Concrete Components

ABCs OF CONCRETE

Aggregates (coarse and fine) = 60% to 75% of

a concrete mix

Paste = 25% to 40% of a concrete mix

Cement (cementitious materials) = 7% to
15% of a concrete mix
Water = 14% to 21% of a concrete mix
Air = 4% to 8% of a concrete mix

Admixtures

A General Overview of Concrete

Coarse Aggregates

The quality of a concrete mix depends

upon the quality of the paste and the
aggregate, and the bond between the
two.

River Gravel / Crushed Stone

Rounded / Angular

In properly made concrete, all aggregate

particles are completely coated with
paste, and all of the spaces between the
aggregate particles are filled with paste.

Coarse Aggregate - Rounded Gravel

Coarse Aggregate Crushed Limestone

Fine Aggregates

Cement

Natural Sand

Rounded Particle Shape

Manufactured Sand
Angular Particle Shape
Gradation
Advantages
Disadvantages

Types of Cement:
I
Normal
II
Moderate Sulfate Resistance
III
High Early Strength
IV
Low Heat of Hydration
V
High Sulfate Resistance

Cement Mill
RAW MATERIAL STORAGE

GYPSUM SILO

RAW MATERIAL PROPRTIONED

Cement Truck

Concrete Truck

CLINKER SILO
ROLLER MILL
KILN

GRINDING MILL
RAW MATERIAL STORAGE

RAW MATERIALS BLENDED

Supplementary Cementitious
Materials / Mineral Admixtures
Fly

Ash

Ground

Granulated Blast Furnace Slag

(GGBFS)
Silica Fume (Microsilica)
Natural Pozzolans

Supplementary Cementitious
Materials / Mineral Admixtures
Added

to the concrete as part of the total

cementitious system.
May be used in addition to or as a partial
replacement for cement
Used to improve a particular concrete
property
Most are byproducts of other industrial
processes
Economic benefits

Mixing Water For Concrete

Harmful Impurities in Water

WaterWater-Cement Ratio (w/c) Law

Law
For given materials, the strength of the
concrete (so long as we have a plastic
mix) depends solely on the relative
quantity of water as compared with the
cement, regardless of mix or size and
grading of aggregate.
aggregate.
- Duff A. Abrams
May, 1918

Alkali Carbonate & Bicarbonate

High Chloride Content
High Sulfate Content
Other Salts (manganese, tin, zinc, copper)
Acid or Alkaline Waters
Organic Impurities & Algae
Sugar
Silt
Oils

Water-Cement Ratio = (w/c)

w/c = weight of water weight of cement
500 lbs. water in a mix
1000 lbs. of cement
w/c = 500 lbs 1000 lbs. = 0.50

C o m p re ss ive s tren g th , p si

Effect Of Water Content On

Compressive Strength
6000
5000
4000
3000
Non-air-entrained concrete

2000

Air-entrained concrete

1000
0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

Water-cement ratio

Advantages of Reducing Water Content

Increased

compressive & flexural strength

Lower permeability, lower absorption, &
increased watertightness
Increased resistance to weathering
Better bond between concrete &
reinforcement
Reduced drying shrinkage & cracking
Less volume change from wetting & drying

Effect of too Much Water on Concrete

NonNon-cohesive
Segregating
Bleeding
Poor

finishability
High permeability
Reduced strength
Low durability
Increased
shrinkage

Admixtures

Admixture Storage Tanks

Those ingredients in concrete other than

cement, supplementary cementitious materials, water,
& aggregates that are added to the mixture
immediately before or during mixing. - PCA
Air-Entraining Admixtures
Type A Water-Reducing
Type C Accelerating
Type D Water-Reducing & Retarding
Type E Water-Reducing & Accelerating
Type F Water-Reducing, High-Range (plasticizers)
Type G Water-Reducing, High-Range & Retarding

Admixture Dispensers

Air-Entraining Admixtures
Used

to purposely introduce and stabilize

microscopic air bubbles in concrete
AirAir-entrainment dramatically improves the
durability of concrete which is exposed to
freezing and thawing

Why do we need AirAir-Entrainment?

Mechanism of Frost
Damage in Concrete

Non AirAir-entrained

32 oF

courtesy of M. Thomas

.. Primarily to protect against freezing and

thawing cycles.

Mechanism of Frost
Damage in Concrete

Non AirAir-entrained

Mechanism of Frost
Damage in Concrete

32 oF

32 oF

23 oF

23 oF

Water
Expands
Upon Freezing

courtesy of M. Thomas

Scaling Distress

Non AirAir-entrained

courtesy of M. Thomas

Mechanism of Protection
by Air Voids

AirAir-entrained

32 oF
23 oF

photo courtesy of M. Thomas

courtesy of M. Thomas

Mechanism of Protection
by Air Voids

AirAir-entrained

Mechanism of Protection
by Air Voids

32 oF

32 oF

23 oF

23 oF

courtesy of M. Thomas

Mechanism of
Protection by Air Voids

AirAir-entrained

courtesy of M. Thomas

AirAir-entrained

32 oF
23 oF

courtesy of M. Thomas

Water Reducers

Different uses require different amounts of

flowability/workability
NO W/R

Used

to:

Reduce the quantity of mixing water required

to produce concrete of a certain slump
Reduce w/c
Reduce cement content
Increase slump

NORMAL
W/R

HIGH RANGE W/R

Low

range, mid range, & high range

5% - 30% water reduction
Mixes with high slumps and/or low w/c are
possible when these admixtures are used
Provide

MID RANGE W/R

Water-Reducing & Retarding

Admixtures
An admixture that causes a decrease in the
rate of hydration of the hydraulic cement, and
lengthens the time of setting.
Hydration control admixtures (Delvo, Recover,
etc.) are classified as water-reducing &
retarding admixtures

Accelerating Admixtures
An admixture that causes an increase in
the rate of hydration of the hydraulic
cement, and thus shortens the time of
setting, or increases the rate of strength
development, or both.

Properties of Freshly Mixed

Concrete
Mixing

Mixing

Workability
Bleeding

& Settlement
Consolidation
Hydration, Setting Time, & Hardening

Workability

Workability is the ease of placing, consolidating,

and finishing freshly mixed concrete and the
degree to which it resists segregation
Factors that influence workability are:

Method & duration of transportation

Quantity & characteristics of cementitious materials
Slump of the concrete
Grading, shape, & texture of aggregates
EntrainedEntrained-air content
Water content
Concrete & air temperatures
Admixtures

The sequence of adding materials into a mixer

affects the uniformity of the mix
Different batching sequences require
adjustments in the time of water addition, the
total number of revolutions of the mixer drum,
and the speed of revolution
Batch size is important to mixing procedure
Design and condition of the mixer drum and
blades is an important factor in mixing

Bleeding & Settlement

Bleeding is the development of a layer of water at the

surface of freshly mixed concrete
Caused by settlement of heavier particles and upward
migration of water
Helps to control plastic shrinkage cracking
Excessive bleeding causes a high w/c at the surface
Bleeding rate & amount of settlement due to bleeding
increases with initial water content
A properly designed mix (well(well-graded aggregates,
certain admixtures, airair-entrainment, SCM
SCMs) reduces
bleeding

Hydration, Setting Time &

Hardening

Consolidation

Vibration sets into motion the particles in freshly

mixed concrete, reducing the friction between
them
Concrete with optimally graded aggregates are
easier to consolidate and place
Poor consolidation results in honeycombing and
weak concrete
Mechanical vibration allows concrete with a
lower consistency to be used

Hydration is the chemical reaction between cement and

water. This gives cement paste its binding property
Calcium silicate hydrate (CSH), along with other
compounds, is formed when cement reacts with water.
CSH forms dense bonds between crystalline phases of the
hydration reaction and other materials (unhydrated cement,
sand, coarse aggregate)
Heat is released as cement hydrates (heat of hydration)
Rate of hydration determines the rate of hardening
Cement fineness, admixtures, water content, & temperature
(of materials & ambient) affect the rate of hydration

Traditional Water-Cement System

Cement Hydration

Batch Water
Cement Grains

Flocculation

Dispersion obtained due to

the presence of water

Attractive forces between cement

grains will cause flocculation with
LOSS OF FLUIDITY

With Loss of Fluidity and Workability

Properties of Hardened
Concrete
Curing

Rate
Strength
Density
Permeability & Watertightness
Abrasion Resistance
Durability

Hydration Products

Curing

Drying

Concrete will continue to gain strength as

long as:

Unhydrated cement is present

The concrete remains moist
The temperature remains favorable
Sufficient space is available for hydration products
to form

When relative humidity in the concrete is less

than 80%, or the temperature of the concrete
drops below freezing, hydration & strength
gain virtually stop
Moist curing concrete is the best way to cure
concrete

Drying Rate
Concrete

doesn
doesnt cure by drying (it
needs moisture to hydrate)
When concrete dries out, it stops
gaining strength
Drying shrinkage is a primary cause of
cracking
Size & shape of a concrete member
affect the drying rate

Density
Weight

per unit volume of concrete

Normal concrete is usually 137 to 150
lb/ft3
Varies depending on:
The amount and density of the aggregate
Amount of entrained and entrapped air
Water & cement contents
Reducing

density

the paste content increases

Strength

Compressive strength is the resistance to axial loads (28(28day strength)

Compressive strength achieved by concrete results from:

w/c
The extent of hydration
Curing conditions
Age of the concrete

Air content also affects strength

Compressive strength measured by testing cylinders
Flexural strength used to design pavements & slabs
Other measures of strength include: tensile strength,
torsional strength, shear strength, & Modulus of Elasticity (E
= ratio of stress to strain)

Permeability & Watertightness

Permeability is the ability of concrete to resist

penetration by water of other substances
Watertightness is the ability of concrete to hold back
or retain water
Permeability of concrete is a function of the
permeability of the paste & aggregate
Lower permeability improves concrete
concretes resistance to
freezing & thawing, resaturation, sulfate & chloride
ion penetration, and other chemical attack
AirAir-entrainment aids in watertightness but has little
effect on permeability
Permeability increases with drying
Permeability often measured by the rapid chloride
permeability test

Abrasion Resistance
Very

important in floors, pavements,

bridge decks, & hydraulic structures
Abrasion resistance is closely related to
compressive strength
Type of aggregate and surface finish
have a strong influence on abrasion
resistance

Durability

Durability is the ability of concrete to resist weathering action,

action,
chemical attack, & abrasion while maintaining its desired
properties
Resistance to freezing & thawing
Deterioration caused by expansion during repeated freezing &
thawing
AirAir-entrained concrete has higher freezefreeze-thaw resistance than
non airair-entrained concrete
Low w/c is beneficial
Allowing concrete to dry before freezing is beneficial
AlkaliAlkali-aggregate reactivity
Occurs when active minerals in some aggregates react with
alkali hydroxides in concrete
AlkaliAlkali-silica reaction (ASR)
AlkaliAlkali-carbonate reaction (ACR)
Chemical resistance, sulfate attack, carbonation, delayed
expansion

Alkali-Silica Reaction (ASR)

Requirements for Durable, Scale

Resistant Concrete
WaterWater-Cement

Ratio (w/c): 0.50 or less

Cement Content
Adequate Strength
Adequate AirAir-Entraining System (6%)
Sound, Clean, WellWell-Graded Aggregates
Minimum Finishing (Well Timed)
Adequate Moist Curing
Air Drying Before Exposure to Freezing
Adequate

WVDOH Classes of Structural

Concrete

Class A (3,500 psi, 7.5% air)

Class K (4,000 psi, 7.0% air)

Class B (3,000 psi, 7.0% air)

Railing, cribbing, precast shapes, filler, steel grid floors

Bridge superstructure (sidewalks, parapets, decks, & median barriers)
barriers)
Roadway applications (sidewalks, castcast-inin-place inlets, manholes, & box
culverts) and bridge substructure (columns, piers, abutments, etc.)
etc.)

Class C (2,500 psi, 6.0% air)

Class D (2,000 psi, 5.5% air)

Massive footings, pedestals, & pier shafts (non(non-reinforced or lightly

reinforced applications)
Unformed & nonnon-reinforced concrete for backfilling of excavated
pockets or voids beneath footings

Class H (4,000 psi, 6.5% air)

Bridge decks & other bridge elements when designated in the plans
plans

Other WVDOH Types of Concrete &

Related Materials
Specialized

679)

concrete overlays (section

Latex modified concrete (LMC)

Microsilica concrete
Pavement

concrete (Section 501)

Low slump if slip form construction is used

Controlled

lowlow-strength material (CLSM flowable fill)

10

Transporting Concrete

Flowable Fill (CLSM)

NonNon-compacted, cementitious material used primarily

as a backfill in lieu of a compacted material
Mixes typically consist of a combination of:

Cement
Fly ash
Fine aggregate
Water
Admixtures

Truck

mixers
agitators
Non-agitating trucks
Mobile batch mixer
Truck

Three types of CLSM in WVDOH specs:

Type A: 50 psi min./150 psi max.

Type B: 50 psi min.
Type C: 1000 psi min.

Truck Mixers

Central Mix Plant Discharging into Truck Mixer

Plant
photo

Information Plates on Truck Mixers

Truck Agitators

Plant
photo

11

Central Mix Plant Discharging into Non-Agitating

Truck

Mobile Mixers (Volumetric Batching)

photo

When Concrete Arrives at the Job

(what to look for)
Maximum

of 300 revolutions on the drum

Concrete temperature (50
(50 F minimum,
90
90 F maximum)
Need a concrete batch ticket
Time limit of 1.5 hours from batching
(addition of cement to the aggregates)
until completion of discharge
Reduced to 1 hour when concrete
temperature is 85
85 F or above

Slump Test

Field Tests for Concrete

(See MP 601.03.50 for Frequencies)

Temperature Test
Slump Test
Air Content Test
Pressure Meter
Volumetric Air Meter (Roll(Roll-o-Meter)

Unit Weight & Yield Test

Compressive Strength Cylinders
All acceptance testing must be performed by a certified
WVDOH Portland Cement Concrete (PCC) Inspector.
This applies to WVDOH personnel, Contractors, and
Consultants.

Natural Slump vs. Chemical Slump

NO W/R

NORMAL
W/R

HIGH RANGE W/R

MID RANGE W/R

12

Air Content Test Type B Pressure Meter

Recommended Slumps

Table 601.3.2 in WVDOH spec book lists the

optimum consistency (target slump) in different
situations

1 for inclined surfaces, slip forming, etc.

2 for reinforced structures which are accessible
3 for reinforced structures which aren
arent easily
accessible

WVDOH specifications allow an increase in the

target slump by 4
4 when superplasticizers are
used
Under no circumstances shall the slump exceed 8
8

Air Content Test Volumetric Method (Roll-o-Meter)

Unit Weight & Yield Test

Compressive Strength Cylinders

Job Site Adjustments

(truck mixers only)

Addition of water:

Only allowed for slump adjustment

Must turn the drum for 20 revolutions at mixing speed after
water is added
No water may be added after discharge of the concrete has
started
Can
Cant add more water than allowed by table 601.3.1 (limited
number of gallons of water per bag of cement)

Addition of air:

Use same airair-entraining agent that is in mix design

Mix with 2 gallons of water
Turn the drum at least 30 revolutions at mixing speed
ReRe-test for slump & air
Only two adjustments are permitted per truck

Cylinders cannot be made until after all adjustments are

completed

13

Depositing The Concrete

Direct Placement

Concrete should be placed continuously as near

as possible to its final position
When more than one layer is needed, concrete
should be placed in layers of uniform thickness
Consolidate each layer before placing the next layer

Time placement to eliminate cold joints (joint

formed after previously placed concrete has
achieved its initial set)
Don
Dont allow water to mix with the concrete
Limit concrete free fall (5 ft. maximum in
WVDOH specs.)

Concrete Buggy or Wheelbarrow

Truck Agitator

Other Placement Techniques

Tremie Placement

Tremie
Pump
BottomBottom-dump

Bucket

Conveyors

14

Tremie Placement

Pump Truck Placement

Bucket Placement

Bucket Placement

Conveyor System

Hopper

15

Consolidation

Vibration (frequency of vibration expressed in

vibrations per second Hertz)
Internal Vibration (spud vibrators)
Time of Internal vibration depends on the mix
OverOver-vibration results in nonnon-uniformity

External Vibration (form vibrators, vibratory roller

screeds, plate vibrators, etc.)

UnderUnder-vibration causes honeycombs, bugholes,

streaks, cold joints (vibrating can keep concrete
alive
alive) / lines, & subsidence cracking
Overvibration causes segregation, streaks, loss of
entrainedentrained-air, form damage or failure

Concrete Slabs

Precautions should be taken to protect slabs

from rain during placement
Place concrete & level with rakes and shovels
Strikeoff (screed) the concrete. Straightedge
often used
Bullfloat the concrete (before bleedwater
accumulates)
Finishing operations (after the bleedwater has
evaporated) edging, jointing, floating,
troweling, & brooming
Curing

Effect of Finishing Air-Entrained Concrete

Finishing process drives out air and
results in unsatisfactory air contents
at the surface

Affected depth of surface varies with

finishing technique

Satisfactory air content

in interior of concrete

Even with satisfactory interior air contents, unsatisfactory surface air contents
may result due to the effect on air and paste from the finishing process

16

WVDOH Structural Concrete Curing

Requirements

Curing Concrete
Curing is the maintenance of a
satisfactory moisture content and
temperature in concrete for a
period of time immediately
following placing and finishing so
that the desired properties may
develop.

WVDOH Structural Concrete Curing

Requirements
All

structural concrete shall be moist cured

for 7 days
This time may be reduced if it is shown that
the concrete has reached 70% of the design
strength
Under no circumstances shall the cure period
be less than 3 days

All

bridge decks shall be moist cured for 7

days regardless of strength

% of 28 compressive strength

125

In air after 7 days

100

In air after 3 days

75

In air entire time

50

25

0
3 7

28

90

All bridge decks shall be cured with burlap &

water

When the air temperature is expected to fall below

30
30 F, measures shall be taken to maintain the
concrete surface temperature between 50
50 F and
90
90 F
Days on which the surface temperature of the
concrete falls below 50
50 F are not considered days
of curing
Under no circumstances shall the concrete
temperature be allowed to fall below 35
35 F
When protection (blankets, etc.) is removed from
the concrete, the concrete temperature isn
isnt allowed
to drop by more than 20
20 F per 24 hour period

Curing Methods & Materials

entire time
Moist-cured

Polyethylene coated burlap

Burlap cloth
Waterproof paper
Curing compounds
White polyethylene sheeting

WVDOH Structural Concrete Curing

Requirements

Effect of Curing on Compressive Strength

150

All structural concrete (Classes A, K, B, C, & D)

shall be protected by one or more of the
following curing materials:

Concrete can be kept moist by three methods:

Maintain the mix water in the concrete during
early hardening (wet cure - ponding,
spraying, wet coverings, etc.)
Reduce the loss of mixing water from the
surface (impervious paper, plastic, curing
compounds)
Accelerated strength gain by supplying heat &
moisture (live steam, heated forms &
blankets, etc.)

180

Age, Days

17

Bridge Deck Curing

Bridge Deck Curing

Curing Compound

Curing with Plastic Sheeting

Curing Time & Temperature

Period

of time that concrete should be

protected from freezing, high
temperatures, & moisture loss depends
on:
Type of cementitious materials used
Mix proportions
Required strength
Size & shape of concrete member
Ambient weather conditions
Future exposure conditions

18

Potential Problems for Freshly

Mixed Concrete in Hot Weather

Greater water demand

Increased evaporation rate
Increased rate of slump loss
Retempering at job site
Potential for cold joints
Fast setting
Plastic shrinkage cracking
Difficulty in placing, consolidating, & finishing
Control of airair-entrainment

EVAPORATION
BLEED
WATER

Plastic Shrinkage Cracking

Plastic Shrinkage Cracking

Practices for Hot Weather

Concreting

Addition of Ice to a Truck Mixer

Use

cool concrete (cool water and/or

aggregates)
Protect against rapid moisture loss
Transport, place, consolidate, & finish with
minimal delay
Schedule pours during cooler times of the
day

19

Objectives of Cold Weather

Concreting Practices

Heated Curing Box

Prevent damage to concrete due to freezing at

early stages
Assure that the concrete develops the required
strength for safe removal of forms
Maintain curing conditions that foster normal
strength development
Limit rapid temperature changes
Provide protection consistent with the intended
serviceability of the structure

Effect of Freezing on Concrete Cylinders

Effect of Freezing Fresh Concrete

Up

to 50% reduction of strength if frozen

before attaining 500 PSI compressive
strength.
Reduced durability of concretes exposed
to deicers.
Increased permeability (less watertight).

Penetration Resistance, psi

5000

Temporary Enclosures

Final set

73 Degrees

4000
3000

50 Degrees

2000
1000
0
0

Initial set
ASTM C 403
2

6
8
10
Time, hours

12

14

16

Effect of cold temperature on rate of hardening

20

Cold Weather Concreting

Insulating Materials

Dry Hay or Straw

Dry straw or hay (covered with tarpaulins,

polyethylene film or waterproof paper)
Expanded polyurethane
Expanded polystyrene
Curing blanket
Mineral fiber, loose fill (rock, slag or glass)

Insulated Forms

Curing Blankets

21