Basic Processing and Evaluation

of Borehole Image

2-Days workshop
Level 1 Competency for Petrophysicist

Instructor: Nguyen Phuong Thuy

PEP Department
26th-27th September 2013

Outline
26th-Sept-2013
Morning: 9.00-12.30
Objectives/Overview
Imaging Tool Types
Acquitition
Processing/QC/Hand on exercise

Afternoon: 13.30-17.00

Enhance Image
Measuring & Display Dips
Hand on exercise

27th-Sept-2013
Morning: 9.00-12.30
Fractures/Faults
In-Situ Stress Indicators
Hand on exercise

Afternoon: 14.30-16.30

Carbonate Feature
Sand/Shale count
Hand on exercise

Borehole Image
Map of a property around the borehole wall

(open hole).
Run over long section of borehole.
High vertical resolution (ranging from 5mm
18inch).
A virtual core allowing feature identification by
geologists but inexpensive comparing to core.
Could be acquired by Wireline or LWD, in both
WBM and OBM.
Wireline:

Microresistivity
Ultrasonic
LWD:
Microresistivity.
Density.
Photoelectric Factor.
Sonic velocities.
Ultrasonic Caliper

Conventional Uses of Borehole Image

Objectives
Introduction to basic techniques for evaluation of borehole images

Basic Tools and acquisition

Data QC and processing
Basic Evaluation
o Measure/pick dips.
o Determine Fractures, faults, and breakout
o Sand/shale count for laminated formation

Provide you with a roadmap for borehole image evaluation.

You will be able to assess your image logs.

Borehole Imaging technological since 1950s

1960-1970

1980

1990

2000

1958 Birdwell employs borehole photography using a 16-mm lens

1964 Shell uses a black-and-white downhole television camera.
1968 Mobil develops the first analog borehole teleview that is 13/4-in.-diameter
1971 Mobil develops an analog borehole teleview that is 13/4-in.-diameter

1980 Amoco develops a 33/8-in.-diameter, high-resolution borehole televiewer that features analog-to-raster conversion and digital
reprocessing o imagies.
1983 Amoco develops a 33/8-in.-diameter, high-resolution borehole televiewer that features the digitization of the analog recording and
digital reprocessing o imagies.
1984 Shell develops a 33/8-in.-diameter, high-resolution borehole televiewer that features analog-to-raster conversion and digital
reprocessing o imagies.
1986 Schlumberger introduces the first microresistivity imaging tool, the FMS tool, with two imaging pads and two dipmeter pads
1988 Schlumberger introduces the second version of the FMS tool, with two imaging pads and two dipmeter pads.
1989 Atlas introduces the CBIL borehole imaging service that utilizes dual ultrasonic, focused transducer .
1989 BRGM develop the 2-in.-diameter ELIAS tool that provides 100% borehole coverage in small boreholes.
1990 Halliburton introduces the CSAT borehole imageing service that also utilizes an ultrasonic, focused transducer
1990 - Schlumberger introduces the UBI tool that also utilizes an ultrasonic, focused transducer and has an increased tolerance for heavier
muds.
1991 Schlumberger introduces the FMI microresistivity imaging tool with a flap-pad design. The FMI doubles the borehole coverage to
80% in an 8-in hole
1992 Schlumberger introduces the ARI tool that employs a laterolog measurement.
1994 - Schlumberger introduces the RAB LWD tool that enables real-time borehole images.
1994 Halliburton introduces the EMI service, a microresistivity imaging device featuring six arms that achieves 60%borehole coverage in
a 77/8-in hole.
1995 Western Atlas introduces the STAR tool featuring six imaging arms combined with an acoustic imaging device
2001 Schlumberger introduces the OBMI, the first microresistivity imaging tool designed for nonconductive mud
From 2001 to the year 2008 most of the new imaging tools in the wireline domain presented mainly modifications and improvements of
the existent imaging technology

AAPG Memoir92

Common Borehole Image Tools

Common Borehole Image Tools

Gamma Images

Density Images

Ultrasonic Images

Increasing Resolution

Electrical Images

Common Borehole Image Tools

Acquitition
Wireline

Sensor
Resistivity - Dipmeters

WBM Resistivity - Images

OBM Resistivity - Images

Acoustic

Tool name

Provide

Hexdip

Baker Hughes

HDT

Schlumberger

SHDT

Schlumberger

SED

Halliburton

STAR

Baker Hughes

FMS

Schlumberger

FMI

Schlumberger

EMI

Halliburton

EARTH

Baker Hughes

GeoXplorer

Baker Hughes

OBMI (-2)

Schlumberger

CBIL

Baker Hughes

Ultrasonic

Baker Hughes

CSAT

Halliburton

UBI

Schlumberger

AST

British Plaster Board

Common Borehole Image Tools (cont.)

Acquitition
LWD

Sensor
Density

Gamma-Ray

Resistivity

Tool name

Provide

LithoTrak

Baker Hughes

EcoScope/AND

Baker Hughes

Azimuthal Litho Density

Halliburton

Azimuthal Density (AZD)

Weatherford

OnTrak Gamma Elite

Baker Hughes

EcoScope

Schlumberger

M5

Halliburton

HAGR

Weatherford

StarTrak (hi-res)

Baker Hughes

geoVISION GVR (std-res)

Schlumberger

AFR

Halliburton

Characteristics of some borehole imaging tools

Tool name

Sensor

Mud
system

Resolution

Logging
speed

Pressure
Temperature

Hole size
(inch)

Length
Weight,
Diameter

FMI
(SLB)

Resistivity

WBM

High, 1cm bedding

features, sub-mm
fractures

15001800ft/h

Max 138MPa,
1770C

6.25-21inch

8.02m, 211kg,
127mm

UBI
(SLB)

Acoustic

WBM+
OBM

High, 3cm bedding

features, sub-mm
fractures

400-800ft/h

138MPa, 1770C
16lb/gal

5.5-12.5inch

6.3m, 160kg,
102mm

OBMI
(SLB)

Resistivity

OBM

Medium

3600ft/h

138MPa, 1600C

6.25-17inch

5.1m, 140kg,
146mm

EMI
(Halliburton)

Resistivity

WBM

High, 1cm bedding

features, sub-mm
fractures

1800ft/h

138MPa, 1770C

6.25-21inch

7.3m, 225kg,
127mm

XRMITM
(Halliburton)

Resistivity

WBM

High, 1cm bedding

features, sub-mm
fractures

1800ft/h

138MPa, 1770C

6-21inch

7.3m, 225kg,
127mm

CAST
(Halliburton)

Acoustic

WBM+
OBM

High, 3cm bedding

features, sub-mm
fractures

1200ft/h

138MPa, 1770C

5-12.5inch

5.46m, 143kg,
92mm

CBIL
(Baker Hughes)

Acoustic

WBM+
OBM

High, 3cm bedding

features, sub-mm
fractures

2400ft/h

138MPa, 2040C
17lb/gal

5-18inch

4.55m, 122.5kg,
92.1mm

OMRI
(Halliburton)

Resistivity

OBM

Medium

1800ft/h

138MPa, 1770C

6.5-16inch

8.39m,
344.73kg,
139.7mm

EI
(Baker Hughes)

Resistivity

OBM

Medium

600ft/h

138MPa, 1770C

6-21inch

Common Electrical Borehole Image Tools

FMI

Schlumberger
Pad

Flap

192 pad mounted buttons

(24 buttons per1 pad & 1
flap per arm) to provide an
electrical image of the
borehole with a resolution
of 0.2 in (5 mm).

Common Electrical borehole imaging tools

Logging
Contractor

Tool name

Measurement

Numbe
r of
Arms

Number of
Measurements
per Tool

Full name

Schlumberger

FMI

Resistivity (WBM)

4 (4pads
+4flaps)

192

Fullbore Formation
MicroImager

OBMI

Resistivity (OBM)

20

Oil-Base MicroImager

Schlumberger

OBMI-2

Resistivity (OBM)

40

Dual OBMI (Two OBMI

tools with 45 angular
offet)

BakerHughes

STAR

Resistivity and
acoustic (WBM)

144

STAR Imager

BakerHughes

EI

Resistivity (OBM)

48

EARTH Imager

Halliburton

EMI

Resistivity (WBM)

150

Electrical Micro Imaging

Halliburton

OMRI

Resistivity (OBM)

36

Oil Mud Reservoir Imager

Weatherford

HMI

Resistivity (WBM)

150

High-Resolution Micro
Imager

Borehole Wall Coverage

Tool

Borehole
Borehole Coverage
Coverage 6-ft Hole
8.5-ft Hole
(%)
(%)

Borehole
Coverage 12.25-ft
Hole (%)

FMI

98

75

53

OBMI/OBMI-2

43/86

30/60

21/42

UBI

100

100

100

STAR

80 Electrical
100 Acoustic

56 Electrical
100 Acoustic

39 Electrical
100 Acoustic

EI

88

61

43

CBIL

100

100

100

EMI

94

75

47

CAST

100

100

100

OMRI

84

59

41

WBM Resistivity Measurement Principle

FMS, FMI, STAR2, EMI
Pad-mounted arrays of

microelectrical sensors
Respond to rock texture,
fluid saturation &
mineralogy
High resolution images
Water-based mud only

Acoustic Imager Tool Theory

Common Acoustic Tools

Image LWD Tools

Sensor(s) rotate with drill collar, allowing for 100% borehole coverage under optimal conditions.
Use magnetometers to identify tool orientation and store data accordingly.
The number of sectors/bins determines the circumferential resolution.
LWD Image Logs now available for most key petrophysical measurements: Gamma Ray, Azimuthal
propagation Resistivity, density, Acoustic, High-Resolution Microresistivity.

Comparing LWD and Wireline Logging

There are three fundamental differences between LWD and wireline
electrical image logs:
Time of acquisition:Wireline logs are usually acquired 2-10 days
after drilling, whereas LWD logs are acquired minutes to hours after
drilling. The time lapse can tell you interesting thing about wellbore
stresses.
Coverage: Due to pad-based devices, the borehole coverage in wireline
are less than in LWD images which use drill string rotation to scan the
borehole wall using a single sensor providing full borehole coverage and
the ability to interpret non-sinusoidal and discontinuous features on the
borehole wall. Especially in the large borehole the coverage might be
less than 30% of the borehole wall. Also, in pipe-conveyed logging, we
will lose the top 50m of the hole.
Vertical Resolution:Wireline electrical image logs are made using a
series of buttons on pads pressed onto the borehole wall, providing
higher resolution than LWD Images (on the order of mm versus an inch
for LWD).

The LWD image (left), showa induced fractures and

wireline image over the same interval in which
induced fractures are not visible. Note that induced
fractures terminate against the more competent
cemented zones. Both images pick out thin
laminations well.

Workflow
Objective:
To maximize the value from borehole image logs, the objective of the project should
guide the entire workflow from acquisition to processing, to the final interpretation.

Acquisition:
To select the appropriate logging tool for the specific subsurface uncertainties.
To choose the logging suite, including setup, calibration, and verification of the
borehole imaging.

Processing:
To convert the raw acquisition data into the best visual representation.
Graphic enhancement of specific features such as bedding, texture, vugs, and
fractures.

Interpretation:
Dip computation of bedding surfaces, fault planes, and fracture.
Correlation of image to whole core extends the interpretation to non-cored
sections.
Quantification of image, such as sand count and calibration to core porosity,
increases interpretation accuracy.

Planning Image Log Acquisition

Correct tool choice must be made based on :
The well objectives
The value of information: Amount of the value the BHI data add to the
project.
Project economics: Whether it is economically advisable for the project to
bear the cost of BHI data.
Resolution: Whether the available tools record the resolution needed to
answer the associated geological concerns.

Borehole condition and acquitition: Which tool is suitable to record data for
a given borehole architecture and drilling regime.
Fluid type: Which tools are compatible with fluids being used during the
drilling phase.
Time: Does the data need to be acquired during the drilling phase or
afterward.

Electrical or acoustic?
Electrical
+ highest resolution
- limited coverage
- not usable in OBM
- affected by rugose hole

Acoustic
+ OBM & WBM
+ 360 coverage
- needs good acoustic
contrast
- affected by poor hole &
eccentralisation
- lower image resolution

Data Quality Check

Status of data: raw, partly processed, or fully processed: DLIS format
The minimum requirements for processing of raw data are:

Image logs
Resistivity/ conductivity pad/ button data: PBTN*, DB*, PDD*, BA*, FC*, FB*, etc
Acoustic transit time and amplitude: AWBK, TTBK, AMP, TT, BHTA, BHTT, etc
Orientation data
Tool/hole deviation: DEVI, DEV
Hole azimuth: HAZI, DAZ
Pad1 or reading 1 azimuth: P1AZ, AZI, AZ, DMTO
Relative breading: RB, ROT

Accelerometer-related data
Z- axis accelerometer: AZ, ZACC, RAZG, GA2F
Frame time: FTIME, ETMP, DXT
Cable speed: CS, SPD
Borehole diameter
Caliber or radii: CALI, HCAL

Data Quality Check (cont.)

Check the field print
Are the calibrations within the specification limits?
Check the tool diagram (required for depth offset information for orientation and accelerometer data if
parameters are missing in digital header).
Check the remark section. For example ,were there any irregularities during logging , have any corrections
been applied to data, and so on?
Main and Repeat passes of the logs and that the orientation tool calibrations are present where relevant.
Missing calibration information means that you can not perform a proper QC of the tool orientation.
Are logs on depth with reference log?
Logging Condition
Is the hole deviated
Has the log been acquired on wireline or on pipe
What is the borehole shape, such as washout, break-out, mudcake build-up, or borehole spiraling?
Are caliper/ radii reading correct (e.g., check the caliper reading in casing)?
Independent orientation survey
LWD or gyro (not always available) provide a QC for the orientation data.
Data from resistivity device used to compare response of tool, and also generate calibrated resistivity
images. Not essential.
Data from a density device used to compare response of ultrasonic.
Reference GR curve if previous logging runs exist.

Data Quality Check

Data Quality Check

Check orientation and
accelerometer data for
any anomalies (e.g.,
gaps, spurious value)k
Good QC:
DEVI reads close to 0.
HAZI varies slightly as
normal in vertical
well.
AZI and RB track each
other.
Slight step-like
appearance of RB and
HAZI is normal.

GR on depth?

Good QC:
All curves run
parallel
Constant values
ANOR reads
~9.81m/s2

ANOR: Gravitational Field

Magnitude
FNOR: Magnetic Field
Magnitude
FINC: Magnetic Field
Inclination

Check calipers

Create an image from

raw data. How is the
general image quality?

Data Quality Check

Orientation QC
Orientation logs need to be correct for magnetic
declination.
Values for magnetic inclination, declination, and
magnetic field strength correct for the location.
X and Y raw magnetometer component data show a
circular distribution in a centered at (0,0) on a Xplot.
Directional readings from the wireline log agreed with
the MWD survey.
Any anomalies such as spikes and noise.

Data Quality Check

Compare X and Y
Accelerometer data. If a
circle is not formed, data
may be compromised
(except in Vertical wells).

Exercise 1
Import FMI data and QC of:
Carbonate: Catoche-1 well.
Basement: Anding Utara-1
Laminated: Beratai east-1

Workflow
Objective:
To convert the raw acquisition data into the
best visual representation.
Graphic enhancement of specific features such
as bedding, texture, vugs, and fractures.

Processing stages:
Data preparation
Speed correction
Depth matching
Button, pad and flap alignment
Image processing
Image generation
Button equalisation
Pad normalisation

Speed Correction
Where the wireline cable depth at surface and data acquisition depth down-hole differ then it is

essential to make a correction.

The speed correction process is a major part of data processing. The goal is to position each

button measurement at the proper depth in the hole. At any given time, the data from each row
of the buttons are coming from different depths.
The initial increment to shift each row is derived from downhole accelerometer measurements.

The local accelerations is first integrated to determine tool speed, which is then integrated to
calculate the actual depth shift to apply.
Before Shift After Shift
Array of
sensors

2 1111
4
1 3
5

Row 2
Row1

Before Shift After Shift

(b)

Before Shift After Shift

(c)

(a)
Effect of Nominal Depth Shift
When:
(a) Tool speed equal cable speed, correct depth shift
is performed
(b) Tool speed is greater than the nominal speed,
depthshift over-corrects for the true position of
boudary.
(c) Tool speed is less than the nominal speed, depth
shift under-corrects for true position of
boundary

Speed Correction
If the tool were moving uphole at a
constant speed, a siple shift of each row
would bring all the data into alignment.

Although cable speed may be constant.

The tool is usually sticking and bouncing
to some extent as it comes uphole.
To apply a constant shift under such
changing conditions would result in either
an over-correction or an undercorrection. Both of these cases would
leave the images with a saw-tooth
appearance.

Saw-tooth artifact

Before

After

Image Generation
Mapping of resistivity or acoustic
curves/traces/waveforms to false-colour images.
Interpolation of curve data to form image.
Since resistivity tools are pad-based, they do not
cover the complete circumference of the borehole
like wirelike acoustic image or LWD image tools.
Gaps are present between the pad images. The
size of gaps varies with hole size and is defined in
the GAPS_IMG log.

Individual curves are

merged into a single image

Bad Button Correction

A dead button on one of the pads has

to be repaired, otherwise some of the

downstream processing will not be
effective.
The detection and correction of bad
buttons is normally handled
automatically in the speed correction
module. However, should the analyst
wish, it is possible to perform some
additional corrections or to perform
all corrections manually.
The repair is made by removing the
bad button channel and then replacing
that data with the average of the two
adjacent buttons.

Equalization
The primary purpose of the equalization is to

statistically modify the data from each

individual button in such a manner that each
button will have essentially the same resistivity
response as all the others.
Using a sliding window, the module calibrates
an image by adjusting the standard deviation
and mean of each column to be approximately
the same as that for all the column together
(i.e. the entire window).
This type of processing often improves the
contrast between pads when one or two pads
are not making good contact with the
borehole. A window of 15ft. Is normally
chosen to keep the effects of small scale
variations from affecting the larger scale
equalization corrections.

Normalization
Normalization process:
Data gets redistributed into 128 bins: integer values from 0 to 127.
Within the window, the input data is re-binned to match either a uniform or Gaussian

distribution.

Uniform Normalization

Gaussian Normalization

Normalization
Two types of normalization are performed:
Static Normalization: is a single

computation where the color classes

are based on a measurement
distribution histogram defined over the
whole logged interval.
Dynamic

Normalization: is the
result of multiple computations,
repeated at regularly spaced positions
over user specified depth interval using
a window of relatively short interval
(0.6096m). The results depend on the
size of the window.

Static
Normalization
Applied to Entire
interval

Dynamic
Normalization
Applied to a 20cm
Sliding interval

Static vs. Dynamic Images

Dynamic Image shows more detail than the

other image.

To pick dips from particular bedding

interfaces, count thin beds in a sequence,
or look for any subtle variations, Dynamic
version would be easiest to use.

If we want to examine resistivity

differences between zones, distinguish
open fractures from healed or minor
fractures, or even correlate to other logs, it
is more convenient to use the Static
images.

The two process complement each other

and should be used together.

Scales
The Presentation shows the effect of
scale changes:
The image on the left is flattens
the apparent dip but allows an
overview of the formation.

The middle display is presented

on a 1/10 vertical and a 1/5
horizontal scale. The dips are
shown in their true apparent
position.
The display on the right is
presented on a 1/10 vertical and a
1/10 horizontal scale.

1/40 Vertical
1/5 Horizontal

1/10 Vertical
1/5 Horizontal

1/10 Vertical
1/10 Horizontal

Summary Data Quality Check

Ensure that magnetic and gravitational field magnitudes are reading correctly.
Verify that data are oriented to true north (if not corrected during processing); data might be also

oriented to the high side or low side of the tool frame.

Varify that data are on-depth with the well reference gamma ray or resistivity master log.

For on-pad devices, identify areas of tool sticking (look at vertical accelerometer and tension curves)

and irregular pad readings, curve character, or dead buttons.

Verify caliper reading inside casing.
Verify data versus expected lithologies.
Identify sections of excessive tool rotation (look at relative bearing curve), i.e., excessive tool rotation

occurs within a 30ft (9m) interval.

Verify data repeatability from different acquisition runs (main and repeat).
On-pad devices, assess whether pad pressure was satisfactory (look at the pad pressure curve).
Identify mud cake buildup and sections of poor hole conditions and assess the effect on data quality,

mud cake building in excess of 0.5in (1.2cm) is likely to affect the image and raw curve quality.

Workflow
A multistep approach inspired by Harker at al (1988) is recommended to
archieve optimum results:
Display the images (straight plot with static normalization) at a
compressed scale (1:40). This display is used first to depth match and
correlate the imgaes with openhole logs and dipmeter arro plots.
Zone the major depositional units using this composite log. A
lithologycal column obtained by processing openhole data may be
preferred over raw data since it indicates the main lithofacies directly.
Identify major sedimentary discontinuities and tectonic features. The
dipmeter arrow plot is necessary. Use seismic information and local
knowledge to narrow the possibilities.
Define the most probable depositional environments from all
available information lithofacies, thickness, sequences, nature of
bed boundaries, etc.
Display the images at 1:5 or 1:10 horizontal and vertical scales. With
this scale the details of the images can be interpreted into texture,
sedimentary features, etc. within the environmental context
hypothesized. Local enhancement may be necessary to highlight faint
features.

Evaluation
Objective:
Dip computation of bedding surfaces, fault planes, and fracture.
Correlation of image to whole core extends the interpretation to noncored sections.
Quantification of image, such as sand count and calibration to core
porosity, increases interpretation accuracy.

QC interpretation
Bring in supporting data:
core, orther open-hole logs,
production tests

Output Interpretation

Understanding Dips

Understanding Dips

Dipmeter Logging

Dip Computation

The dipmeter makes measurements enabling us to compute the dip of bedding planes.
Computing these dips requires the following information:
The relative position of 3 points on the plane.
Orientation of the tool.
Angle and Direction of deviation of the tool

Dip values is simply the description of the orientation

of a plane that best fits the interface in which we are
interested.
Dip magnitude: the angle between a horizontal
plane and the lower side of the dip plane. This
represents the magnitude of the downward tilt of
the plane
Dip azimuth: the compass direction toward the
lowest point of intersection of the dip plane and
the borehole cylinder. Dip azimuth is then the
direction of maximum downward dip.
Dip azimuth = minimum of sine wave
Average depth of fracture = (A+B)/2
Tan(Dip Angle) = (A-B)/(Borehole diameter)
Strike = Dip azimuth +/- 90

Viewing perspective
Vertical
Fracture
Bedding
Plane

Bedding plane

45 Deviation
Fracture
Bedding
Plane

Fracture

Horizontal
Fracture

Bedding
Plane

Dip Computation: From Image

Planer Contact

E
S
W
Good Sine Wave Fit through All Points

Non - Planer Contact

E
S
W
Poor Sine Wave Fit through All Points

Dip Presentation

Dip are presented as tadpoles: Each tadpole

consists of a dot with an attached headless arrow or
tail.

The computed dipmeter result is composed of many,

often thousands, of tadpole. From the tadpole it is
possible to recognize changes in dip and direction up
and down the well.

The tadpole color represents the category selected

during picking.

50O

The tail of the tadpole indicates the direction of the dip.

Head of the tadpole indicates the magnitude of the dip.

Dip Patterns
Red : Downdip thickening

upward decreasing dip angle

with consistent dip azimuth
Numereous possibilities: Fault,

Folds,
channels,
bars,
unconformities, etc. Use other
logs/data for integrative.
Blue : Downdip thinning

Upward increasing dip angle

with consistent dip azimuth.
Numereous possibilities: faults,

folds, current bedding. Again

look at other data.
Green : Constant section
Generally

indicates
postdepositional structual dip.

Structural dip from the

green patterns.

 FRACTURES ANALYSIS

Fracture classification
Continuous
Fracture

Conductive
fracture

Discontinuous
Fracture

Resistive fracture

Solution
enhances fracture

Natural fracture
Drilling induced
fracture

Fault
Lithology
boundary

Fractures
Naturally occurring open fractures are very

important to producibility in many carbonate and

sandstone reservoirs
Two methods of Fracture interpretation by images:
Characterization visual inspection of the

electrical images

Fracture analysis computer assisted evaluation

Fracture Identification
Fracture type: vertical, polygonal, or

mechanically induced
Vertical fractures: in a vertical borehole can

be identified as a high amplitude feature which

crosses other bedding planes.
Polygonal (syneresis) fractures: caused by

the chemical or mechanical dewatering of a

carbonate or by tectonic forces.
Mechanically induced fractures: created

by the drilling process or by a hydraulic frac.

Natural angles from

60 to
vertical

Polygonal
(Syneresis,
Chickenwire)

Mechanical:
Hydraulic
Stress

Vertical fractures
Vertical fractures in a vertical borehole can be
identified as a high amplitude feature which
crosses other bedding planes.
The feature is conductive if open and resistive
if mineral-filled.
Producibility and recovery efficiency in some
reservoirs is influenced by the fracture angle.

Fractures with dip angles of more than 75 are

vertical fractures while those less than 75 are
high angle fractures.

Polygonal (syneresis) fractures

Caused by the chemical or mechanical
dewatering of a carbonate or by tectonic
forces.
Often appears at changes in the lithology
Have a braided appearance and are often
referred to as chicken-wire fractures.

Cannot be oriented

Mechanically Induced Fractures

Fractures are also cause by the drilling process. These are often
intepreted from other logs as open fratures. These can be
recognizes on electrical images by:
Never crosses the borehole, i.e., does not make a sine-wave.
Often has curvature at termination;
Always open no vugs or mineral-filled;

Cannot be micro-faulted;
Oriented parallel to maximum and intermediate principle
stresses; usually vertical; and
Oriented along the least principle stress direction.
A primary use of drilling induced fractures is to orient the
direction of hydraulic fracs. A frac will propagate along the
strike of the drilling induced fractures.

Fault
Occur when there is displacement along a fracture plane. On Image logs, major fault are

characterized by one or more of these criteria:

High angle resistive or conductive layer was observed across the well bore with a sharp well defined

sine wave marking the top.

Bed often truncate into fault plane.
Possible juxtaposition of different facies across fault plane.
Abrupt change in dip attitude.
Occurrence of the fractures around the fault intersection.

Micro faults are sometimes present that minor displacement in bedding along the fracture

plane. These micro faults can occur above and below a fault zone.

Faulting

Fracture

Fracture Identification

Fracture morphology :
Open fractures

Open
Mineral-filled fractures

Partially filled
Vuggy fractures

Mineral filled

Solution enhanced
(vuggy)

Open Fractures
More conductive than the

surrounding matrix and will have a

dark trace on an image. The degree of
conductivity depends on the
resistivities of the mud and the
flushed-zone, and the fracture
geometry. A salt mud system will
enhance the appearance of fracture
while a fresh mud system will reduce
the appearance.
Can fit sinusiod.
Higher angle and different than

bedding.

Mineralized filled/Close Fractures

That have been filled by secondary

mineralization making them more

resistive. Will appear as traces that
are brighter than surrounding rock.
Sometime demonstrate a halo

appearance due to the resistivity of

the secondary mineralization.
Generally symmetrical and a sine

wave can be fit.

The differentiation between open and close
fractures by Oil-Base-Mud tools is generally
very difficult due to the high resistivity of both
the invaded drilling fluid incase of open
fractures and the mineral cement such as
quartz and carbonates occluded fractures
incase of closed fractures.

Halo effect

Partially filled Fractures

Appear to be at least partially closed

or mineralized. On Image logs they

may appear as trace that are
partially bright and partially dark.
Usually symetrical.

Solution Enhanced Fractures (Vuggy)

Vugs are small to medium-sized cavities

rock that may be formed through a variety

of processes.
Vugular porosity is characterized under

secondary porosirt and may or may not be

connected in the reservoir.
Exhibit irregular enlargements along the

fracture plane.

Fractures Orientation

Faults
Objectives: Analysis of normal, reverse, and combination

fault planes from elctrical images to obtain:

Depth of the fault: is at the base of the fault zone
Strike of the fault: is perpendicular to the fault azimuth
Angle of the fault : is the angle between horizontal and
fault plane.
All fault interpretation requires the input of missing, repeated,

or constant section.
A resistive (white) fault plane is normally a sealing fault while

a conductive (black) fault plane maybe sealing or non-sealing.

Sealing

Non-sealing/Sealing

Fracture Example
Objective of this exersice:
Geological Background:
Available Data:
marked.
Identification:
Morphology:
Orientation:

XX998

XX999

XX000

Characterazation of a vertical fracture.

Carbonate
Equalized and Enhanced Images, Litho-Density and Neutron Logs, Perforation as

x Natural Vertical Polygonal (Syneresis) Mechanical Induced

xOpen Partially Mineral-Filled Mineral-Filled Vuggy
Fracture Angle: 850 /1130\
Fracture Strike: 230 - 2030

Fracture Example
Objective of this exersice:
Geological Background:
Available Data:
Identification:
Morphology:
Orientation:

Characterazation of a vertical fracture.

Carbonate
Resistivity Calibrated Images, NGT, Natural Gamma Ray.
x Natural Vertical Polygonal (Syneresis) Mechanical Induced
x Open x Partially Mineral-Filled Mineral-Filled Vuggy
Fracture Angle:
Fracture Strike: 380 - 2180

Exercise
Analysis Fractures on given paper.
Dip picking and identify fractures, fault in basement and carbonate wells.
Calculate fracture density

Carbonate features
Objective: Recognition of the most common Carbonate features

Stylolites
Collapse Breccia

Calcareous Concretions

Stylolite
Breccia

Concretion

Stylolites
Common diagenetic rock feature which is

characterized by an irregular boundary formed

by pressure solution.
Consist of the insoluble residue of the material
dissolved in the process.
Frequently pyrite or other conductive minerals
and appears as a dark, thin, wavy lamination.
May form in carbonates and in sandstone.
The stylolite is impermeable, extensional
fractures are commonly associated with them
and will affect the reservoir flow
characteristics.

Collapse Breccia

Rock composed of broken fragments of minerals

or rock cemented together by a fine-grained
matrix.
Recognized on the electrical images as poorly
sorted, angular rock fragments.
In some areas, this breccia zone is very
permeable and may be a prolific hydrocarbon
producer.

Concretions
Formed during diagenesis when
concentration of certain minerals
accumulate into a nodule. Calcite is the
most common.
These are usually just interesting for
electrical image interpretation, but
maybe helpful in defining the
deposition environment.
Porosity tool such as the density or
sidewall neutron is affected by the
present of such nodules an inconsistent
interpretations may occur.

Petrophysical Application of Borehole Images

Porosity typing:

Abundant dark conductive

patches interpreted as vuggy
porosity. There is likely to be
good connectivity in this
example. The bright,
resistive patches are
probably bioclasts.

Petrophysical Application of Borehole Images

Permeability heterogeneity
Well laminated horizon

Alternating relatively resistive and

conductive horizons
corresponding to fining-upward
units. Conductive horizons are
the coarser, more porous
packstone-grainstone facies.
Resistive horizons are finer
grained packstone to wackestone
facies.

Petrophysical Application of Borehole Images

Flow baffles/barriers

Sandstone
2600 psi

Sandstone
3600 psi

Borehole

Petrophysical Application of Borehole Images

Porosity typing:

Laminated bed Analysis

Objectives: the identification and quantitative characterization of

thinly bedded sands in order to determine net sand fraction and

provide better information for petrophysical analysis:
Thin bed determination
Sand count
Sharpened porosity
Sharpened resistivity: (SHARP of SLB)

Electrofacies Definition

Unconformities (co-work with geologist)

A unconformity is the result of non-deposition or the erosion of inclined beds from arrow

plots by changes in:

Dip density
Dip magnitude
Dip azimuth

Rule: Structural Dip is usually

higher below an unconformity

and higher above a fault

In-situ stress

Borehole Breakout and Induced fracture

Tensile fractures on opposite sides
of the wellbore that are 90O from
the midpoints of the wellbore
breakout.
Breakouts and drilled-induced
tensile fractures form 180O apart,
on opposites sides of the well.
Breakouts and tensile fractures
form 90O apart.

Breakout examples in electrical image logs

Microresistivity images (STAR, FMI)
Defocusing at breakout; smeared
Difficulty in assessing edges of breakout in larger holes
due to gaps in images
Shear planes sometimes imaged where stress equilibration
is not complete (below)
Often restricted to weak rheologies, terminating at bed
boundaries (below)

All examples show

3 feet of formation (MD)

Oil based mud images (OBMI)

As microresistivity images but
drilling mud is resistive and so
breakout is pale
Poorly imaged due to larger
measuring button than WBM
electrical tools.

Induced fracture examples in electrical images

N

1075

1076

Open fractures; conductive in water-base mud and resistive in

oil-base mud
Comprises amalgamating segments that are bed-bounded and
coalesce as en-echelon arrays
180 separation about the wellbore
Degree to which segments coalesce is dependent upon stress
anisotropy magnitude, rock properties and the time the hole has
been open
May not be imaged due to gaps
between imaging pads
Fracture segment lengths relate
to bed thickness

1077

Okabe and Hayashi, 2000

Vertical scale 2 metres
Vertical scale 2 feet

Thank you !