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Engineering Structures
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/engstruct
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Waseda University, 3-4-1 Okubo, Shinjuku-Ku, Tokyo 169-8555, Japan
Technical Research Institute, Obayashi Corporation, 4-6 Shimokiyoto, Kiyose, Tokyo 204-9558, Japan
c
East Nippon Expressway Company Limited, 3-3-2 Kasumigaseki, Chiyodaku, Tokyo 100-8979, Japan
d
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Tohoku University, 6-6-06 Aramaki-Aza-Aoba, Aobaku, Sendai 980-8579, Japan
b
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 1 December 2009
Revised 2 September 2011
Accepted 2 September 2011
Available online 4 November 2011
Keywords:
Precast pile
High-strength concrete
High-strength steel
Flexural strength
Carbon-ber sheet
a b s t r a c t
In this study, a prestressed reinforced concrete pile that uses high-strength material to increase the piles
exural capacity was developed. The main structural characteristics of the developed pile include (1) the
neutral axis is constantly near the centroidal axis of the pile, even if the longitudinal reinforcement yields
due to a exural moment, because the pile has a high axial compressive force that is induced by prestressed steel bars, and hence, the concrete in the compression region can contribute to increasing the
exural strength of the pile; and (2) the exural strength of the pile increases because the high-strength
concrete is conned by high-strength spirals and carbon-ber sheets in combination with concrete inlling, and, together, these modications provide a sufciently high lateral-connement pressure.
The results of bending tests demonstrate that the proposed prestressed reinforced concrete pile with
carbon-ber sheets and concrete inlling had a much higher exural capacity than a conventional precast
concrete pile. In addition, an analytical approach is presented that can be used to obtain the relationship
between the bending moment and the curvature of the proposed pile. Even if concrete bridge systems are
constructed on strata that can experience soil liquefaction, such as very soft soil, bridge foundations that
use the proposed piles could remain undamaged under the design seismic action.
2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
In the seismic design of concrete bridge systems, a plastic hinge
must be introduced at the bottom of each bridge pier rather than at
the pile foundation. This is an important concept in capacity design
to help guarantee the rehabilitation of the bridge after a large
earthquake [1,2]; however, if concrete bridge systems are
constructed on strata (such as very soft soil) that can experience
soil liquefaction in a severe earthquake, it is difcult to prevent
yielding of the pile foundation. Numerous structures with precast
concrete-pile foundations in reclaimed ground were seriously
damaged by the 1995 HyogokenNambu Earthquake in Japan
[3,4]. Field investigations and numerical analyses of some of the
damaged concrete-pile foundations in reclaimed ground have been
conducted to clarify the damage-process mechanism therein.
Based on a three-dimensional numerical simulation, Uzuoka
et al. [5] reported that precast, prestressed concrete piles in a liqueed soil failed during this severe earthquake due to a lack of
Corresponding author. Tel.: +81 3 52862694; fax: +81 3 52863485.
E-mail addresses: akiyama617@waseda.jp (M. Akiyama), abe.satoshi.ha
@obayashi.co.jp (S. Abe), n.aoki.aa@e-nexco.co.jp (N. Aoki), suzuki@civil.tohoku.ac.jp (M. Suzuki).
0141-0296/$ - see front matter 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.engstruct.2011.09.007
260
(a)
0.0035
xb,1
strain
xb,1 < xb,2
(b)
where, xb,1 and xb,2 are the distances from the extreme compression fiber to the neutral axis of
bending
0.0035
Axial stress provided
by unbonded
prestressing steel bars
xb,2
strain
Fig. 1. Effect of the piles axial force on the strain distribution.
261
D4-1
D4-2
D4-3
D4-4
D4-5
D4-6
D4-7
D4-8
D4-9
D4-10
D4-11
D4-12
D4-13
D4-14
D4-15
D4-16
D4-17
0 b
fc0
(MPa)
Longitudinal bar
c
d
g
ConA
ConB
fyl
(MPa)
Diameter
94.1
787
22.2
2.9
796
31.8
5.9
108
41.0
787
22.2
1.8
102
37.0
778
98.7
97.3
37.2
38.1
787
88.0
39.7
107
114
110
796
778
Diameter of prestressing
steel bar (mm)
Prestress
levele (MPa)
(%)
32.0
40.0
31.8
22.2
3.8
1.8
0.0
20.6
0.0
9.8
20.3
19.5
19.8
20.3
12.6
12.1
6.3
12.7
21.0
20.4
13.4
13.7
20.1
Spiral
fysf
h
s
(MPa)
s
(mm)
1440
60
1.29
120
60
120
60
120
60
0.65
1.29
0.65
1.29
0.65
1.29
Thickness of
Con-A (mm)
Carbon-ber
sheeti
75.6
79.6
78.9
81.8
80.4
84.9
83.1
80.4
89.6
89.4
66.2
68.9
66.6
83.7
78.0
66.9
66.4
Type-A
Type-A
Type-B
Type-A
Type-A
(%)
concrete inlling; these modications together provide a sufciently high lateral-connement pressure.
For maximum exural strength, the proposed pile should have
both concrete inlling and carbon-ber sheets; however, piles
without concrete inlling and/or carbon-ber sheets were tested
in order to investigate the effect of these modications on the
behavior of the pile. All piles have a sufcient number of highstrength spirals to exhibit a exure failure mode. In order to permit
optimal shear design of the proposed piles, the effects of the number and yield strengths of spirals on the shear strength of the proposed pile should be investigated.
3. Experimental procedure
3.1. Specimen properties and materials
The arrangement of the longitudinal bars and unbonded prestressed steel bars in the proposed pile are shown in Fig. 2. As
shown in the gure, the spacing of the unbonded prestressed steel
bars and the specied thickness of the Con-A depends on the diameters of the unbonded prestressed steel bars. Table 1 depicts the
average thickness of Con-A, measured after the hollow pile was
molded by the centrifugal force.
Type I Ordinary Portland cement was used in all of the concrete
mixtures. Crushed gravel was used as the coarse aggregate, wherein the maximum aggregate size, Gmax, was 15 mm. For the concrete
that was used in the Con-A, silica fumes were used to obtain high
strength, workability and the reduction of ne-particle segregation. Highly owable concrete was used as the concrete inlling.
The concretes compressive strength, f0 c0, was measured as the
average of three identical cylinders, each of which had a diameter
of 100 mm and a height of 200 mm. These cylinders were tested
under axial loading at the time the corresponding pile was tested.
The yield strengths of the longitudinal bars and spirals are
shown in Table 1. The yield strengths of the unbonded prestressed
steel bars were 1150 and 1230 MPa for the 32- and 40-mm-diam-
262
(a) Sample cross-section of a proposed pile that uses prestressed steel bars where each has a diameter of 32 mm.
Concrete molded by
centrifugal force
(Con-A)
Spiral
Longitudinal bar
Specimen: D4-1
115
Direction of
loading
80
240
Units: mm
80
400
(b) Sample cross-section of a proposed pile that uses prestressed steel bars where each has a diameter of 40
mm.
Carbon-fiber sheet
Longitudinal bar
Concrete molded by
centrifugal force
(Con-A)
Spiral
Concrete infilling
(Con-B)
Specimen: D4-14
Direction of
loading
137
70
260
70
Units: mm
400
Fig. 2. Sample cross-sections of the proposed piles.
263
2,000-kN actuator
Steel plate
150
500
500
150
Carbon-fiber sheet
Pile
Nut
500
1,260
500
500
1,000
500
LVDT
1,260
4000
Units: mm
outside the constant-moment region. Fig. 5 shows the crack patterns of piles D4-3 and D4-5, which were constructed without carbon-ber sheets or concrete inlling, at the yield point of the
longitudinal bars and at the maximum loading point. These two
specimens had almost the same strength concrete and steel bars
but different amounts of applied prestress. As the prestress applied
to the pile was increased, the number of cracks decreased. The
crack length of the pile with prestress that was provided by the
prestressed steel bars was shorter than the crack length of the pile
without prestress because the pile with a high prestress had a
much larger compression zone in the cross-section.
The piles without carbon-ber sheets and concrete inlling
exhibited brittle behavior after the concrete cover in the constant-moment region was cracked and spalled. The piles without
carbon-ber sheets but with concrete inlling did not show brittle
behavior even after the concrete cover was spalled. The longitudinal bars in the piles with a wide spacing of spirals buckled after
spalling of the concrete cover. The maximum loads on these specimens were observed during spalling of the concrete cover. The
piles with carbon-ber sheets exhibited ductile behavior. These
piles experienced maximum loading during the rupture of the carbon-ber sheets due to the expansion of the cover concrete. Fig. 6
depicts an example of the appearance of the constant-moment region at the point of maximum loading of specimens D4-5 (without
concrete inlling and carbon-ber sheeting) and D4-16 (with concrete inlling and carbon-ber sheeting).
Fig. 8 depicts the results for piles D4-9, D4-11 and D4-13, which
had concrete inlling but no carbon-ber sheets. The tests conrmed that concrete inlling can prevent a sudden decrease in load
after spalling of the concrete cover. It also conrmed that the maximum loads of these piles did not depend on the amount of
prestress.
Fig. 9 depicts the effects of different prestressing levels on the
exural strength of piles D4-14 and D4-16. These piles had both
concrete inlling and carbon-ber sheets, and the only difference
between them was the magnitude of the initial prestress. Because
the cover concrete was conned by the carbon-ber sheets, it was
not spalled by the compressive stress that was caused by the bending moment. As shown in Figs. 7 and 8, unlike piles without carbon-ber sheets, the use of a concrete cover in piles with carbonber sheets can contribute to an increased exural strength. As a
result, these piles had larger maximum loads. Because the neutral
axis of a pile without initial prestress or with a low prestress level
is closer to the extreme compression ber, the tensile strain of prestressing steel bars in such a pile increases as the bending moment
increases. Even for piles without initial prestress, before loading
the nuts were tightened with a torque wrench to the point just before the tensile strain of the prestressing steel bars would begin to
increase. As described hereinafter, this increase in the tensile strain
could result in there being no difference in the compressive axial
force provided by the prestressing steel bars among piles as the
bending moment increases. Therefore, as shown in Figs. 79, the
prestress level does not have an appreciable inuence on exural
strength; however, Naaman and Alkhairi [12] pointed out that
the increment in the tensile stress of unbonded tendons depends
on the specimen length. In their experiments, shorter specimens
showed larger increments of tensile stress. The effect of the initial
prestress level on the exural strength of piles with different
lengths should be investigated.
The effects of the use of carbon-ber sheeting on the exural
strengths of piles D4-13 and D4-14 are shown in Fig. 10. The only difference between these two piles is the presence or absence of carbon-ber sheets. Pile D4-14, which had carbon-ber sheets,
possessed a much higher exural strength. As mentioned above, unidirectional carbon-ber was used in the test; therefore, this sheet
can only serve to reinforce the circumferential stress of the pile. Because the proposed pile with carbon-ber sheets and concrete inlling had a much higher exural strength than did the conventional
precast concrete pile (see Appendix), it is expected that the proposed
pile will be able to prevent yielding of the pile foundation under
strong earthquake excitation (Japan Road Association [13]).
264
Fig. 5. Crack patterns at the yielding of the longitudinal bar and at a maximum load.
The effect of the amount of longitudinal bars on the piles exural strength is indicated in Fig. 11. If the piles had neither concrete
inlling nor carbon-ber sheets, the differences in their maximum
loads were not very large, as shown in Fig. 11a, and this is because
spalling of the cover concrete occurs early due to the large prestress. When spalling of the cover concrete is prevented by the
presence of a carbon-ber sheet, the amount of longitudinal bars
affects the exural strength, as shown in Fig. 11b. Fig. 12 depicts
the effect of spiral spacing on exural behavior. From Fig. 12a, it
can be seen that it is not important to have a smaller spiral spacing
for piles without concrete inlling because these piles exhibit brittle behaviors after the concrete cover has become spalled. Even in
piles to which concrete inlling was added to prevent brittle
behavior, the buckling of the longitudinal bars of piles with larger
spiral spacings was clearly observed, and such buckling is indicated
by the sudden load drops depicted in Fig. 12b.
Fig. 7 through Fig. 12 present data that are related to the ductility capacity of the piles. Because the proposed pile has an increased
exural strength, it must also have sufcient shear strength to prevent a brittle failure mode. As shown in Fig. 12, it is also necessary
for the proposed pile to have a smaller spiral spacing in order to
prevent buckling of the longitudinal bars. Although the pile is designed to prevent yielding of the pile foundation and not as a
source of hysteretic energy dissipation, further research is needed
to identify the optimal combination of prestress level, concrete and
rebar strengths, in addition to the amount of carbon-ber sheeting
that is needed to insure the adequate ductility of piles under strong
excitation.
Fig. 13 depicts the relationship between the load and strain, ez,
on a carbon-ber sheet at the midspan of pile D4-12. Based on
experimental tests of concrete columns with carbon-ber sheeting
under concentric loading, Kawashima et al. [14] reported that
strain on the carbon-ber sheets increased at a great rate when
ez was larger than 0.0010.002 because of the expansion of the
internal concrete. Similarly, in the measurements, the impact of
ez on the carbon-ber sheets of the pile increased sharply after
reaching a value of 0.0010.002, and the longitudinal bars
pe ke;v qw f s;c
0:881 )
ke;v qw
fyh
fc0
265
1200
D4-11 (fpe = 6.3N/mm2)
D4-9 (fpe = 12.6N/mm2)
D4-13 (fpe = 21.0N/mm2)
Load (kN)
800
400
0
0
50
Deflection at the midspan (mm)
100
Fig. 8. Relationship between the load and deection in a pile without carbon-ber
sheets and with concrete inlling.
1200
D4-16(fpe = 13.7N/mm2)
D4-14(fpe = 20.4N/mm2)
Load (kN)
800
400
1200
D4-3 (fpe = 0N/mm2)
D4-4 (fpe = 9.8N/mm2)
D4-5 (fpe = 20.3N/mm2)
Load (kN)
800
50
Deflection at the midspan (mm)
100
Fig. 9. Relationship between the load and deection in a pile with carbon-ber
sheets and concrete inlling.
400
0
fc0 0:85fc0
6
2
ke;v
0
0
50
Fig. 7. Relationship between the load and deection in a pile without carbon-ber
sheets or concrete inlling.
Kb
40
1:0
fc0
2
15ds 1
qcc
100
4
5
266
1,200
(a)
D4-13
D4-14
(b)
D4-6
D4-5
Yielding of the longitudinal bar
Spalling of the cover concrete
D4-10
D4-9
Yielding of the longitudinal bar
Spalling of the cover concrete
1,200
Load (kN)
Load (kN)
800
400
800
400
0
50
Deflection at the midspan (mm)
100
0
0
50
100 0
Deflection at the midspan (mm)
50
100
(a)
(b)
D4-6
D4-8
Yielding of the longitudinal bar
Spalling of the cover concrete
1,200
1,200
D4-16
D4-15
Yielding of the longitudinal bar
Gauge A
Gauge B
Gauge C
Load (kN)
800
Load (kN)
800
400
Gauge C
400
Gauge A
0
50
100 0
50
Deflection at the midspan (mm)
100
Gauge B
0.015
0.005
0.01
Strain of the carbon-fiber sheet
(
Gf ;c Gfc0 1 157
pe
fc0
2 )
p
77:3 e
fc0
9
p0e
When a pile did not have both a carbon-ber sheet and concrete
inlling, the concrete in region (a) of Fig. 15 was treated as plain
concrete. The effective conning pressure of the concrete in region
(b) of Fig. 15 was modied to take into account the reduced
conning pressure due to the presence of the hollow core using
the factor f, as proposed by Kohashi et al., wherein this was based
on their experimental results with hollow reinforced concrete columns under concentric loading [21,22]. The effective conning
pressure of a pile lacking a carbon-ber sheet and concrete inlling
was determined as follows:
11
267
t
D
f 2:0 1 eF 1 100Ps 0 < t
D
2
Region (a)
12
Region (b)
F1
1
fyh =200 F 2 2
F2
13
0
fc0
60
F 2 2:0
14
0
F 2 4 fc0 =30 60 < fc0
< 120
Ps As =t s
Region (c)
15
Fig. 14. Cross-section of a pile with concrete inlling and without a carbon-ber
sheet.
100
Region (b)
Region (a)
Stress-averaged strain relation of
concrete in region (b) in Fig. 14
with concrete infilling and
without a carbon-fiber sheet
50
0
0
0.5
1
Axial strain (%)
1.5
Fig. 17. Relationship between the stress and averaged strain in conned concrete.
Region (a)
Region (b)
D4-11 (fpe = 6.3N/mm2)
0
Region (c)
0
Regions (a) and (b): Con-A
Region (c): Con-B
Fig. 16. Cross-section of a pile with concrete inlling and a carbon-ber sheet.
50
Deflection (mm)
100
Fig. 18. Effect of the initial prestress on the increment of stress in a prestressed
steel bar during loading.
268
The effective conning pressure applied to the concrete in regions (b) and (c) in Fig. 16 is provided by the carbon-ber sheets
and spirals and is given as follows:
qCF
17
4n tCF
18
where qCF is the area ratio of the carbon-ber sheets, eCFt is the
strain at the peak stress (=0.0015), ECF and fCF are the modulus of
elasticity and tensile strength of the carbon-ber sheet, respectively, n is the number of carbon-ber sheets that are wrapped
around a pile, and tCF is the thickness of a carbon-ber sheet.
Experimental result
Given by
longitudinal bars
p0e ke;v qw fyh qCF fCF at 0:5 f cc after the peak stress
Computed result
D4-1
D4-3
D4 -2
D 4-4
400
0
0.1
800
D4-5
D4-6
D4-8
D4-7
Moment (kN m)
400
0
0.1
800
D4-10
D4-9
D4-11
D4-12
400
0
0.1
800
D4-13
D4-15
D4-14
D4-17
D4-16
400
0
0.1
20
The stress-averaged strain model that was proposed by Akiyama et al. [15] requires the use of the element length Lm over
which the compressive fracture energy Gf,c is dissipated. In the analytical evaluation of the concentric compression test results, Lm
must be the same as the gauge length. Gf,c is kept constant in the
strain-localized element, regardless of Lm, under the condition that
Lm is larger than the compressive fracture zone. Therefore, the
800
19
Curvature (m-1)
269
7.10 and 5.75 MPa, respectively. In comparison to the initial prestress of these piles, the increments are signicant. In addition,
as shown in Fig. 12b, the piles with fewer spirals (i.e., wider
spiral spacings), such as D4-8 and D4-10, exhibited buckling of
the longitudinal bars. The results for these specimens did not
indicate good correlations between the experimental and analytical results. It should be noted that if the tensile strain of the
prestressed steel bar does not increase with the bending moment, a higher exural strength could not be expected for the
pile with a lower prestress level, as shown in the computed results for D4-1, D4-3, and D4-11. The effects of the test parameters on the increase in the tensile strain of the prestressed steel
bars need to be examined. For the specimens with higher prestress levels and smaller spiral spacings, the analytical and
experimental momentcurvature curves agree very well.
The data presented in Figs. 17 and 19 conrm that the carbonber sheets and concrete inlling signicantly affected the exural
strengths of the piles. Even though the carbon-ber sheeting that
was used in this experiment cannot itself resist the bending moment and the contribution to the momentcurvature relation that
is provided by concrete inlling [region (c)] is small, as shown in
Fig. 19, the utilization of carbon-ber sheets and concrete inlling
can provide the conning pressures to concrete in regions (a) and
(b) and improve the behavior of concrete in regions (a) and (b). As a
result, the piles with carbon-ber sheets and concrete inlling (i.e.,
D4-12, 14, 15, 16, and 17) show better structural performances.
Fig. 19 shows the computed results for the piles with carbon-ber
sheets and concrete inlling under the assumption that piles do
not have prestressing steel bars. These results show that it is necessary for the proposed piles to have prestressing steel bars to increase the exural strength.
The element length, Lm, cannot be determined based on
mechanical considerations. Fig. 20 shows the effect of Lm on the
computed momentcurvature relationship. With longer Lm, the
stress-averaged strain relation in the post-peak region proposed
by Akiyama et al. [15] has a steeper descent if the conning
500
500
Moment (kN m)
Moment (kN m)
(a)
250
(b)
250
Experimental results
Computed results (Lm=300 mm)
Computed results (Lm =500 mm)
Computed results (Lm =700 mm)
Experimental results
Computed results (Lm =300 mm)
Computed results (Lm =500 mm)
Computed results (Lm =700 mm)
D4-5
0
0.00
0.05
Curvature (m-1)
D4-9
0.10
0
0.00
0.05
Curvature (m-1)
0.10
270