ASHFORTH

were only weakly associated with personal accomplishment. Moreover, Golembiewski's (1989) model and Lee
and Ashforth's (1993b) data have raised some doubts regarding the sequential ordering among the burnout dimensions as posited by Leiter and Maslach.
In light of these findings, Leiter {1993) proposed a revised model in which the demand and resource correlates
are posited to be differentially associated with the three
dimensions. Specifically, the demands are posited to be
more strongly related to emotional exhaustion, whereas
the resources are posited to be more strongly related to
either depersonalization or personal accomplishment. As
Hobfoll and Freedy (1993) stated, demands trigger strain
in the form of physical and emotional exhaustion,
whereas resources help to overcome the need for defensive coping and enhance one's self-efficacy. Leiter (1991 b,
1993) also posited that outcomes reflecting withdrawal
tendencies (e.g., escape coping, low job involvement, and
desire to quit) are more related to either emotional exhaustion or depersonalization, whereas outcomes reflecting positive self-efficacy (e.g., control coping and favorable work attitudes) are more related to personal
accomplishment.
Leiter's (1993) revised model also posits how the burnout dimensions themselves may be interrelated (cf. Golembiewski, 1989; Leiter, 1989). Specifically, it is now
believed that both emotional exhaustion and personal accomplishment develop in parallel with (rather than following from) each other. Hence, both of these dimensions
are posited to be "reactions to different aspects of the
work environment that pose difficulties for human service workers" (Leiter, 1993, p. 246).
Although the recent models are based in part on Hobfoil's (1989) conservation of resources theory, the empirical evidence has been piecemeal and limited in scope.
Thus, our meta-analysis assessed the associations between various correlates and each of the burnout dimensions. Only studies using the Maslach Burnout Inventory
(MBI; Maslach & Jackson, 1981, 1986) were included
because the scale is the most widely used operationalization of burnout. As a multidimensional measure, the
MBI makes it possible to determine whether the symptoms of burnout are empirically distinct from each other
and whether they are differentially associated with other
variables. Therefore, our study provides a summary of
the bivariate associations reported in the literature and
has implications for the diagnosis and the amelioration
of burnout.

lach Burnout Inventory," the computer search scanned the abstract databases of clinical psychology, education, management,
nursing, psychology, social work, and sociology from 1982 to
1994. The manual search scanned the reference lists of Burke
and Richardsen (1993), Cordes and Dougherty (1993), Kahili
(1988), and Shirom (1989) for published sources not found in
the aforementioned abstracts.
The search yielded 77 sources, of which 58 provided sufficient information to conduct the meta-analysis. Of the remaining 19 sources, 11 examined a correlate unique to that study,
and 8 did not provide information on reliability estimates, intercorrelations among the variables, or both. A letter requesting
the missing information was sent to one of the authors of each
of these 8 articles. This request yielded 3 additional sources, for
a total of 61.1 The remaining 5 and the 11 with unique correlates were excluded from the analysis.
The 61 studies used in the meta-analysis covered 33 correlates based on 56 independent samples. The sample sizes ranged
from 34 to 906 (M = 198.07, SD = 172.08). Approximately
80% of the studies sampled human service providers (e.g.,
teachers, nurses, counselors, police officers, and social workers),
whereas most of the remaining studies sampled supervisors and
managers of such service providers. Because the symptoms of
burnout appear to be fundamentally similar across hierarchical
levels (Lee & Ashforth, 1993a, 1993b; Maslach & Jackson,
1986), we did not differentiate the results on these bases.
Each study was coded on whether the MBI used the frequency
response format, the intensity response format, or both (see
Maslach & Jackson, 1981); the reliability estimates of all measures; and the correlations among the burnout dimensions and
correlates.

Mela-Analytic Procedure
We followed the procedure given by Hunter and Schmidt
(1990). This procedure determines the extent to which correlation differences across studies can be attributed to certain statistical artifacts. It is only after such artifacts are taken into account that the corrected correlations between variables, as well
as the variance in correlations across studies, can be estimated.
First, we calculated the uncorrected weighted mean correlation (/) by using the zero-order correlations. Second, because
reliability estimates might have varied widely across studies, we
corrected each within-study zero-order correlation for measurement unreliability (Hunter & Schmidt, 1990). Where reliability estimates were not reported, we substituted the weighted
mean reliability (see Table 1) into the correction formula.
Then, we calculated the individually corrected weighted mean
correlation (rc). Because so few studies reported scale ranges,
means, and standard deviations, it was not possible to correct
for range restrictions.
Third, we computed the variance of the individually corrected weighted mean correlation after removing the variances

Method
Literature Search
We undertook both computer and manual searches for published articles that used the MBI. Using the key phrase "Mas-

The correlations were provided upon request for the articles

by Constable and Russell (1986); Ross, Altmaier, and Russell
(1989); and Russell, Altmaier, and Van Velzen (1987).

125

META-ANALYSIS OF JOB BURNOUT

Table 1
Weighted Mean Reliability Estimates oj All Variables

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Correlate
Job stressors
Role ambiguity
Role clarity
Role conflict
Role stress
Stressful events
Workload
Work pressure
Physical comfort
Support
Social support
Supervisor support
Coworker support
Work friends
Community bond
Family resources
Peer cohesion
Team cohesion
Job enhancement opportunities
Autonomy
Innovation
Participation
Skill utilization
Task orientation"

xx

6
6
10
3

1,518
929
2,612
703
903
1,238
681
433

.78

1,010

153
433
244
657
156

.69
.85
.86
.80
.80
.70
.74
.86

2,177
433
1,763
1.489
433

.79
.80
.83
.80
.75

5
5
4

6
12
13
2
4
2
5
2
11
4
6
6
4

3,377
3,340

.85
.79
.76
.87
.76
.79
.80

Correlate
Reinforcement contingencies
Unmet expectations
Contingent rewards
Noncontingent rewards
Contingent punishments
Noncontingent punishments
Frequency response format
Emotional exhaustion
Depersonalization
Personal accomplishment
Intensity response format
Emotional exhaustion
Depersonalization
Personal accomplishment
Behavioral and attitudinal outcomes
Control coping
Preventive coping
Turnover intentions
Organizational commitment
Job involvement
Job satisfaction
Attitudes toward workplace climate

Rxx

2
2
2
2
2

248
496
496
496
496

.59
.96
.69
.84
.80

47
47
47

9,668
9,668
9,668

.86
.76

9
9
9

1,637
1,637
1,637

.82
.78
.79

3
2
7
6
8
16
2

425

.83
.64
.78
.87
.72
.79
.80

470

1,231
1,866
1,077

3,788
227

.77

Note, k = number of samples providing reliability information; N = total number of individuals in the k samples; 7?Xx = weighted mean reliability
estimate of each variable across the k samples.
" Extent to which the work environment emphasizes efficiency and good planning.

due to sampling error and measurement unreliability. We also

computed the percentage of variance due to uncorrected artifacts. Fourth, we computed both the credibility and confidence
intervals (Hunter & Schmidt, 1990). The credibility interval
was based on the standard deviation of the distribution of effect
sizes after correcting for statistical artifacts and provided information on whether moderators were likely to be present.2 The
confidence interval was based on the standard error of the mean
effect size and provided information on the accuracy of the individually corrected weighted mean correlation estimate. Last,
we conducted a test for the homogeneity of effect sizes across
samples by using Hunter and Schmidt's (1990) Q statistic. Because of disagreements over the appropriate ratio of artifacts to
sample variance to infer that the effect sizes are homogeneous
(cf. Hunter & Schmidt, 1990), we used both the credibility interval and the Q statistic to detect moderators (Whitener,
1990). Where the Q statistic could not be calculated, we used
only the credibility interval.
To determine if the effect sizes are homogeneous, Whitener
(1990, p. 317) recommended that the credibility interval be
checked to see if it is "sufficiently large" or includes zero. However, it is unclear what qualifies as a sufficiently large interval.
Thus, the effect sizes were considered homogeneous if the credibility interval did not include zero and the Q statistic was not
significant. We computed the confidence interval for homogeneous effect sizes by using the formula provided by Whitener
(1990, p. 316). The effect sizes were considered heterogeneous
if the credibility interval did include zero or if the Q statistic was

significant (either case indicated that a moderator was probably

operating). We computed the confidence interval for heterogeneous effect sizes by using the formula provided by Whitener
(1990, p. 317).

Results
Table 1 reports the number of studies, the total sample
size, and the weighted mean reliability estimate for each
variable. Tables 2-5 report the uncorrected weighted
mean correlation, the individually corrected weighted
mean correlation, the variance, the lower and upper
range of the uncorrected weighted mean correlation
based on the 95% confidence interval, and the results of
the Q test for each correlate.

Mela-Correlations Among the Burnout Dimensions

Of the 61 studies included in the meta-analysis, 33
used the frequency response format, 11 used the intensity
2

A credibility interval that includes zero indicates the probability of a disordinal moderator, where the relationship between two variables is positive in certain samples and negative
in others. However, a moderator is still possible even when the
interval does not include zero but is large enough to suggest that
the effect sizes are heterogeneous (Whitener, 1990).

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126

LEE AND ASHFORTH

of 33 correlates; and for personal accomplishment, the

effect sizes were horn ogeneous for 10 of 3 2 correlates. Because of the small number of studies per variable, it was
not possible to conduct any moderator analysis on correlates with heterogeneous effect sizes. Their individually
corrected weighted mean correlations should thus be interpreted with caution, especially where both the credibility and confidence intervals include zero (Whitener,
1990).

response format, and the remaining 17 used both, as

Maslach and Jackson (1981) did originally. Of the 17
studies that used both formats, 9 provided intradimensional correlations between response formats. Across all
three dimensions, the individually corrected weighted
mean correlations were greater than .90, suggesting that
the two formats are largely redundant and that only one
is necessary (Maslach & Jackson, 1986; Schaufeli, Enzmann, & Girault, 1993).
Table 2 shows the meta-correlations among the three
burnout dimensions. For the frequency response format,
emotional exhaustion was strongly related to depersonalization (r c = .64), whereas both dimensions were moderately negatively related to personal accomplishment (rcs
= .33 for emotional exhaustion and .36 for
depersonalization). The individually corrected weighted
mean correlations among the three dimensions for the
intensity response format were similar in magnitudes.
Given the high correlations between the two response formats and that only a few studies used the intensity response format, all subsequent meta-analyses examined
the three dimensions using only the frequency response
format.

Homogeneity of Effect

Mela-Correlations Between the Correlates and the

Burnout Dimensions
For the demand correlates, Table 3 shows that the individually corrected weighted mean correlations between
emotional exhaustion and role conflict, role stress, stressful events, workload, and work pressure were all greater
than or equal to .50. Table 4 shows that the individually
corrected weighted mean correlations between depersonalization and role ambiguity, role conflict, role stress,
stressful events, and workload were all greater than or
equal to .34. Table 5 shows that the individually corrected
weighted mean correlations between personal accomplishment and the demand correlates were generally
weak, with the highest being .22.
For the resource correlates, Table 3 shows that the individually corrected weighted mean correlations between
emotional exhaustion and social support, supervisor support, community bond, innovation, participation, unmet
expectations, and noncontingent punishment were all
greater than or equal to | .301. Table 4 shows that the individually corrected weighted mean correlations between

Sizes

Before examining the individually corrected weighted

mean correlations between the correlates and the burnout dimensions, we determined the number of homogeneous effect sizes. For emotional exhaustion, the effect
sizes were homogeneous for 13 of 32 correlates; for depersonalization, the effect sizes were homogeneous for 16

Table 2
Mela-Correlations Among the Job Burnout Dimensions
95% CI

Burnout dimension-burnout dimension

rc

VAR

Lower

Upper

% due to
artifacts

.029
.024
.053

.54
-.46
-.52

.75
-.21
-.26

88.76
55.69
88.00

36.40
10.44
49.01*

.050
.082
.085

.53
-.37
-.54

.77
-.08
-.15

86.67
86.69
87.48

69.53**
67.70**
71.92**

Q statistic

Frequency response format

Emotional exhaustion-depersonalization
Emotional exhaustion-personal accomplishment
Depersonalization-personal accomplishment

47
47
47

9,668
8,977
8,977

.52
-.27
-.29

.64
-.33
-.36

Intensity response format

Emotional exhaustion-depersonalization
Emotional exhaustion-personal accomplishment
Depersonalization-personal accomplishment

9
9
9

1,637
1,637
1.637

.53
-.18
-.27

.65
-.22
-.34

Note. The boldface r^s indicate that the 95% credibility interval did not include zero. In cases where the corrected variances were less than zero, the
Q statistic could not be calculated. When credibility intervals did not include zero and the Q statistic was not significant, the confidence interval (CI)
for homogeneous effect sizes was constructed. Otherwise, the CI for heterogeneous effect sizes was constructed, k = number of studies; N = combined
sample size; r = uncorrccted weighted mean correlation; rc = weighted mean correlation after correcting for within-study measurement unreliability;
VAR = variance of ^ after correcting for sampling error and measurement unreliability; % due to artifacts = percentage of variance due to artifacts
other than sampling error and measurement unreliability.
V :.()]. **/><.001.

127

META-ANALYSIS OF JOB BURNOUT

Table 3
Meta-Correlations With Emotional Exhaustion (Frequency)
95% CI

This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.

Correlate
Job stressors (demands)
Role ambiguity
Role clarity
Role conflict
Role stress
Stressful events
Workload
Work pressure
Physical comfort
Support (resources)
Social support
Supervisor support
Coworker support
Work friends
Community bond
Family resources
Peer cohesion
Team cohesion
Job enhancement opportunities (resources)
Innovation
Autonomy
Participation
Skill utilization
Task orientation'
Reinforcement contingencies (resources)
Unmet expectations
Contingent rewards
Noncontingent rewards
Contingent punishments
Noncontingent punishments
Behavioral and attitudinal outcomes
Control coping
Turnover intentions
Organizational commitment
Job involvement
Job satisfaction
Attitudes toward workplace climate

6
6
11
3

1,518
929
2,824
703
903
1,450
681
433

6
5
4
6
13
14
2

4
2
5
2
4
11

6
7
4
2
2
2
2
2
3
7
7

8
17
2

% due to
artifact

Q statistic

.54
-.19
.65
.72
.71
.75
.65
.05

97.51
64.01
89.01
41.18
92.36
69.70
48.62

244.74**
16.67*
129.78**
7.93
52.88**
34.94**
9.84

-.48
-.49
-.35
-.28
-.64
-.35
-.45
-.44

-.16
-.25
-.08
.39
-.31
.00
.26
-.01

65.94
82.64
79.88
71.10

19.72*
75.02**
69.58**
6.92*

12.77
94.48
42.51

2.34
90.77**
3.48

.008
.131
.002
.005
.002

-.48
-.35

-.12
.10
-.20
-.16
-.07

39.13
94.78
41.43
49.35
11.90

6.57
211.15**
10.31
14.33
4.55

.53
-.26
.15
.10
.32

.007
<0
<0
<0
<0

.36
-.38
.06
-.02
.23

.69

35.04

11.30**

-.30
.44
-.43
-.04
-.31
-.13

<0
.001
.002
.356
.264
<0

-.46
.31
-.54
-.21
-.44
-.26

62.25
39.75
96.65
98.02

20.14*
11.66
238.80**
879.82**

rc

VAR

Lower

Upper

-.09

.21
-.35
.53
.62
.52
.65
.50
-.11

.215
.012
.032
.002
.039
.009
.006
<0

-.11
-.51
.41
.41
.33
.55
.35
-.28

657
156

-.26
-.31
-.18
,05
-.38
-.16
-.08
-.20

-32
-.37
-.22
.05
-.48
-.17
-.10
-.22

.018
.018
.019
.044
<0
.002
.207
.011

433
2,177
1,763
1,701
433

-.24
-.13
-.26
-.20
-.20

-.30
-.15
.31
-.28
-.26

248
496
496
496
496

.38
-.24
.12
.09
.27

425
1,231
2,078
1,077
4,000

-.26
.37
-.38
-.03
-.26
-.11

1,010
3,589
3,552
153
433
244

227

.16

-.30
.42

.50
.45
.52
.41

.41

-.40
-.44

-.14
,24

.23
.40

-.14
.57
-.33
.13
-.19
.00

Note. The boldface rcs indicate that the 95% credibility interval did not include zero. In cases where the corrected variances were less than zero, the
Q statistic could not be calculated. When the credibility interval did not include zero and the Q statistic was not significant, the confidence interval
(CI) for homogeneous effect sizes was constructed. Otherwise, the CI for heterogeneous effect sizes was constructed, k = number of studies; N =
combined sample size; r = uncorrected weighted mean correlations; rc - weighted mean correlation after correcting for within-study measurement
unreliability; VAR - variance of rc after correcting for sampling error and measurement unreliability; % due to artifacts = percentage of variance
due to artifacts other than sampling error and measurement unreliability.
" Extent to which the work environment emphasizes efficiency and good planning.

depersonalization and community bond, team cohesion,

and skill utilization were all greater than or equal to
| -.341. Table 5 shows that the individually corrected
weighted mean correlations between personal accomplishment and work friends, participation, and team orientation were greater than or equal to . 301.
In summary, 13 of the 26 demand and resource correlates had individually corrected weighted mean correlations
greater than or equal to | .301 with emotional exhaustion
(Table 3), 8 of the 26 demand and resource correlates had
individually corrected weighted mean correlations greater

than or equal to ].34| with depersonalization (Table 4),

and 3 of the 26 demand and resource correlates had individually corrected weighted mean correlations greater than
or equal to . 301 with personal accomplishment (Table 5).
For the behavioral and attitudinal correlates, Tables 35 show that the burnout dimensions were differentially
associated with three of the outcomes. Emotional exhaustion was positively associated with turnover intentions (r c = .44) and negatively associated with organizational commitment (r c = -.43), depersonalization was
negatively associated with organizational commitment

128

LEE AND ASHFORTH

Table 4
Meta-Correlations With Depersonalization

(Frequency)
95% Cl

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Correlate
Job stressors (demands)
Role ambiguity
Role clarity
Role conflict
Role stress
Stressful events
Workload
Work pressure
Physical comfort
Support (resources)
Social support
Supervisor support
Coworker support
Work friends
Community bond
Family resources
Peer cohesion
Team cohesion
Job enhancement opportunities (resources)
Innovation
Autonomy
Participation
Skill utilization
Task orientation"
Reinforcement contingencies (resources)
Unmet expectations
Contingent rewards
Noncontingent rewards
Contingent punishments
Noncontingent punishments
Behavioral and attitudinal outcomes
Control coping
Preventive coping
Turnover intentions
Organizational commitment
Job involvement
Job satisfaction
Attitudes toward workplace climate

A"

6
6
11
2

1,518

929
2,824
286
903

5
5
4

1,033

7
12
13
2

1,176
3,172
3,135

2
5
2

681
433

153
433
244
657
156

433

II

2,177
1,346
1,663

433

2
2
2
2
2

496
496
496
496
496

3
2

425
470
564
2.078
749

7
6
12
2

2,102

227

re

VAR

Lower

.25

.34

-.28

-.27

.030
.004
.056

- .41

.20

% due to
artifact

Q statistic

.49
.11
.52
.68

84.32
34.04
91.57

39.02"
9.23
130.82"

.70

91.62
83.95

58.45**
34.39**

Upper

.27
.41
.39
.24
.18
.04

.37
.54
.50
.34
.22
.06

<0

22
.30
.28
.17
.06

.002

-.14

.52
.39
.25

-.16
-.19
-.17
-.07
-.36

-.21
-.24
-.22
-.08
-.46
-.21
-.20
-.34

.070
.004
.015
.019
.016
.011
.189
.024

-.41
-.36
-.34
-.35
-.62
-.39

-.12
-.09
-.08
- .29
-.04

.35

.30

-.71

-.12

-.28
-.13
-.17
-.39
-.29

.007
.068
.010

-.46
-.31
-.29
-.50
-.47

-.10

-.15

-.14
-.28
-.22
-.10
-.14

-.29
- .23

<0
.051
.045

<0
.016

.00

.05
-.05
-.28
-.11

.13

.19

.007

.07

.31

-.10

-.11

-.19

-.02

.18
.08
.20

.25
.10
.25

<0
<0
<0
<0

.17

.37
.22
.34

<0
<0
<0

-.43
-.46

-.12
-.28

.18

.44

.008
.163
.136

-.53
-.29
-.57
-.28

-.32

-.24
-.25

-.28
-.37

.24

.31

-.33
-.09
-.33
-.12

-.42
-.11
-.44
-.15

<0

.13
-.03

.06
-.31
-.03

11.27

4.51

87.49
39.16
71.65
47.87
63.32
40.91
92.90
61.88

57.43**
20.52*
47.19**
3.84
10.91
3.38
70.45**
5.30

37.22
89.56
64.12

6.37
105.37**
14.16*

55.77

9.10

44.32

3.81

59.94
92.32
95.29

25.55**
78.34**
262.89**

Note. The boldface r^ indicate that the 95% credibility interval did not include zero. In cases where the corrected variances were less than zero, the
Q statistic could not be calculated. When the credibility interval did not include zero and the Q statistic was not significant, the confidence interval
(CI) for homogeneous effect sizes was constructed. Otherwise, the CI for heterogeneous effect sizes was constructed, k = number of studies; N combined sample size; r = uncorrected weighted mean correlation; rc = weighted mean correlation after correcting for within-study measurement
unreliability; VAR = variance of rc after correcting for sampling error and measurement unreliability; % due to artifacts = percentage of variance
due to artifacts other than sampling error and measurement unreliability.
* Extent to which the work environment emphasizes efficiency and good planning.

(r c = -.42)andjobsatisfaction(r c = .44), and personal

accomplishment was positively associated with control
coping (r c = .52).
Discussion
Major Findings
The meta-correlations found among the three burnout
dimensions are similar to those reported in Maslach and
Jackson's (1986) manual and in other recent reviews

(Cordes& Dougherty, 1993; Schaufelietal., 1993). The

results are also consistent with Leiter's f 1993) belief that
personal accomplishment develops largely independently
of emotional exhaustion and depersonalization.
The patterns of associations between the demand and
resource correlates and the three dimensions appear to
be consistent with the conservation of resources explanation of burnout (Hobfoll & Freedy, 1993; Leiter, 1993).
Five of the eight demand correlates were strongly (r c s >
.50) associated with emotional exhaustion, whereas only

129

META-ANALYSIS OF JOB BURNOUT

Table 5
Meta-Correlations With Personal Accomplishment (Frequency)
95% CI

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Correlate
Job stressors (demands)
Role ambiguity
Role clarity
Role conflict
Role stress
Stressful events
Workload
Work pressure
Physical comfort
Support (resources)
Social support
Supervisor support
Coworker support
Work friends
Community bond
Family resources
Peer cohesion
Team cohesion
Job enhancement opportunities (resources)
Innovation
Autonomy
Participation
Skill utilization
Task orientation8
Reinforcement contingencies (resources)
Unmet expectations
Contingent rewards
Noncontingent rewards
Contingent punishments
Noncontingent punishments
Behavioral and attitudinal outcomes
Control coping
Turnover intentions
Organizational commitment
Job involvement
Job satisfaction
Attitudes toward workplace climate

% due to
artifact

Q statistic

.51
.20
-.02
.21
.57
.09
.09
.11

97.71
87.26
93.94
84.27
96.56
89.79
40.37

26 1 .52**
47.10**
165.13**
19.07**
116.88**
68.60**
8.39

-.04
-.03
-.04
.36
-.44
-.27
-.47
-.56

.44
.30
.30
.62
-.07
.02
.03
.79

92.01
93.01
93.11

90.11**
187.79**
219.22**

46.16

7.43

86.53
94.41

37.15**
35.92**

.094
.103
.017
.178
.003

-.56
-.13
.16
-.04
-.51

.03
.28
.43
.52
-.16

88.40
92.91
78.95
97.02
19.96

34.18**
155.18"
29.42**
202.69**
5.04

.19
.14
-.17
.02
-.16

.002
<0
<0
<0
<0

-.31
.02
-.29
-.09
-.25

-.07
.27
-.04
.15
.07

24.56

2.90

.52
-.16
-.02
-.11
.29
.28

<0
<0
.132
.182
.394
<0

.42
-.05
-.27
-.29
-.16
.16

.62
-.27
.22
.21
.42
.40

96.26
92.19
98.28

187.24**
76.96**
641.61**

rc

VAR

Lower

Upper

6
6
10
3
4
7
5
4

1,131
929
2,271
703
903
1,616
681
433

.09
-.03
-.15
.00
.18
-.07
-.07
-.06

.11
-.03
-.21
.00
.22
-.09
-.09
-.07

.374
.066
.105
.040
.160
.068
.007
<0

-.29
-.26
-.41
-.21
-.13
-.29
-.27
-.26

5
2

1,176
3,589
3,614
153
433
244
657
156

.16
.11
.10
.37
-.21
-.09
-.17
.09

.20
.14
.13
.49
-.26
-.12
-.22
.12

.114
.073
.083
<0
.010
<0
.078
.345

4
11
6
6
4

433
2,177
1,763
1,663
433

-.21
.06
.23
.13
-.26

-.26
.07
.30
.24
-.33

496
496
496
496
496

-.13
.13
-.13
.02
-.13

425
286
2,078
749
2,241
227

.42
-.13
-.02
-.10
.22
.23

13
15
2

4
2

2
y

2
2
3
2
7
6
1]
2

Note. The boldface rcs indicate that the 95% credibility interval did not include zero. In cases where the corrected variances were less than zero, the
Q statistic could not be calculated. When the credibility interval did not include zero and the Q statistic was not significant, the confidence interval
(CI) for homogeneous effect sizes was constructed. Otherwise, the CI for heterogeneous effect sizes was constructed, k = number of studies; A' =
combined sample size; r = uncorrectcd weighted mean correlation; rc = weighted mean correlation after correcting for within-study measurement
unreliability; VAR = variance of rc after correcting for sampling error and measurement unreliability; % due to artifacts = percentage of variance
due to artifacts other than sampling error and measurement unreliability.
' Extent to which the work environment emphasizes efficiency and good planning.
"ps.OOI.

unmet expectations as a resource correlate had the same

magnitude of association with emotional exhaustion (r c
= .53).3 Consistent with the primacy of resource loss argument made by Hobfoll and Freedy, the results suggest
that individuals may be more sensitive to demands placed
on them than to the resources received.
Work demands are generally perceived to be losses because meeting such demands requires the investment of
valued resources, viewed as gains (Hobfoll & Freedy,
1993). According to prospect theory, to the extent that
individuals overweigh the consequences of losses, the re-

sources expended to prevent further loss are greater than

the threat of losses presented by the demands (Tversky
& Kahneman, 1981). This overcompensation may partly
explain why service workers seem to be more adversely
3

Expectations can be perceived as either resources or demands, depending on the degree to which they are met. Unmet
expectations would likely be viewed as demands because they
threaten one's work adjustment, whereas met expectations
would likely be viewed as resources because they confirm or
support one's adjustment.

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130

LEE AND ASHFORTH

affected by the stressors. For many service providers, the

key decision is the amount of one or more resources they
need to invest to meet the demands and to protect themselves from further resource depletion. Strain occurs when
the workers feel they no longer have sufficient emotional
resources to handle the interpersonal stressors (cf. Hobfoil, 1989; Maslach, 1982). Instead, many adopt the defensive strategy of withdrawal (rather than engagement)
through depersonalization (Lee & Ashforth, 1993a).
Thus, it is not surprising to find that depersonalization was
also strongly associated with role stress (rc = .54) and
stressful events (rc = .50).
A surprising finding was the weak associations (i.e., rcs
< .30) between personal accomplishment and most of
the resource correlates. The two exceptions were work
friends (r c = .49) and participation (r c = .30). To the
extent that work acquaintances provide individuals with
a sense of competence through support, self-efficacy and
self-appraisal may be heightened (Jayaratne & Chess,
1986). Similarly, to the extent that participation leads to
greater felt mastery and control (i.e., empowerment) over
the work environment, self-efficacy and self-appraisal
may also be enhanced.
Although gains in resources are viewed by most workers as less salient than the prevention of loss, gains are not
inconsequential (Hobfoll & Freedy, 1993). Resources
may directly compensate for certain losses, but they may
also indirectly help workers cope with work demands. For
example, with weak social support, interpersonal stressors will likely lead to emotional strain, but with strong
support, their relationship will likely be attenuated
(Jayaratne & Chess, 1986; Russell, Altmaier, & Van Velzen, 1987). This proposition is consistent with interactionist accounts of organizational behavior (see Mitchell
& James, 1989).
Consistent with Leiter's (1993) model, our findings reveal that the three dimensions were differentially associated with several of the behavioral and atliludinal correlates. Emotional exhaustion and depersonalization were
strongly associated with turnover intentions and organizational commitment but were weakly associated with
control coping. As a caveat, it is unclear whether the weak
associations reflect the underuse of such a coping behavior or its lack of effectiveness and subsequent abandonment. In any case, the lack of an effective coping response
might have served to reinforce subsequent feelings of
helplessness and futility (Lee & Ashforth, 1993a). In
contrast, personal accomplishment was strongly related
to control coping, suggesting that a problem-focused response and a positive self-appraisal may be mutually reinforcing (Lazarus &Folkman, 1984;cf. Leiter, 1991b).
Our findings suggest that outcomes that stem from
emotional exhaustion and reflect the desire to withdraw

may be offset by outcomes that stem from personal accomplishment and reflect the desire to seek control.
Whichever response (either withdrawing or seeking
control) predominates may thus depend on the relative
strengths of emotional exhaustion and personal accomplishment as each develops independently over time (Lee
& Ashforth, 1993a; Leiter, 1993).

Study Limitations
One limitation is that the meta-correlations show only
the strength of the relations among the burnout dimensions and by no means deal with the controversy regarding their sequential ordering (Golembiewski, 1989;
Leiter, 1989). The arguments over the correct sequence
are based on circumstantial evidence of how strongly
each dimension is related to certain antecedent and outcome variables (Cordes & Dougherty, 1993; e.g., see Lee
& Ashforth, 1993b).
A second limitation is that the strong association found
between emotional exhaustion and five of the demand
stressors may be partly attributed to a measurement artifact. Three of Maslach and Jackson's (1981, 1986) emotional exhaustion scale items (i.e., "I feel emotionally
drained from my work," "Working with people directly
puts too much stress on me," and "Working with people
all day is really a strain for me") are direct measures of
individual stress reactions. These items correspond
closely to items that tap perceived stress found in frequently used scales of role overload, role conflict, role
ambiguity, stressful events, and work pressure.
A third limitation is that only certain demands and resources were examined here. The fact that emotional exhaustion was strongly associated with several of the correlates does not necessarily imply the absence of other
correlates that may be more strongly associated with the
other two dimensions.
Two sets of correlates not examined here are demographic (e.g., sex, age, and education) and dispositional
attributes (e.g., Type A personality, psychological hardiness, and locus of control). Although these attributes
have been linked to burnout (Cordes & Dougherty, 1993;
Mclntyre, 1984;Nowack, 1986), their potential as moderators requires further clarification and investigation.

Implications for Future Research

Although the demand and resource correlates of job
burnout have been the focus of much attention, their
links to stress-coping and adjustment require further
study. According to the primacy of loss hypothesis, individuals are more sensitive to demands and thus overcompensate in the amount of resources expended to prevent
further loss (Hobfoll & Freedy, 1993). To the extent that

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META-ANALYS1S OF JOB BURNOUT

burnout develops because of this overcompensation, two

questions are worth investigating: (a) To what extent can
individuals deal with or even overcome burnout by reappraising their demands as potential gains (challenges)
rather than certain losses (obstacles; Lazarus & Folkman,
1984; Tversky & Kahneman, 1981) and (b) if demands
can indeed be reframed as potential gains, how can resources be used to change the way stressors are appraised?
For example, with the right kind of supervisory support,
workers may come to perceive ambiguous role expectations as opportunities to carry out their own initiatives
(potential gains) rather than as restrictions on their actions (certain losses).
A broader question that needs to be addressed is the
extent to which the burnout phenomenon is generalizable to occupations other than human services (Shirom,
1989). Perhaps the most distinguishing aspect of burnout is not so much its psychological and behavioral symptoms but rather the demands and the resources perceived
to be the most salient in service settings (cf. Cordes &
Dougherty, 1993). Service providers may work in situations with demands and resources that are different from
those experienced by, say, production workers in manufacturing settings. If true, this suggests that stress researchers should identify and include demands and resources perceived by their study participants to be the
most relevant for their work context (Maslach, 1982).
Moreover, a comparison of the perceived importance of a
common core of demands and resources between service
and nonservice workers may reveal how and why stressful
situations are dealt with differently between occupations.
Last, longitudinal designs may show that how workers
handle burnout is guided by the type and the frequency
of feedback on the usefulness of their initial coping behaviors (Leiter, 1991 b). This longitudinal approach suggests several forms of reciprocal relationships involving
burnout and adjustment responses (cf. Cummings &
Cooper, 1979). Multiple data points over time may thus
help determine the kinds of feedback required to ameliorate or prevent burnout. Such longitudinal data collection should lead to a better understanding of how burnout
develops and contribute to the broader research on
stress-coping.
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Received December 20, 1994
Revision received August 3, 1995
Accepted October 27, 1995