INTRODUCTION TO ORACLE

CLIENT SERVER COMPUTING ARCHITECTURE

It

consists

of

two

or

more

computers

designated as client machine running an application program

which communicates with remote computer designated as server
machine which serves request from client machine. In basic model
of client server computing, RDBMS resides on server machine. The
application program which resides on client machine interfaces
with client software called middleware that are responsible for
communicating request & results between their application
programs and RDBMS.

CLIENT
CLIENT

S
LAN /

CLIENT

WAN

S
RDBMS
SERVER

DATA
STORAGE

PRINTERS

CLIENT
The Client is the front END application of a database which
interacts
with the server. The Client has more responsibility for accessing
the data, it concentrates on the requests. The processing and
presentation is managed by the server.

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SERVER
The Server executes the Oracle software and these with the
function required for simultaneous and shared data excess. The
server receives and processes the SQl and PL/SQL declaration and
that originates in the client application.
ORACLE
Oracle is one of the powerful RDBMS products that provide
efficient solutions for database applications. Oracle is the product
of Oracle Corporation which was founded by LAWRENCE ELLISION
in 1977. The first commercial product of oracle was delivered in
1970. The first version of oracle 2.0 was written in assembly
language. Nowadays commonly used versions of oracle are
ORACLE 8, 8i & 9i Oracle 8 and onwards provide tremendous
increase in performance, features and functionality.
FEATURES OF ORACLE
Client/Server Architecture
Large database and Space Management
Concurrent Processing
High transaction processing performance
High Availability
Many concurrent database users
Controlled availability
Openness industry standards
Manageable security
Database enforced integrity
Distributed systems
Portability
Compatibility
ORACLE SERVER TOOL

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Oracle is a company that produces most widely used server

based multi-user RDBMS. Oracle server is a program installed on
server hard-disk drive. This program must be loaded in RAM to
that it can process the user requests. Oracle server takes care of
following functions. Oracle server tools are also called as back end.
Functions of server tool:
Updates the data
Retrieves the data sharing
Manages the data sharing
Accepts the query statements PL/SQL and SQL
Enforce the transaction consistency
ORACLE CLIENT TOOL
Once Oracle engine is loaded into sever memory user would
have to log in to engine in order to work done. Client tools are
more useful in commercial application development. It provides
facilities to work on database objects. These are more commonly
used in commercial applications. Oracle client tools are also called
front end.
DDL DATA DEFINATION LANGUAGE
The SQL sentences that are used to create these objects are
called DDLs or Data Definition Language. The sql provides various
commands for defining relation schemas, deleting relations,
creating indexes and modify relation schemas. DDL is part of sql
which helps a user in defining the data structures into the
database. Following are the various DDL commands are
Alter table & Create table & drop table
Create index & drop index
Create view & drop view

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DML DATA MANIPULATION LANGUAGE

The SQL sentences used to manipulate data within these
objects are called DMLs or Data Manipulation Language. It is
language that enables users to access or manipulate data as
organized by appropriate data model. By data manipulation we
have
Retrieval of information stored in database.
Insertion of new information into database.
Deletion of information from database.
Modification of data stored in database.
Two types of DML are
Procedural DML
Non-procedural DML
Following are DML commands are

Select

Update

Delete

Insert

DCL DATA CONTROL LANGUAGE

The SQL sentences, which are used to control the behavior of
these objects, are called DCLs or Data Control Language. It is
language used to control data and access to the database.
Following are some DCL commands are
Commit
Rollback
Save point
Set transaction
DATA TYPES OF SQL

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 CHAR: This data type is used to store character strings values

of fixed length. The size in brackets determines the number of
characters the cell can hold. The maximum number of
characters (i.e. the size) this data type can hold is 255
characters. Syntax is CHAR(SIZE)
Example is CHAR (20)
VARCHAR: This data type is used to store variable length
alphanumeric data. The maximum this data type can hold is
4000 characters. One difference between this data type and
the CHAR data type is ORACLE compares VARCHAR values
using non-padded comparison semantics i.e. the inserted
values

will

not

be

padded

with

spaces.

Syntax

is

VARCHAR(SIZE)
Example is VARCHAR (20) OR VARCHAR2 (20)

NUMBER: The NUMBER data type is used to store numbers

(fixed or floating point). Numbers of virtually any magnitude
maybe stored up to 38 digits of precision. Numbers as large as
9.99 * 10 to the power of 124, i.e. followed by 125 zeros can
be stored. The precision, (P), determines the maximum length
of the data, whereas the scale, (S), determines the number of
places to the right of the decimal. If scale is omitted then the
default is zero. If precision is omitted values are stored with
their original precision up to the maximum of 38 digits.
Syntax is NUMBER (P, S) Example is NUMBER (10, 2)

LONG:

This data type is used to store variable length

character strings containing up to 2GB. LONG data can be used

to store arrays of binary data in

ASCII format. LONG values

cannot be indexed, and the normal character functions such as

SUBSTR cannot be applied to LONG values.
Syntax is LONG (SIZE) Example is LONG (20)

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 DATE: This data type is used to represent data and time. The
standard format id DD-MM-YY as in 13-JUL-85. To enter dates
other than the standard format, use the appropriate functions.
Date Time stores date in the 24-hour format. By default, the
time in a date field is 12:00:00 am, if no time portion is
specified. The default date for a date field is the first day of the
current month. Syntax is DATE
LONG RAW: LONG RAW data types are used to store binary
data, such as Digitized picture or image. Data loaded into
columns of these data types are stored without any further
conversion. LONG RAW data type can contain up to 2GB.
Values stored in columns having LONG RAW data type cannot
be indexed. Syntax is LONGRAW (SIZE)
RAW: It is used to hold strings of byte oriented data. Data type
can have a maximum length of 255 bytes. Syntax is RAW(SIZE)
TRANSACTION STATEMENTS
COMMIT: A COMMIT ends the current transaction and makes
permanent any changes made during the transaction. All
transactional locks acquired on tables are released. Syntax is
COMMIT [work] [comment text];
Where
Work is optional and comment text is used to specify
comment
ROLLBACK: A ROLLBACK does exactly the opposite of COMMIT.
It ends the transaction but undoes any changes made during
the transaction. All transactional locks acquired on tables are
released. Syntax is
ROLLBACK [WORK] [TO [SAVEPOINT] save point]
Where
WORK is optional and is provided for ANSI compatibility.
SAVEPOINT is optional and is used to rollback a partial

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transaction, as far as the specified save point. SAVEPOINT is

a save point created during the current transaction.
SAVEPOINT: SAVEPOINT marks and saves the current point in
the processing of a transaction. When a SAVEPOINT is used
with a ROLLBACK statement, parts of a transaction can be
undone. An active save point is one that is specified since the
last COMMIT or ROLLBACK. Syntax is
SAVEPOINT savepointname;
Where
Save point is an identifier and it is not to declared in declare
section.

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SQL COMMANDS
CREATE TABLE:

A table is basic unit of storage. It is

composed of rows and columns. To create a table we will

name the table and the columns of the table. We follow the
rules to name tables and columns: It must begin with a letter and can be up to 30
characters long.
It must not be duplicate and not any reserved word.
Syntax to create a table is
CREATE TABLE tablename (column_name1 datatype
(size), column_name2 datatype (size) );
Example is
CREATE

TABLE

student

(rollno

number

(4),

name

varchar2 (15));
SELECT: The select command of sql lets you make queries
on the database. A query is a command that is given certain
specified information from the database tables. It can be
used to retrieve a subset of rows or columns from one or
more tables.
Syntax to create a table is
SELECT

<column_name1>,<column_name2>

FROM

<tablename>;
Example is
SELECT empno, ename, sal from emp;
CREATE TABLE FROM ANOTHER TABLE : We can create a
table by applying as subquery clause from another clause. It

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will create the table as well as insert the rows returned from
subquery. Syntax to create table from another table is
CREATE TABLE tablename(<column1>,<column2>,)
AS

SELECT

<column1>,<column2>

FROM

<tablename>;
Example is
CREATE TABLE stud(empno,ename,salary)
AS SELECT empno,ename,sal FROM emp;
ALTER TABLE : After creating a table one may have need to
change the table either by add new columns or by modify
existing columns. One can do so by using alter table
command.
Syntax to add a column is
ALTER

TABLE

tablename

ADD(col1

datatype,col2

datatype);
Syntax to modify a column is
ALTER TABLE tablename MODIFY(col1 datatype,col2
datatype);
DROP TABLE: To remove the definition of oracle table, the
drop table statement is used. Syntax to drop table is
DROP TABLE tablename
RENAME : One can change the name of a table by rename
command Syntax to rename table is
RENAME oldname TO newname
DELETE: One can delete data fron table by using delete from
statement. The delete statement removes rows from table
but it doesnt release storage space. Syntax of delete rows
from table is
DELETE FROM tablename WHERE <condition>;

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 DESCRIBE: To find information about columns like column

name, their data types and other attributes of a table we can
use DESCRIBE command. Syntax to describe table is
DESCRIBE tablename;
INSERT: To add new rows in an existing oracle table the
insert command is used. Syntax to add new fields is
INSERT INTO tablename(col1,col2,col3,..)
VALUES(value1,value2,value3);
Example is
INSERT INTO employee(emp_id,ename,desg,basic_pay)
VALUES(100001,MOHIT,MANAGER,55000);
UPDATE: The update command enables user to change the
values of existing rows. Syntax to update value of table is
UPDATE tablename SET col1=value1,col2=value2;
Example is
UPDATE emp_info SET salary =salary +100;
DISTINCT CLAUSE : The distinct keyword duplicates all rows
from results of a select statement. Syntax to remove distinct
rows is
SELECT DISTINCT <col1>,<cols2> FROM tablename;
Example is
SELECT DISTINCT job FROM emp;
WHERE CLAUSE: The where clause specifies the criteria for
selection of rows to be returned. Syntax is
SELECT

<col1>,<col2>

FROM

tablename

WHERE

<cond>;
Example is
SELECT ename,sal FROM emp WHERE sal > 2000;
ORDER BY CLAUSE: You can sort the results of query ina
specific order using order by clause. It allows sorting of query

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results by one or more columns. It can be done either in

ascending or descending. Syntax to sort result of query is
SELECT * FROM tablename ORDER BY col1,col2,col3;
Example is
SELECT * FROM emp ORDER BY ename desc;
GROUP BY CLAUSE : The group clause is sued in select
statement to divide the table into groups. Grouping can be
done by column name or wih aggregate functions in which
case the aggregate producing a value for each group.
Syntax is
SELECT col1,col2 FROM tablename GROUP BY <col>;
Example is
SELECT deptt,avg(salary) FROM emp_infoGROUP BY
deptt;
HAVING CLAUSE : The having clause filters the group values
created by group by clause. This clause can precede the
group by clause but it is more logical if we place group by
first.
Syntax is
SELECT col1,col2 FROM tablename GROUP BY <col>
HAVING <condition>;
Example is
SELECT deptt,max(salary) FROM emp_info GROUP BY
deptt
HAVING max(salary) > 12000;
IN: In operator is used to check a value as search from a
domain of multiple values to perform a query. Not In acts as
reverse of In.
Syntax is SELECT <col1>,<col2> FROM tablename
WHERE <col> IN (value1,value2,value3);
Example is

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SELECT ename,address,city,state FROM employee

WHERE deptt IN (comp,electronics,english);
ALL : It retains duplicate output rows. All is essentially a
clarifier rather than a functional argument.
Syntax is
SELECT

ALL

<column1>,<column2>

FROM

<tablename>;
Example is
SELECT ALL city FROM suppliers;
SET OPERATORS
Set keywords are used to combine information of
similar type
from one or more than one table. Set operations and the operators
are based on set theory. It consumes two or more queries into one
result. The types of set operators are: UNION : The union clause merges the outputs of multiple
queries into a single set of rows and columns. It combines rows
returned by two select statements by eliminating duplicate
rows. Syntax is
SELECT <statement> UNION SELECT <statements>;
Example is
SELECT designation FROM emp_info WHERE deptt=comp
UNION
SELECT designation FROM emp_info WHERE deptt=eco;

INTERSECT : The intersect operator combines two

select statements and return only those rows that are returned
by both queries. Syntax is
SELECT <statement> INTERSECT SELECT <statements>;
Example is
SELECT designation FROM emp_info WHERE deptt=comp
INTERSECT

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SELECT designation FROM emp_info WHERE deptt=eco;

MINUS : It combines the result of two queries and returns only
those values that are selected by first query but not in second
query. Syntax is
SELECT <statement> MINUS SELECT <statements>;
Example is
SELECT desgination FROM emp_info WHERE deptt=comp
MINUS
SELECT desgination FROM emp_info WHERE deptt=eco;
ENHANCING PERFORMANCE
Views :
A view is very commonly used database object that is derived
at runtime. A view contains data of its own. Its contents are
derived from another table. The command for creating view is
CREATE VIEW command. Editing in the tables are automatically
reflected in the views. It is virtual table & does not have any data
of its own. Syntax to create a view is
CREATE [OR REPLACE] VIEW view name AS sub query
[WITH CHECK OPTION] [WITH READ ONLY];
Example is CREATE VIEW mohit AS SELECT empno, ename, sal,
comm FROM emp;
Types of views are as follows:
Join View:- It is defined as view that has more than one table
specified in from clause and does not contain following
clauses i.e. distinct, aggregation, group by. This type of view
allows update, insert and delete command to change data in
table. Syntax is
CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW mohit AS SELECT ename, empno,
sal FROM
emp, dept WHERE emp.deptno = dept.deptno;

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The views to be updateable must not include the following

are
Set operators , aggregate functions
Distinct operator , rownum pseudo columns
Group by clause , having clause
Inline View: - Oracle also offers an inline view that is very
handy and inline view is part of SQL statements. It allows you
in body of SQL statement to define SQL for view that SQL
statement will use to resolve its query.
Materialized View: - Snapshot also called materialized view. It
is defined as copy of part of table or entire table. It reflects
the current status of table that is being copied. The original
status table is also called master table. Two types are Read
only and update. Read-only does not allow changes to be
made in view. It simply publishes and subscribes the
replications. It allows changes in local copy which periodically
updates master table.
Sequences :
Oracle provides an object called a Sequence that
can generate
numeric values. The value generated can have a maximum of 38
digits. A sequence can be defined to
generate numbers in ascending or descending order.
provide intervals between numbers.
Caching of sequence numbers in memory.
A sequence is a database object used to generate unique integers
for use as primary keys. Syntax is
CREATE SEQUENCE sequence name
[INCREMENT BY integervalue

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START WITH integervalue

MAXVALUE integervalue / NOMAXVALUE
MINVALUE integervalue / NOMINVALUE
CYCLE / NOCYCLE
CACHE integervalue / NOCACHE
ORDER / NOORDER]
Example is
CREATE SEQUENCE mohit
INCREMENT BY 1
START WITH 1
MINVALUE 1
MAXVALUE 9999
CYCLE;
Indexes :
Index is a way to store and search records in the table. These
are used to improve the speed with which records can be located
and retrieved from the table. Oracle retrieves rows in table in one
of two ways are:
By ROWID
By full table scan
The creation and dropping of index doesnt affect the storage of
data in the underlying tables.
Indexes are primarily used for 2 reasons are:
To ensure the uniqueness of the indexed columns
values.
To enhance performance.
Syntax to create an index is
CREATE INDEX <index name> ON <tablename>(column
name);
Syntax to drop an index is
DROP INDEX <index name>;

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The types of indexes are: UNIQUE : It doesnt allow duplicate values for indexed
columns.
Example is
CREATE UNIQUE INDEX mohit ON EMP (ename);
DUPLICATE : It allows duplicate values for indexed columns.
Example is
CREATE DUPLICATE INDEX mohit ON EMP (ename);
COMPOSITE : multi column indexes.
Example is
CREATE UNIQUE INDEX mohit ON EMP (ename, sal);
FUNCTIONAL : perform some functions on fields and then
indexes it. Example is
CREATE INDEX mohit ON EMP (sal+100);
GRANTING AND REVOKING PERMISSIONS
GRANT : The Grant statement provides various types of access
to database
objects such as tables, views and sequences. A privilege is
consent to execute an action or to access another user
object. These consents can be given by grant statement.
Syntax is
GRANT {object privileges}
TO username

ON object name

[WITH GRANT OPTION];

The WITH GRANT OPTION allows the grantee to in turn grant

object privileges to other users.
Object privileges
Each object privileges that is granted authorizes
the grantee to

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Perform some operation on the object. The user can grant all the
privileges or grant only specific object privileges.
ALTER

allows the grantee to change the table definition with

the.
ALTER TABLE command.
DELETE

allows the grantee to remove the records from the table

with the

INDEX

DELETE command.

allows the grantee to create an index on the table with

the
CREATE INDEX command.
INSERT

allows the grantee to add records to the table with the

INSERT
Command.
SELECT

allows the grantee to query the table with the SELECT

Command.

UPDATE

allows the grantee to modify the records in the tables

with the
UPDATE command.
Example to grant select & insert privileges on table item to user
named as mohit.
GRANT SELECT, INSERT ON item TO mohit;
Example to grant all privileges on table EMP to user named as
chiku.
GRANT ALL ON EMP TO mohit;
REVOKE :

Privileges once given can be denied to a user using

the REVOKE command. The object owner can revoke privileges

granted to another user. A user of an object who is not the owner,
but has been granted the GRANT privilege, has the power to
REVOKE the privileges from a grantee. The REVOKE statement is
used to deny the grant given on an object.
Syntax is

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REVOKE {object privileges}

ON object name
FROM username;
Example to revoke select & insert privileges on table item to
user named as mohit.
REVOKE SELECT, INSERT ON item TO mohit;
Example to revoke all privileges on table EMP to user named as
chiku.
REVOKE ALL ON EMP TO mohit;
PATTERN MATCHING
SQL includes string matching operator LIKE for
comparison on character string using patterns. The LIKE predicate
allows for a comparison of one string with another string value,
which is not identical. This is achieved by using wildcard
characters. The patterns are case sensitive and that is uppercase
letters do not match lower case characters. The keyword NOT LIKE
is used to select those rows that do not match the specified
pattern of characters.
Two wildcard characters that are available are:
For character data types: The percent sign (%) matches any string
The Underscore (_) matches any single
character
Example is
SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE ename LIKE _B%;
SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE ename LIKE MOH__;
RANGE SEARCHING
BETWEEN operator acts as range searching
operator. To get a range of values from a query, you may use
between operators. You must specify the lower and upper limit for
range search. Syntax is

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SELECT <col1>,<col2> FROM table name

WHERE <col> BETWEEN lower limit and upper limit;
Example is
SELECT empname, deptt, basic pay FROM employee
WHERE basic pay BETWEEN 5000 and 10000;
JOINS
A JOIN can be recognized in sql select statement if its
has more than one table after from keyword. This join condition is
based on primary keys and foreign keys. There must be n-1 join
conditions for n joins to tables. If join condition is omitted then the
result is Cartesian product.
Syntax is
SELECT list of columns FROM table1, table2 WHERE
condition;

Types of joins are

Equi join : It returns all rows from tables where there is a
match. Tables are joined on columns that have the same
datatype & size in table. It is also known as equality join or
simple join or inner join. Syntax is
SELECTfield1,field2

FROM

table1,table2

WHERE

table1.field=table2.field;
Example is
SELECTename,

dname

FROM

emp,

dept

WHERE

emp.deptno=dept.deptno;
Cartesion join : When the join condition is omitted the
result is Cartesian join of two or more tables in which all the
combinations of rows will be displayed. All the rows are joined
to all rows of the second table. Syntax is

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SELECT field1, field2 FROM table1, table2;

Example is SELECTename, dname FROM emp, dept;
Outer join : While using equi join we see that if there exists
certain rows in one table which dont have corresponding
values in the second table thn those rows will not be
selected. We can forcefully select those rows by outer join.
The rows for those columns will have NULL values. Syntax is
SELECT table1.col, table2.col FROM table1, table2
WHERE table1.col (+) = table2.col;
Example is
SELECT empno, ename, emp.deptno, dname FROM emp, dept
WHERE emp.deptno (+) = dept.deptno;
Self Join : The self join can be seen as join of two copies of
the same table. The table is not actually copied but sql
performs the command as though it were. Example is
SELECT e.ename, m.ename FROM emp e, emp m
WHERE e.mgr=e.empno;
SUBQUERIES
A sub query is a form of an SQL statement that
appears inside another SQL statement. It is also termed as nested
query. The statement containing a sub query is called a parent
statement. The parent statement uses the rows returned by the
sub query. It can be used by the following commands:
To insert records in a target table.
To create tables and insert records in the table created.
To update records in a target table.
To create views.
To provide values for conditions in WHERE, HAVING, IN etc.
used with SELECT, UPDATE, and DELETE statements.
Types of sub queries are

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Single row : It returns one row from inner nested

query. Example is
SELECT deptno FROM emp WHERE ename =MILLER;
Multiple row : Subqueries that return more than one row
called multiple row queries. Operators like IN,ALL,ANY are
used. Example is
SELECT ename,sal,deptno FROM emp WHERE sal IN
(SELECT min(sal) FROM emp GROUP BY deptno);
Multiple

column

It

returns

more

than

one

column .Example is
SELECT ordid , prodid , qty FROM item WHERE (qty,prodid) IN
(SELECT prodid,qty FROM item WHERE ordid = 605 AND ordid
<> 605);
CONSTRAINTS

Constraints are the rules that restrict the data value

inserted in columns

of a table. It helps in maintaining integrity of table at database leve

instead of application level. All application can take advantage of these

global constraints, rather than building similar logic in individua

application. Constraints can constrain single column or group of column

in a table. Constraints can be specified as two types:
Column level constraint
Table level constraint

Column level constraint : Column constraints are specified as part o

column
definition to constrain single column.
Table level constraint

: Table constraints is specified at end of create

table
statement to constraint more than one column.

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Following are the constraints used in tables are

NULL/NOT NULL : Specifies if the column must contain value
or might not contain any. By default all columns in a table
allows nulls, ie. Absence of a value in a column. NOT NULL
specifies that all rows in the table to have value for specified
column. All NOT NULL columns are mandatory fields. Syntax is
COLUMN_NAME DATA_TYPE(SIZE) NOT NULL
Example is
CREATE TABLE employee(empname varchar2(25) NOT NULL)
;
UNIQUE : Specifies that all values in a column must be unique.
Values in field cannot be duplicated. More than one Null value
can be inserted in the column. Unique constraint can be placed
on multiple columns. Syntax is
COLUMN_NAME DATA_TYPE(SIZE) UNIQUE

-- at column

level
UNIQUE COLUMN_NAME DATA_TYPE(SIZE)

-- at table

level
Example is
CREATE TABLE dept(deptt varchar2(25) UNIQUE);
CREATE TABLE dept(deptt varchar2(25),UNIQUE(dept));
PRIMARY KEY : Primary key refers to one or more column
values in a table that can uniquely identify each row in a table.
A primary key column cannot contain nulls and is unique by
default. Syntax is
COLUMN DATA_TYPE(SIZE) PRIMARY KEY -- at column level
PRIMARY KEY COLUMN DATA_TYPE(SIZE) -- at table level
Example is
CREATE TABLE dept(deptt varchar2(25) PRIMARY KEY);
CREATE TABLE dept(deptt varchar2(25),PRIMARY KEY(dept));

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 FOREIGN KEY : A foreign key is a one or more column with

values based on the primary key values from another table. A
foreign key constraint specifies that the values stored in foreign
column correspond to values of the primary key in the other
table. Foreign key is also known as referential integrity
constraint. The table containing foreign key is known as
Dependent table and the table that is referenced by foreign key
is called Referenced table. Syntax is
COLUMN DATA_TYPE(SIZE) REFERENCES TABLE -- at column
level
FOREIGN KEY COLUMN DATA_TYPE(SIZE) REFERENCES TABLE
Example is
CREATE

TABLE

dept(deptt

varchar2(25)

REFERENCES

emp_info);
CREATE TABLE dept(deptt varchar2(25),PRIMARY KEY(dept)
FOREIGN KEY(dept) REFERENCES emp_info);

FUNCTIONS
Functions make the result of the query easier and are
used to manipulate the data values. Following are the functions
are
String or character functions
Number functions
Aggregate functions or group functions
Date functions
Conversion functions
Character Manipulation functions

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Ascii : It returns the ASCII decimal equivalent of a

character passed as an argument. Example is

select

ascii(b)from dual;

Chr : This function gives the result as a character

corresponding to the value in the database set. Example is
select char (97) from dual;

concat(x1,x2) : This function concates the string x1 with

x2. This function is equivalent to the | | operator. Examples
select concat(mohit,garg)from dual;

instr :This function returns the first position of the

character x in the string.
Example is select instr(mohit,o) from dual;

length : It returns the length of the string x.

Example is select length (mohit) from dual;

lpad : It pads the leading spaces to the left side of the column
char1 with the char2, so that the total width becomes equal to
the value n. If char2 is absent, it pads the char1 on the left
side with blank spaces to the total width of n.
Example is select lpad(dname,12,*) from dept;
Ltrim : It removes all the blank spaces from the left side of the
stringif no char is specified. If we give a char, then it removes
the leading occurrences of that charcter from the string.
Example is select ltrim(dname.S) from dept;

SSS DEGREE COLLEGE BOBBILI

Dept. of Computer
Science

 Rpad : This function pads the leading spaces to the right side
of the column char1 with the char2, so that the total width
becomes equl to the value n.
Example is select rpad(dname,12,*)from dept;
Rtrim : This function removes all the blank spaces from the
right

side

if

no

char

is

specified.

Example

is

select

rtrim(dname,S) from dept;

Replace : Where c1,c2,c3 and c3 are all character string .this
function returns c1 with all occurenes of c2 replaced with c3,
the default value of c3 is NULL.
Example is select replace (uptown,up,down)from dual;
Substr : It returns the substring from z, of length equal to y
starting at position x . Example is select substr(mohitgarg2,5)
from dual;
Initcap : This function returns the string with letter in caps.
Example is select initcap (dname) from dept;
Lower : This function converts the string into lower case.

Example is select lower (dname)from dept;

Upper : It converts the string into upper case.

Example is select upper(dname)from dept;

Translate : This function is used to find a char and replace it

with new character. Example is select dname, translate

(dname,E,2) from dept;

SSS DEGREE COLLEGE BOBBILI

Dept. of Computer
Science

Group functions
Count : This function returns the number of rows or non-null
values for column x. Syntax is count([distinct|all]column name)
Example is select count(empno)from emp;
Sum : This function ireturns the sum of values for the column x.
This function is applied on columns having numeric datatype
and it returns the numeric value.
Syntax is sum([distinct|all]column name)
Example is select sum(sal) from emp;
Avg : Ths function returns the average of values for the column
x. It ignores the null values in the column x. Syntax is
avg([distinct|all]column name)
Example is select avg(sal),count(sal) from emp;
Min : This function returns the minimum of values for the
column x for all the rows. Syntax is min([distinct|all]column
name)
Example is select min(sal) from emp;
Max : This function returns the maximum of values for the
column x for all the rows. Syntax

is max([distinct|all]column

name)
Example is select min(sal),max(sal) from emp;
Number functions
Abs : It obtains the absolute value for the number x.
Example is

SSS DEGREE COLLEGE BOBBILI

Dept. of Computer
Science

Select abs(-10) from dual;

Ceil : Where is a number. This function returns the smallest
integer that is greater than or equal to n.
Example is
select ceil (9.8), ceil (-32.85) from dual;
Cos : It returns trigonometric cosine of the number n.
Example is
select cos(45) from dual;
Exp : It returns the e raised to the x power.
Example is
select exp (4) from dual;
Floor : This function returns the largest integer that is less than
or equal to n.
Example is
select floor (9.8), floor (-32.85) from dual;
Mod : It returns the remainder when x is divided by the number
y.
Example is
select mod (10.3),mod (10.5)from dual;
Power : This function returns the value of x raised to the power
of y. The argument y should be an integer.
Example is
select power (2, 3) from dual;

SSS DEGREE COLLEGE BOBBILI

Dept. of Computer
Science

 Round : It rounds off x to the decimal precision of y. If y is

negative, rounds to the precision of y places to the left of the
decimal point.
Example is
select round (55.849,1 ), round(55.849) from dual;
Sign : This function returns the sign of the value x. If x is a
negative number it returns -1 otherwise it returns 1.
Example is
select sign (-2) from dual;
Sqrt : This function returns the square root of the given number
x.
Example is
select sqrt(36) from dual;
Date functions
Add_months : It adds the months in specified date with the
function. Syntax is
ADD_MONTHS(date,m) where date refers to date & m is
number value.
Example is
select add_months(sysdate,2) from dual;

Last_day : It returns the last day of given month which is

specified with function.
Syntax is
LAST_DAY(d) where d is date
Example is
select last_day(sysdate) from dual;

SSS DEGREE COLLEGE BOBBILI

Dept. of Computer
Science

 Months_between : It computes & returns the number of months

b/w two dates.
Syntax is
MONTHS_BETWEEN(date1,date2)
Example is
select months_between(13-mar-05,01-dec-05) from dual;
Next_day : It returns the date of first day of the week specified
in

string

after

the

beginning

date.

Syntax

is

NEXT_DAY(date,ch) where ch refers to character value. Example

is select next_day(13-mar-05,sunday) from dual;

SSS DEGREE COLLEGE BOBBILI

Dept. of Computer
Science