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Generalized approach to the parameter extraction from I - V characteristics of Schottky

diodes

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1996 Semicond. Sci. Technol. 11 1198
(http://iopscience.iop.org/0268-1242/11/8/014)
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Semicond. Sci. Technol. 11 (1996) 11981202. Printed in the UK

Generalized approach to the

parameter extraction from I V
characteristics of Schottky diodes

J Osvald and E Dobrocka

Institute of Electrical Engineering, Slovak Academy of Sciences,
Dubravsk
a cesta 9, 842 39 Bratislava, Slovakia

Department of Solid State Physics, Faculty of Mathematics and Physics,

Comenius University, Mlynska dolina F2, 842 15 Bratislava, Slovakia
Received 2 February 1996, accepted for publication 30 April 1996
Abstract. Two approaches for Schottky barrier parameter evaluation are presented
and compared. The first method extracts the barrier height, the ideality factor and
the series resistance also for the structures that have no linear part in the forward
direction of the ln I V curve. This enables one to take into consideration also the
reverse part of I V curves that is normally omitted and the information lost. The
second, more general, approach takes into account an inhomogeneity of the
Schottky barrier and extracts the parameters of the barrier height distribution. It is
shown that for this case it is possible to substitute the ideality factor, which is a
non-physical parameter, by a barrier height distribution with the mean value 0 and
the standard deviation . Using this method a single I V measurement is
sufficient for determining the barrier height distribution.

1. Introduction
The most often used method for a parameter determination
of Schottky barriers is I V measurement. Thermionic
transport in Schottky diodes is described by the expression
for the current [1]




V
1
(1)
I = Is exp
n
where = q/kT is the inverse thermal voltage, n is the
ideality factor and Is is the saturation current expressed by
Is = AA T 2 exp()

(2)

where A is the contact area, A is the Richardson constant

and is the Schottky barrier height (SBH). In real
structures, where the series resistance R is always present,
expression (1) must be modified as follows





(V RI ) 1 .
(3)
I = Is exp
n
The standard method for the parameter extraction needs
a linear part on the ln I versus V plot. This method
fails when the influence of the series resistance is already
significant at medium or small forward voltages or even
at reverse bias. Several papers have appeared in the last
few years concerning Schottky diode parameter evaluation
from I V curves [26]. Almost all of the published
c 1996 IOP Publishing Ltd
0268-1242/96/081198+05$19.50

methods use the forward part of the characteristics with

bias voltage V > 3kT /q, for which the second member in
equations (1) and (3) may be omitted. Another conduction
mechanism such as generationrecombination current or
leakage current is also taken into account to explain nonidealities of the curves [6, 7].
The majority of the above-mentioned methods use a
geometrical principlethey suggest a construction of
some auxiliary functions, the plot of which is a straight
line in certain representations. The intercepts with x
or y coordinates determine the parameter values. Both
advantages and disadvantages of the methods are reviewed
in [8].
Bennett [9] proposed an approach that unambiguously
determined three parametersbarrier height, ideality factor
and series resistanceusing a least squares method for the
forward bias part of the curve. Neglecting again the region
V < 3kT /q he obtained a linear system of three equations
that could be relatively simply solved.
All the enumerated methods completely exclude the
influence of experimental points from the reverse part of the
characteristics on the calculated parameters. This approach
is partially approved when another current mode such
as leakage current, thermionic field emission, generation
recombination current, etc, which is more visible at
small forward or reverse voltages, is present. For such
structures a more complex approach must be used, which
also incorporates these mechanisms.

Parameter extraction from Schottky diode I V

2. Our proposed methods

Our approach enables one to use the whole bias range
(also reverse, or only reverse) of the characteristics for the
parameter extraction. Using the least squares as a maximum
likelihood estimator we get the condition for the sum of the
squares

N 
X
Iej Ij 2
(4)
S=
Ij
j =1
where Iej is the j th experimental value, Ij is the fitting
value of the current, i.e. the solution to (3) for V = Vj , and
N is the number of measuring points. We sum the squares
of the relative differences between the measured and the
ideal values because the values of the current are spread
through several orders of magnitude. This means that we
suppose that all I V curve points are measured with the
same relative error. For minimizing the sum of the squares
it is necessary to solve the equations
S
=0
x

(5)

where x stands for all free parameters which are used for
characterizing the I V curve.
2.1. Homogeneous diodes
For the case of homogeneous diodes, where the structures
can be described by the single barrier height only, the
required parameters are , n and R. Performing the
derivative in (5) we have
2

N
X
Iej Ij Iej Ij
= 0.
Ij
Ij2 x
j =1

(6)

The derivatives Ij /x we obtain using (2) and (3).

Inserting them into (6) and omitting multiplicative factors
we arrive at three normal equations for the parameters ,
n and R

N 
X
Iej
Iej
1
S

= 0 (7)
1

I
I
n
+
R(I
j
j
j + Is )
j =1

N 
X
Iej (Ij + Is )(Vj /Ij R)
Iej
S

=0
1
n
I
Ij n + R(Ij + Is )
j
j =1

(8)


N 
X
Ij + Is
Iej
Iej
S

= 0.
1
R
I
I
n
+
R(I
j
j
j + Is )
j =1

(9)

The solution to these equations can be found, for example,

by Newtons method [10]. Because this method is known
to converge only locally, the iteration process may, in
principle, diverge under an improper choice of the first
iterate. The way of generating an initial guess from the
measured data is a matter of judgement.
Another feature that should be discussed is the problem
of a physical content of parameters extracted in such a
way. The issue has been already addressed by Werner
[6]. Our algorithm also gives the values of the three
parameters for the curves which do not represent only

pure thermionic emission and are a combination of two

or more current modes. In that case the parameters do
not reflect the physical reality. The decisive criterion for
a judgement, whether the measured data represent only
thermionic emission or not, might be the value of the
ideality factor. If this value is close to unity we may rely
on the thermionic transport mechanism. However, it is
possible, that due to some averaging effect of the method,
the calculated n of the whole curve will be close to unity
also for almost ideal curves with only small part of the
I V curve with the different n, for example, the region
with generationrecombination current. The final decision
should be made by visual inspection of the experimental
and fitting curves.
2.2. Inhomogeneous diodes
Standardly published SBHs are in the majority of cases
averaged results of several (several decades) structures.
The parameters of single diodes are statistically distributed
around some mean value. This fact alone speaks about
the inhomogeneity of the diodes. But it is clear that
inhomogeneities of the barrier height are present even
within the single diode.
The inhomogeneity of SBH may be due to different
reasons. One of them is the polycrystalline structure of
metallic layer. The different crystallographic orientation
of the grains together with possible different phase
composition after some thermal treatments are the
first possible causes of SBH inhomogeneity.
Very
often dielectric interfacial layers with non-homogeneous
thickness and/or composition are present which could also
manifest themselves as SBH inhomogeneities. Such effects
are commonly incorporated into an ideality factor n. In
many cases the concept of constant n is not sufficient for
explaining the experimental results and it is necessary to
consider n as a voltage-dependent parameter.
The SBH non-uniformities were also observed on
very carefully prepared cleaved (at ultra-high vacuum
conditions) GaAs(110) semiconductor surfaces by core
level photoemission [11]. Local barrier height variations
leads to an extra broadening of Ga 3d and As 3d core
lines.
The concept of the SBH inhomogeneities is relatively
well established and their influence on electrical characteristics has been also described [12, 13]. Freeouf et al [14]
and Sullivan et al [15] simulated I V and CV characteristics of the inhomogeneous diodes from basic semiconductor
equations. The shape of the I V curves of inhomogeneous
diodes at the presence of inhomogeneities with a dimension comparable with or greater than the space charge layer
depth has been also demonstrated [16].
The distribution of the inhomogeneous barrier height
is not directly accessible by experiment. It can be only
reconstructed from a great number of experimental data
by means of statistical methods. In spite of the fact
that the influence of barrier height inhomogeneities on
electrical characteristics is a well known fact there has been
practically no attempt to implement it into the evaluation
of SBH. To our best knowledge only one work has been
1199

J Osvald and E Dobrocka

Table 1. The values of the parameters extracted by both methods from Hg/n-Si(111)1 1, Pb/n-Si(111)1 1-H and
Pb/p-Si(111)1 1-H Schottky diodes. The values in the left part of the table are deduced by the sharp barrier height fit and
the values in the right part are from the Gaussian BHD fit (R is in both cases total series resistance of the diode).
Sharp barrier height fit
Sample

(V)

R ()

0 (V)

(V)

r ( m2 )

R ()

Hg/n-Si(111)1 1-H
Pb/n-Si(111)1 1-H
Pb/p-Si(111)1 1-H

0.588
0.588
0.694

1.13
1.38
1.90

8.45
1240
10 228

0.599
0.608
0.837

0.000 81
0.0319
0.0872

5.15 106
3.42 104
3.27 103

19.49
1368
13 080

devoted to the quantitative description of the barrier height

non-uniformities of experimental structures. Lahnor et al
[17] studied PtSi/Si(111) diodes and based their method on
an analytical theory of Tung [18]. However, too many
parameters were needed to obtain coincidence with the
experiment.
To find the barrier height distribution (BHD) in a
general case would be a cumbersome task. The actual
BHD which drives the current through the diode is voltagedependent due to the pinch-off effect [14] and the resulting
characteristic depends not only on the total statistical weight
of the certain barrier height in the distribution but also on
the space distribution of the barrier height (which barrier
height adjoins which and how long is the boundary between
them).
In the following we describe the approach which is
approved for inhomogeneous diodes with a dimension of
the inhomogeneities greater than or at least comparable with
the space charge layer depth [12]. In that case the problem
becomes a little bit simpler but still in order to find the
BHD from the I V curve a Fredholm integral equation of
the first kind should be solved. This type of equation is
known to be an ill-posed problem. The solution could be
found by means of a regularization method but the results
in the form of the general shape of the BHD would hardly
be acceptable in practice.
Nevertheless, the problem can be further simplified
if one realizes, on the basis of physical considerations,
that the solution can be expected in a form dependent
on a few parameters. Due to the exponential dependence
of the current on the SBH one would expect log-normal
BHD [19]. But according to the majority of the published
experimental data and theoretical suppositions [13, 2022]
a Gaussian distribution seems to be more appropriate. Such
an inhomogeneous system can be completely described by
three parameters; the mean value of the BHD 0 , standard
deviation and a series resistance of the unit area r = AR.
The total current across the Schottky diode is [16]
Z
(10)
I (0 , , r) = A (; 0 , )i(; r) d
where



( 0 )2
1
exp
(; 0 , ) =
2 2
2

(11)

is the Gaussian BHD and i is the current density given by

the equation
i = is {exp[(V ri)] 1}
1200

Gaussian BHD fit

(12)

where

is = A T 2 exp()

(13)

is the saturation current density. Applying again a least

squares method we use equations (6) with (10)(13), now
with the parameters 0 , and r. Finally, the normal
equations will have the form

Z
N 
X
Iej
Iej
0
S

1
ij d = 0
2
0
I
2
I
j
j
j =1

(14)


Z
N 
X
Iej
Iej
S
( 0 )2 2

1
ij d = 0

Ij
3
Ij2
j =1
(15)

Z
N 
X
Iej
Iej
ij + is
S

ij d = 0.
1
r
Ij
1 + r(ij + is )
Ij2
j =1
(16)
The solution can be found again by Newtons method
as described above for a single SBH value.
3. Experiment
We present the results of the application of our proposed
approaches on several experimental structures prepared on
three different Si substrates. The parameters of the diodes
were evaluated both by the single sharp barrier height
approach and also by the Gaussian BHD. All the structures
were prepared on Si(111) substrates. Before making the
metal contact, the Si wafers were etched in HF and after that
for 2 min in NH4 F in order to leave only SiH on the sample
surface. The procedure is known to secure an atomically
flat hydrogen terminated H/Si(111)1 1 unreconstructed
surface [23].
The Hg/n-Si diodes were made by means of mercury
probe at the atmospheric ambient similarly as in [21]. The
diameter of the circular probe was 0.58 mm.
For preparing Pb/n-Si and Pb/p-Si diodes the wafers
were introduced immediately after the etching procedure
into a vacuum chamber pumped only by a turbomolecular
pump (without the ion pump) in order to avoid splitting
of hydrocarbons in the remaining atmosphere.
The
evaporation of lead from a Knudsen cell was done
under ultrahigh vacuum conditions. The thickness of the
evaporated Pb layer was 120 nm. The diodes were of a
square shape with a size of 0.5 mm.
To make an ohmic contact, Ga was rubbed on the back
side of the p-type wafer and for the n-type Si, 20 nm of Cr
was evaporated onto the wafer before Ga was applied [24].

Parameter extraction from Schottky diode I V

temperature was 295 K. The results of fitting procedures

are summarized in table 1 and the experimental data, sharp
barrier heights and BHD fitted curves for every structure
are shown in figures 1(a)(c).

4. Discussion
I V curves of the structures have no linear part in the
forward direction. Interpreting the experiments in terms of
conventional parameters , n and R, it is clear that due to
the high values of n, at least the I V curves of Pb/Si diodes
cannot be explained by pure thermionic emission through
a homogeneous barrier. The concept of an inhomogeneous
barrier height enables us to explain the current transport in
these structures by thermionic emission as the only transport
mechanism. On the contrary, using the inhomogeneous
BHD concept for Hg/Si diodes leads to very low (which
indicates an almost sharp barrier height) and higher total
resistance compared to the sharp barrier height approach
and results in a worse coincidence between the experimental
and with the BHD simulated curves. Generally the trend
supports the intuitive viewit is seen that the higher the
ideality factor, the higher the standard deviation of the
BHD.
It is worth noting that the non-saturating reverse current
in figure 1(c) is not explainable supposing either an
homogeneous or an inhomogeneous interface. The effect is
not explainable without voltage modification of the barrier
height profile.
The methods enable us also to extract the Schottky
barrier height parameters for structures with high series
resistance (resistive substrates or ohmic contact with higher
resistance). There is no necessity to have a linear part of
the ln I versus V curve.
The BHD approach is a statistical method which
requires a sufficiently large number of single barrier patches
in the diode in order to fulfil the statistical requirements.
This sets a lower limit on the area of the Schottky diode
for which the method is usable. For higher-area diodes the
results will be closer to reality.

5. Conclusion

Figure 1. I V curves of Hg/n-Si(111)1 1-H (a ),

Pb/n-Si(111)1 1-H (b ) and Pb/p-Si(111)1 1-H (c )
Schottky diodes. Comparison between the experimental
data, the sharp barrier height fit and the fit with the
Gaussian BHD.

In the calculation we used the value A = 1.12

106 A m2 K2 for n-type diodes and A = 3.2
105 A m2 K2 for p-type diodes. The measurement

In summary, two approaches for SBH evaluation have been

presented. The first method extracts three parameters ,
n and R from the I V curve without the construction of
some auxiliary functions. The second approach enables us
to explain the electrical characteristics of Schottky diodes
without using the ideality factor n which incorporates
several effects (image force barrier height lowering,
tunnelling through the interfacial layer, etc) and therefore
is ambiguous. That is why, for certain inhomogeneous
Schottky diodes, at least for the structures which fulfil
the conditions of non-interacting diodes, the ideality factor
loses its role as an artificial non-physical parameter. It can
be substituted by the Gaussian BHD with the mean barrier
height 0 and the standard deviation , keeping n = 1 for
every barrier height in the distribution.
1201

J Osvald and E Dobrocka

Acknowledgment
This work was supported in part by the Slovak Grant
Agency for Science under contract nos 2/1089/95 and
1/1320/94.
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