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Chapter2.Woodcarbonisationandtheproductsityields
2.1Carbonisation
2.2Efficiencyincarbonisation
2.3Measuringtheyield
2.4Whathappensduringcarbonisation
2.5Thestagesincharcoalformation
2.6Usingheatefficientlyincarbonisation
2.7Continuouscarbonisation
2.8Classificationofretortheatingsystems
2.9Propertiesofcarbonisationproducts

2.1Carbonisation
Carbonisationisaparticularformofthatprocessinchemicaltechnologycalledpyrolysisthatisthe
breakdownofcomplexsubstancesintosimpleronesbyheating.Carbonisationisthetermusedwhen
complexcarbonaceoussubstancessuchaswoodoragriculturalresiduesarebrokendownbyheatinginto
elementalcarbonandchemicalcompoundswhichmayalsocontainsomecarbonintheirchemicalstructure.
Thetermcarbonisationisalsoappliedtothepyrolysisofcoaltoproducecoke.

2.2Efficiencyincarbonisation
Thecarbonisationstageinthecharcoalmakingprocessisthemostimportantstepofallsinceithassuch
powertoinfluencethewholeprocessfromthegrowingtreetothefinaldistributionoftheproducttotheuser.
Yetcarbonisationinitselfisrelativelynotacostlystep.Eventhoughretortsmaybeofhighcapitalcostthey
donotrequireverymuchlabourperunitofproduction.Typicallythecarbonisationstepmayrepresentabout
10%oftotalcostsfromgrowingandharvestingthetreetoarrivalofthefinishedcharcoalintobulkstore.But
theconversionefficiencyofthecarbonisationstepworksitswaybacktothepointwherethewoodis
harvested.Ahighyieldinconversionmeansthatlesswoodhastobegrown,harvested,dried,transported
andloadedintotheretortorothercarbonisingunit.
Thespecificwaythewoodiscarbonisedisalsoabletoeffectoverallyieldbecauseoftheeffectithasonthe
amountoffinesproduced.Finesmayhavenomarketatallormayonlybesaleableaftergoingthrougha
fairlycostlybriquettingprocess.
Thethreemajorfactorswhichinfluencetheconversionyieldare:
(a)Themoisturecontentofthewoodattimeofcarbonisation.
(b)Thetypeofcarbonisingequipmentused.
(c)Thecarewithwhichtheprocessiscarriedout.

2.3Measuringtheyield
Efficiencyofcarbonisationisexpressedastheyieldofcharcoalingrossterms(atthesideoftheretortorkiln)
expressedasapercentageofthewoodchargedoruseduptoproduceit.Normallyonlythewoodactually
usedupisreckoned.Thusunburntwoodwhichcanberecycledisdeductedfromthewoodusedeventhough
itrepresentsaconcealedformofinefficiency.Ontheotherhandwhereindirectheatingisusedasinretortsor
theSwartztypekiln,whichemploysanexternalfiregrate,theamountofwoodusedupintheheatingmust
beincludedinthewoodusedtoproducethecharcoal.Accountmaybetakenthatinsomecasesthiswood
maybeoflowerquality.
Woodandcharcoalmustbemeasuredusingstandardisedmethods.Theyneednotbethesameforboth
materialsbuttheymustbeconsistentsothatresultsarecomparable.Inotherwordsaconsistent
methodologyofmeasurementmustbeadheredto.Properlymeasuredconversionefficienciesallowdifferent
charcoalmakingmethodstobecompared.Alsothesemeasurementsareessentialincontrollinglarge
charcoalmakingenterprises.
Themostaccuratemeasuringsystemcomparesallquantitiesonaweightbasis.Toavoidcomplicationdueto
differingmoisturecontents,thewoodusedisexpressedonabonedrybasisandthecharcoalisweighed
bonedryandfreeoffines.wheremoistureispresentitmustbedeterminedandallowedfor.Toapplysucha
system,equipmentforweighinganddeterminingmoisturecontentofwoodandcharcoalmustbeavailable.
Unfortunatelythisisrarelythecaseinmostcharcoalmakingsituations.Itisthemethodmostsuitablefor
researchonprocessingandforthelargeindustrialenterprise.Beingfreeofinbuilterrorsitisthefinal
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referencesystem.
ApracticalmethodwhichhasbeenwidelystandardizedinSouthAmerica,particularlyinthesteelindustryof
Brazilusesvolumemeasurement.Boththewoodusedandthecharcoalproducedaremeasuredincubic
meterscorrectedforstackingandcompactionerrors.Thewoodismeasuredinstores(stackedcubicmeters)
andeachstereistakenanequivalentto0.65solidcubicmeters.Thesystemallowsfortheeffectofshrinkage
ofthefuelwoodondryingandthereductioninvolumewhichoccurswhencharcoalistransportedand
handledduetosettlement.Thissettlementistheresultofabradingofsharpcornersofthelumpcharcoaland
theformationoffinecharcoalwhichhaspracticallynocommercialvalue.
Theshrinkageallowanceforfuelwoodisbasedonexperimentsontheeffectofdryinganddestackingand
restackingashappenswhenapileofdrywoodistransportedfromtheforesttothecharcoalplant.The
resultsshowthatapileof100storesofeucalyptwoodshrinksto84storesafter34monthsdryingandwhen
thesamepileisrestackeditsnewvolumeisonly79steres.Thusareductionof15%isallowedfordryingand
21%fordryingandrestacking.Thetruecontentsofapileoffuelwoodarealsogreatlyinfluencedbythe
methodofstacking.Experienceistheonlywaytoovercomethisprobleminordertotellifthevolumeofthe
woodhasbeeninflatedbydishoneststacking.
Thecharcoalvolumeismeasuredbyplacingitinawirebaskethavingthebaseonemetersquareandheight
somewhatmorethanameter.Acommercialcubicmeterofcharcoalisconsideredtohaveatruevolumeof
onecubicmeteronlywhenmeasuredatthesideoftheblastfurnace,thatistosay,inthebulkstoragedepot.
Atthesideofthecharcoalkilnacubicmeterofcommercialcharcoalisconsideredtohaveatruevolumeof
1.1cubicmeter.Inthiswaythecontractionofthecharcoalintransportandtheproductionofuselessfinesis
allowedfor.ThestandardyieldofBraziliancharcoalkilnsusingthissystemisreckonedas1cubicmeterof
commercialcharcoalfromevery2.2steresoffuelwood.Volumemeasurementfordeterminingcharcoalyield
issubjecttocertainintrinsicerrorsbutitisasimplemethod,easilyunderstoodandcanbeperformed'outin
theopen".Ithasagreatadvantageinthebuyingandsellingofcharcoalasitautomaticallydiscourages
adulterationbywettingthecharcoalandmixingitwithsandandearth.Thereasonisthattheseactionshave
noeffectonthevolume.Furtherthereisanincentiveforthecharcoaltobetransportedcarefullysothe
reductioninsaleablevolumebysettlementandproductionoffinesisminimized.Thetemperaturetowhichthe
charcoalistakentointhekilnaffectsthemeasureoftheyieldbychangingitscontentofvolatiletarrymaterial.
Softburnedcharcoalproducedwhenthetemperaturedoesnotriseaboveabout400Ccanhaveavolatile
mattercontentofabout30%andthisisequivalenttoayieldofabout42%onabonedryweightbasis.At
500Cthevolatilematterisonlyabout13%andtheyieldabout33%onabonedrybasis.Hence,tocompare
equalswithequalsdifferentkindsofcharcoalmusthaveaboutthesamevolatilemattercontent.

2.4Whathappensduringcarbonisation
Duringpyrolysisorcarbonisationthewoodisheatedinaclosedvesselofsomekind,awayfromtheoxygen
oftheairwhichotherwisewouldallowittoigniteandburnawaytoashes.Withoutoxygenweforcethewood
substancetodecomposeintoavarietyofsubstancesthemainoneofwhichischarcoal,ablackporoussolid
consistingmainlyofelementalcarbon.Otherconstituentsaretheashfromtheoriginalwoodamountingto0.5
to6%dependingonthetypeofwood,amountofbark,contaminationwithearthandsand,etc.andtarry
substanceswhicharedistributedthroughtheporousstructureofthecharcoal.Aswellascharcoal.Liquidand
gaseousproductsareproducedwhichmaybecollectedfromthevapoursdrivenoffifthecharcoalismadein
aretort.Theliquidsarecondensedwhenthehotretortvapourspassthroughawatercooledcondenser.The
noncondensiblegasespassonandareusuallyburnedtorecovertheheatenergytheycontain.Thiswood
gas,asitiscalled,isoflowcalorificvalue(around10%ofthatofnaturalgas).
Theproductsotherthancharcoalareusuallyreferredtoasbyproducts.Yearsagorecoveryofthechemicals
theycontainwasaflourishingindustryinmanydevelopedcountries.Sincetheadventofthepetrochemical
industrythisbyproductindustryhasbecomeuneconomicsinceinmostinstancesthechemicalscanbe
producedfrompetroleummorecheaply.Moreinformationisgivenonthisproblemlater.

2.5Thestagesincharcoalformation
Asthewoodisheatedintheretortitpassesthroughdefinitestagesonitswaytoconversionintocharcoal.
Theformationofcharcoalunderlaboratoryconditionshasbeenstudiedandthefollowingstagesinthe
conversionprocesshavebeenrecognised.
at20to110C
Thewoodabsorbsheatasitisdriedgivingoffitsmoistureaswatervapour(steam).Thetemperature
remainsatorslighlyabove100Cuntilthewoodisbonedry.
at110to270C
Finaltracesofwateraregivenoffandthewoodstartstodecomposegivingoffsomecarbonmonoxide,
carbondioxide,aceticacidandmethanol.Heatisabsorbed.
at270to290C
Thisisthepointatwhichexothermicdecompositionofthewoodstarts.Heatisevolvedandbreakdown
continuesspontaneouslyprovidingthewoodisnotcooledbelowthisdecompositiontemperature.Mixed
gasesandvapourscontinuetobegivenofftogetherwithsometar.
at290to400C
Asbreakdownofthewoodstructurecontinues,thevapoursgivenoffcomprisethecombustiblegasescarbon
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monoxide,hydrogenandmethanetogetherwithcarbondioxidegasandthecondensiblevapours:water,
aceticacid,methanol,acetone,etc.andtarswhichbegintopredominateasthetemperaturerises.
at400to500C
At400Cthetransformationofthewoodtocharcoalispracticallycomplete.Thecharcoalatthistemperature
stillcontainsappreciableamountsoftar,perhaps30%byweighttrappedinthestructure.Thissoftburned
charcoalneedsfurtherheatingtodriveoffmoreofthetarandthusraisethefixedcarboncontentofthe
charcoaltoabout75%whichisnormalforgoodqualitycommercialcharcoal.
Todriveoffthistarthecharcoalissubjecttofurtherheatinputstoraiseitstemperaturetoabout500C,thus
completingthecarbonisationstage.

2.6Usingheatefficientlyincarbonisation
Incarbonisationtherearesubstantialflowsofheatintoandoutofthewoodbeingcarbonised.Correctcontrol
ofthemaffectstheefficiencyandqualityofcharcoalproduction.Theheatflowscanbecalculatedandshown
onaheatbalancediagramoftheprocess.Thisneedsaknowledgeofheatengineeringbutthebasic
principlesarenothardtounderstand.Aheatinputmustcomefromtheburningofafuelofsomekindwhich
willusuallymeanwoodinthecaseofcharcoalmaking.Evenifweusetheexothermicheatfrom
carbonisationortheheatliberatedbyburningtheoffgasfromtheretortanyadditionalheatwillcomefrom
burningsomewoodandhencerepresentsaloss.Woodwhichisburnedcannotbeturnedintocharcoal.
Thethreemainstagesrequiringheatinputsincharcoalmakingare:
Thedryingofthewood.
Raisingthetemperatureoftheovendrywoodto270Ctostartspontaneouspyrolysiswhich
itselfliberatesheat.
Finalheatingtoaround500550Ctodriveofftarandincreasethefixedcarbontoan
acceptablefigureforgoodcommercialcharcoal.
Anidealcarbonisingprocesswouldbeonewhichrequirednoexternalheattocarryoutthecarbonisation.
Theexothermicheatoftheprocesswouldbecapturedtogetherwiththeheatproducedbyburningoffgas
andliquidbyproductsandthisintotalwouldbesufficienttodryouttheresidualmoistureinthewood,raiseit
tospontaneouspyrolysistemperatureandthenheatittoatemperaturesufficienttodriveoffresidualtars.In
practiceduetolossesofheatthroughthewallsofthecarboniserandpoordryingofthefeedstockitisalmost
impossibletoachievethisaim.Howeversomesystemsparticularlythelargehotrinsinggasretortscome
closetotheidealwheretheclimateofthelocalitypermitsproperdryingofthewoodrawmaterial.
Nowoodwillcarboniseuntilitispracticallybonedry.Thewateringreenwoodhoweveristypicallyabout
50%ofthegreenweightofthewoodandthismustallbeevaporatedbeforethewoodwillstarttopyrolyseto
formcharcoal.
Itismosteconomictodryoutasmuchofthismoistureaspossibleusingthesun'sheatbeforethewoodis
carbonised.Indrysavannahregionsthisisfairlysimpleasthewoodcanbeleft12monthsormoretodry
withoutseriouslossduetoinsectattackordecay.Inthehumidtropicstwoorthreemonthsmaybethe
practicallimitbeforeinsectanddecaylossesbecomeintolerable.Thelossincharcoalyieldduetoexcessive
moisturecontenthastobebalancedagainstthelossofwoodsubstanceduetobiologicaldeterioration.
TheimportantfactorsindryingandstoringthewoodrawmaterialaredescribedinChapter4.

2.7Continuouscarbonisation
Oneofthemostimportantstepsforwardintheproductionofcharcoalwastheapplicationoftheconceptof
continuouscarbonisers.Bycausingtherawmaterialwoodtopassinsequencethroughaseriesofzones
wherethevariousstagesofcarbonisationarecarriedoutitispossibletointroduceeconomiesinuseoflabour
andheatthusreducingproductioncostsandincreasingtheyieldfromagivenamountofwood.
Theconceptofacontinuouscarboniserwherethewoodtravelsverticallydownwardsasitisheatedand
carbonisedfollowsfairlyobviouslyfromtheideaoftheironsmeltingblastfurnace.Butitprovednecessaryin
ordertogetcharcoalinlumpformtoabandontheideaofobtainingtheheatfordryingthechargeandheating
ittocarbonisationpointbyburningpartofthewoodcharged.Thisprovedtoodifficulttocontrol.Theheating
processhadtobechangedtouseofhotoxygenfreegasproducedexternallyandblownthroughthe
descendingchargeofwood.Inthiswaytheoperationwasundercompletecontrolanditprovedpossibleto
produceproperlyburnedcharcoalandyetensurethatitstillemergedinlumpform.Furthermore,thecharcoal
wasnevercontaminatedwithashsincethecarboniseralwaysoperatesatatemperaturebelowglowing
combustionpoint.
Recoveryoftheheatemergingfromthetopofthecarboniserwasachievedbyburningthegasandvapours
undercontrolledconditionsinhotblaststovessimilartothoseusedinironsmeltingandthenblowingthishot
gasintotheretortatappropriatepointssothatcarbonisationwascompletedbythehotgasfirstimpingingon
thecharcoalemergingfromthespontaneouspyrolysiszone.Thegasthenpassedupthetowergivingupits
heatincountercurrentformtothedescendingchargeofwood.Thefinishedcharcoalinthelowerpartofthe
retortwascooledbeforeitreachedthebasebyblowingincoldoxygenfreefuelgasandextractingitjust
belowthepointofentryofthehotgascomingfromthehotblaststove.Thefuelgas,warmedthroughcooling
thecharcoalthenenteredthehotblaststovestobeburnedwithairtoproducethehotrinsinggastobeblown
backintotheunittostriptheresidualtarfromthecharcoalandthenproceedupthetowergivingupitsheatto
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thedescendingchargeofwood.Thepositionofthedifferentzonesinthetowercouldbecontrolledby
regulatingthegasinjectionrateanditstemperatureandtherateatwhichwoodwasadmittedatthetopand
thecharcoalwasremovedatthebase.
Thistypeofretortknownunderthegenericnameof'continuousverticalhotrinsinggasretort'iscommonly
calledtheLambiotteretortafteritsinventor,(Lambiotte,1942,1952).Itisprobablythemostsophisticated
charcoalmakingprocessbecauseofthequalityandyieldofthecharcoalitproducesbutthereareother
continuouscharcoalmakingsystemswhichareinsuccessfulcommercialuse.Thebestknownoftheseuses
thecontinuousmultiplehearthroastingfurnacealsoknownastheHerreshoffroasterafteritsinventor.Justas
therinsinggasretortborrowsmuchofitstechnologyfromtheblastfurnacesothemultiplehearthfurnaceisa
simpletransferoftechnologyfromthechemicalandmetallurgicalindustrieswhereitisafamiliarunitusedfor
roastingsulphideorespriortofurtherprocessing.
TheHerreshoffroasterisatadisadvantagecomparedwiththerinsinggasretortinthatitcanonlyprocess
finelydividedwoodorbark,etc,andhencecanonlyproducepowderedcharcoalwhichmustbebriquettesfor
sale.Suchbriquettesareofnouseforordinarymetallurgicaluse.Theonlyeconomicmarketisforbarbecues
whichrequiresafairlysophisticatedconsumermarket.
TheHerreshoffroasterproducespowderedcharcoalandamixtureofhotgasesandvapours.Thisgas
mixtureisanenvironmentalpollutant.Sinceitisuneconomictorecoverbyproductsfromitnowadaystheonly
useistoburnittoproduceprocessheatsuchasfordrivingbriquettesormakingsteamwhichmightbe
passedthroughturbinestogeneratepower.Ifnoeconomicusecanbefoundfortheheatthenthegasis
merelyburnedtowasteinatallchimney.
TheHerreshoffroasterisofinterestbecauseofitssimplicity.Itoperatescontinuouslyobtainingtheheat
neededforfinaldryingandcarbonisationofthefeedstockbyburningpartofitbythecontrolledadmissionof
airtothehearthsasthematerialprogressesfromtoptobottom.Ifitcouldhandlewoodinlumpformitwould
beanidealcontinuoussystem.
Allothercontinuoussystemsproposed,andtherearemany,basedonmovingbelts,screwconveyers,
fluidisedbedsandthelike,whiletheycanproducecharcoal,generallyfailoneconomicgrounds.
Recently,particularlyaftertheriseinoilpriceoftheseventiesanumberofsystemsemergedwhichaimedto
producehotgasforprocessheatingtoreplaceoilorgas.Theyarebasedonburningfinelydividedwoodor
bark,etc,incombustionchamberswithcontrolledadmissionofairandusinginsomecasesthecombustion
principleofthefluidisedbed.withthissystemabedofsawdustorotherfueliskeptinsuspensionbyblowing
airthroughitandthewoodisallowedtoburninsuspensionusingtheoxygenintheairblast.Suchsystems
canproducecharcoalinpowderedformbyarrangingtherateoffeedsothatthecarbonisedwoodparticles
areremovedfromthefluidisedbedatasufficientratetopreventthemfrombeingentirelyburned.Keeping
thesystemoperatingcontinuallywithoutthefurnacegettingtoohotortoocoldwithfeedstockofvarying
moisturecontentandfinenesscallsforgoodcontrol.Suchsystemsmayappealbecausetheycanbebuilt
muchsmallerthanthewellprovenHerreshoffroasterwhichneedsabout100tonsoffeedstockper24hours
asaminimuminput.Extravagantclaimshavebeenmadeforthebenefitsespeciallyfrombyproductrecovery
tobeobtainedfromsuchsystemsbutitseemstheyhavestilltobeprovedindustrially.Byproductscanbe
collectedifdesiredfromthegasstreamissuingfromtheconverterorthehotgascanbeburnedinaboileror
furnace.Sincetheycanonlyproducepowderedcharcoalamaterialofratherlimitedcommercialusefulness
theyarehardlyasolutiontotheproblemsofmakingcharcoalbyimprovedmethodsinthedevelopingworld.

2.8Classificationofretortheatingsystems
Carboniserscanbeclassifiedbythetypeofheatingsystememployed.Therearethreedifferenttypes.
Type1.Heatforcarbonisationisgeneratedbyallowingpartofthewoodchargedtoburntoprovidetheheat
tocarbonisetheremainder.Therateofburningiscontrolledbytheamountofairadmittedtothekiln,pit,
moundorretort.Thisisthetraditionalsystemusedtoproducemostoftheworld'scharcoal.Itisthemethod
usedinthewellprovenHerreschoffroaster.Itisanefficientsystemifproperlycontrolledastheheatis
producedexactlywhereitisneededandtherearenoproblemsofheattransfer.Fluidisedandothertypesof
agitatedbedcarboniseralsorelyonthissystem.It'smaindisadvantageinsimpleequipmentisthatexcessive
amountsofwoodareburnedawaybecausetheairadmittedisnotcloselycontrolled.
Type2.Heatforcarbonisationbythismethodisobtainedbyburningfuel,usuallywoodorperhapswoodgas,
outsidetheretortandallowingittopassthroughthewallstothewoodcontainedinthesealedretort.Mostof
theearlyretortsystemsbuilttosupplywoodchemicalsbeforetheriseofthepetrochemicalindustrywere
heatedbythissystem.Thesystemisratherinefficientinitsuseofheatenergysinceitisdifficulttogetagood
flowofheatthroughthemetalwallsoftheretortintothewoodpackedinsidebecausethecontactofthewood
withthewallsissoirregular.Overheatingoftheretortwallsoftenoccurscausingdamage.Themethodisstill
usedtodayforsomesimpletyperetortssuchasthe'oildrumretort'whichhasbeenpromotedinthe
CaribbeanandtheConstantineretortdevelopedinAustralia(19).
Type3.Inthissystemthewoodisheatedbydirectcontactwithhotinertgascirculatedunderfanpressure
throughtheretort.Heattransferbythissystemisgoodsincethehotgasdirectlycontactsthewoodtobe
heated.Sincethegasisfreeofoxygenthereisnocombustioninsidetheretortandtheheattransfercoolsthe
gaswhichmustbewithdrawnandreheatedtoenableittobeusedagainforheatingpurposes.
ThebestknownexamplesofthissystemarethelambiotteandtheReichertretortsystems.Thelambiotteor
continuoushotrinsinggasretorthasbeendescribedin2.7above.TheReichertretortisabatchtyperetort
whichheatsthewoodchargetoconvertitintocharcoalbycirculatinghotoxygenfreegasthroughthecharge
bymeansofafanandasystemofheatingstoves.Inmanywaysthissystemresemblesabatchtyperinsing
gasretortwithouttheadvantageofcontinuousfeed.AnotherexampleistheSchwartzkilndevelopedmany
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yearsagoinEurope.Thiskilnhasanexternalfireboxorgrateandthehotfluegasfromfuelwoodburnedin
thisgrateispassedthroughthechargetoheatit.Thecombinedeffluentgasespassupthechimneyofthe
kilnintotheair.
Thissystemofheating,whiletechnologicallyexcellent,ismorecomplicatedthanSystem1(burningpartof
thechargedwood)andunlessthereisacompellingreasonforitsuseasisthecasewiththehotrinsinggas
retort,thecostofusingitcannotbejustifiedcomparedwiththesimpleprocessofSystem1.Moreinformation
isgivenontheseaspectsinChapter3andReference(33).

2.9Propertiesofcarbonisationproducts
2.9.1Charcoal
2.9.2Pyroligneousacid
Carbonisationofwoodgivesrisetoacomplexrangeofproductssolid,liquidandgaseous.Dozensof
chemicalscouldbeextractedfromtheliquidcondensateifitwereeconomicallypractical.
Today,withtheeclipseofthewoodbaseddistillationindustry,theprimaryreasonforcarbonisingwoodisto
obtaincharcoal.Anybenefitswhichcanbeobtainedfromtheworkingupofbyproductsnowadaysare
marginalandinthecaseofnewinstallationsprobablyuneconomic.Belowaregiventhepropertiesofthe
mainproductswhichcanbeobtainedfromwoodcarbonisation.Charcoalbecauseofitsimportanceistreated
ingreaterdetail.

2.9.1Charcoal
2.9.1.1Moisturecontent
2.9.1.2Volatilematterotherthanwater
2.9.1.3Fixedcarboncontent
2.9.1.4Ashcontent
2.9.1.5Typicalcharcoalanalyses
2.9.1.6Physicalproperties
2.9.1.7Adsorptioncapacity
2.9.1.8Thechemicalcompositionofcharcoal
Mostofthespecificationsusedtocontrolcharcoalqualityhaveoriginatedinthesteelorchemicalindustry.
whencharcoalisexported,buyerstendtomakeuseoftheseindustrialqualityspecificationseventhoughthe
mainoutletoftheimportedcharcoalmaywellbethedomesticcookingorbarbecuemarket.Thisfactorshould
beborneinmindsinceindustrialanddomesticrequirementsarenotalwaysthesameandanintelligent
appraisalofactualmarketqualityrequirementsmayallowsupplyofsuitablecharcoalatalowerpriceorin
greaterquantitiesbeneficialtobothbuyerandseller.
Thequalityofcharcoalisdefinedbyvariouspropertiesandthoughallareinterrelatedtoacertainextent,
theyaremeasuredandappraisedseparately.Thesevariousqualityfactorsarediscussedbelow.
2.9.1.1Moisturecontent
Charcoalfreshfromanopenedkilncontainsverylittlemoisture,usuallylessthan1%.Absorptionofmoisture
fromthehumidityoftheairitselfisrapidandthereis,withtime,againofmoisturewhichevenwithoutany
rainwettingcanbringthemoisturecontenttoabout510%,eveninwellburnedcharcoal.Whenthecharcoal
isnotproperlyburnedorwherepyroligneousacidsandsolubletarshavebeenwashedbackontothe
charcoalbyrain,ascanhappeninpitandmoundburning,thehygroscopitityofthecharcoalisincreasedand
thenaturalorequilibriummoisturecontentofthecharcoalcanriseto15%orevenmore.
Moistureisanadulterantwhichlowersthecalorificorheatingvalueofthecharcoal,wherecharcoalissoldby
weight,keepingthemoisturecontenthighbywettingwithwaterisoftenpractisedbydishonestdealers.The
volumeandappearanceofcharcoalishardlychangedbyadditionofwater.Forthisreasonbulkbuyersof
charcoalprefertobuyeitherbygrossvolume,e.g.incubicmetres,ortobuybyweightanddetermineby
laboratorytestthemoisturecontentandadjustthepricetocompensate.Insmallmarketssaleisoftenbythe
piece.
Itisvirtuallyimpossibletopreventsomeaccidentalrainwettingofcharcoalduringtransporttothemarketbut
goodpracticeistostorecharcoalundercoverevenifithasbeenboughtonavolumebasis,sincethewaterit
containsmustbeevaporatedonburningandrepresentsadirectlossofheatingpower.Thisoccursbecause
theevaporatedwaterpassesoffintotheflueandisrarelycondensedtogiveuptheheatitcontainsonthe
objectbeingheatedinthestove.
Qualityspecificationsforcharcoalusuallylimitthemoisturecontenttoaround515%ofthegrossweightof
thecharcoal.Moisturecontentisdeterminedbyovendryingaweightedsampleofthecharcoal.Itis
expressedasapercentageoftheinitialwetweight.
Thereisevidencethatcharcoalwithahighmoisturecontent(10%ormore)tendstoshatterandproduce
fineswhenheatedintheblastfurnace,makingitundesirableintheproductionofpigiron.
2.9.1.2Volatilematterotherthanwater
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Thevolatilematterotherthanwaterincharcoalcomprisesallthoseliquidandtarryresiduesnotfullydriven
offintheprocessofcarbonisation.Ifthecarbonisationisprolongedandatahightemperature,thenthe
contentofvolatilesislow.Whenthecarbonisationtemperatureislowandtimeintheretortisshort,thenthe
volatilemattercontentincreases.(33)
Theseeffectsarereflectedintheyieldofcharcoalproducedfromagivenweightofwood.atlow
temperatures(300C)acharcoalyieldofnearly50%ispossible.Atcarbonisationtemperaturesof500600C
volatilesarelowerandretortyieldsof30%aretypical.Atveryhightemperatures(around1,000C)the
volatilecontentisalmostzeroandyieldsfalltonear25%.Asstatedearlier,charcoalcanreabsorbtarsand
pyroligneousacidsfromrainwashinpitburningandsimilarprocesses.Thusthecharcoalmightbewell
burnedbuthaveahighvolatilemattercontentduetothisfactor.Thiscausesanadditionalvariationinpit
burnedcharcoalin!wetclimates.Theresorbedacidsmakethecharcoalcorrosiveandleadtorottingofjute
bagsaproblemduringtransport.Alsoitdoesnotburncleanly.
Thevolatilematterincharcoalcanvaryfromahighof40%ormoredownto5%orless.Itismeasuredby
heatingawayfromair,aweighedsampleofdrycharcoalat900Ctoconstantweight.Theweightlossisthe
volatilematter.Volatilematterisusuallyspecifiedfreeofthemoisturecontent,i.e.volatilemattermoistureor
(V.M.moisture)
Highvolatilecharcoaliseasytoignitebutmayburnwithasmokyflame.Lowvolatilecharcoalisdifficultto
lightandburnsverycleanly.Agoodcommercialcharcoalcanhaveanetvolatilemattercontent(moisture
free)ofabout30%.Highvolatilemattercharcoalislessfriablethanordinaryhardburnedlowvolatilecharcoal
andsoproduceslessfinesduringtransportandhandling.Itisalsomorehygroscopicandthushasahigher
naturalmoisturecontent.
2.9.1.3Fixedcarboncontent
Thefixedcarboncontentofcharcoalrangesfromalowofabout50%toahighofaround95%.Thuscharcoal
consistsmainlyofcarbon.Thecarboncontentisusuallyestimatedasa"difference",thatistosay,allthe
otherconstituentsaredeductedfrom100aspercentagesandtheremainderisassumedtobethepercentof
"pure"or"fixed"carbon.Thefixedcarboncontentisthemostimportantconstituentinmetallurgysinceitisthe
fixedcarbonwhichisresponsibleforreducingtheironoxidesoftheironoretoproducemetal.Butthe
industrialusermuststrikeabalancebetweenthefriablenatureofhighfixedcarboncharcoalandthegreater
strengthofcharcoalwithalowerfixedcarbonandhighervolatilemattercontenttoobtainoptimumblast
furnaceoperation.(33)
2.9.1.4Ashcontent
Ashisdeterminedbyheatingaweighedsampletoredheatwithaccessofairtoburnawayallcombustible
matter.Thisresidueistheash.Itismineralmatter,suchasclay,silicaandcalciumandmagnesiumoxides,
etc.,bothpresentintheoriginalwoodandpickedupascontaminationfromtheearthduringprocessing.
Theashcontentofcharcoalvariesfromabout0.5%tomorethan5%dependingonthespeciesofwood,the
amountofbarkincludedwiththewoodinthekilnandtheamountofearthandsandcontamination.Good
qualitylumpcharcoaltypicallyhasanashcontentofabout3%.Finecharcoalmayhaveaveryhighash
contentbutifmateriallessthan4mmisscreenedouttheplus4mmresiduemayhaveanashcontentof
about510%.
2.9.1.5Typicalcharcoalanalyses
ToillustratetherangeofcompositionfoundincommercialcharcoalTable1liststhecompositionofrandom
samplesofcharcoalfromvariouskindsofwoodsandvariouskindsofcarbonisationsystems.Ingeneral,all
woodsandallsystemsofcarbonisationcanproducecharcoalfallingwithinthecommerciallimits.
Table2recordsthevariationsincharcoalcompositionasfoundintheblastfurnacechargeatalargecharcoal
ironworksinMinasGerais,Brazil.Allofthischarcoalwasmadeusingbeehivetypebrickkilns.Thewood
usedwaseithermixedspeciesfromthenaturalforestoftheregionoreucalyptwoodfromplantations.
Table1.SomeTypicalCharcoalAnalyses

Woodspecies
ProductionMethod

Moisture Ash Volatile

content% % matter
%

Fixed
carbon
%

Bulkdensity Bulkdensity
pulverised
rawkg/m3
kg/m3

Grosscalorificvalue
kJ/kgOvendrybasis

Remarks

Dakama

Earthpit

7.5

1.4

16.9

74.2

314

708

32410

Pulverisedfuelfor
rotarykilns1/

Wallaba

"

6.9

1.3

14.7

77.1

261

563

35580

1/

Kautaballi

"

6.6

3.0

24.8

65.6

29990

1/

Mixed
Tropical
Hardwood

"

5.4

8.9

17.1

68.6

Lowgrade
charcoalfines1/

''

"

5.4

1.2

23.6

69.8

Domestic
charcoal1/

5.9

1.3

8.5

84.2

Wellburned
sample1/

5.8

0.7

46.0

47.6

Softburned
sample1/

Wallaba
"

Earth
mound
"

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Oak

Portable
steelkiln

3.5

2.1

13.3

81.1

32500

2/

"

4.0

1.5

13.5

83.0

30140

4/

5.1

2.6

25.8

66.8

3/

Coconut
shells
Eucalyptus
Saligna

Retort

1/=Guyana.2/=U.K.3/=Brazil.4/=Fiji.
Table2.CharacteristicsofCharcoalforBlastFurnaces
ChemicalandPhysicalCompositionofCharcoalDry RangeMax.
Basisbyweight
Min.

Yearly
Average

Charcoalconsideredgoodto
excellent

Carbon

80%

60%

70%

7580%

Ash

10%

3%

5%

34%

Volatilematter

26%

15%

25%

2025%

Bulkdensityasreceived(kg/m)

330

200

260

250300

Bulkdensitydry

270

180

235

230270

AverageSize(mm)asreceived

60

10

35

2050

Finescontentasreceived(<6.35mm)

22%

10%

15%

10%max.

Moisturecontentasreceived

25%

5%

10%

10%max.

Therangesandyearlyaveragesrefertocharcoalusedbythesteelworks.Thisisamixtureof40%eucalyptus
charcoalproducedincompanyoperatedkilnsand60%heterogenousnaturalwoodcharcoalmanufacturedby
privatelyoperatedkilns."Goodtoexcellent"charcoalreferstothatproducedfromeucalyptuswoodin
companykilns.
2.9.1.6Physicalproperties
Thepropertiesdescribedsofararereferredtoaschemicalpropertiesbutphysicalproperties,especiallyfor
industrialcharcoal,arenolessimportant.Itisinthecharcoalironindustrythatphysicalpropertieshavegreat
importance.Thecharcoalisthemostexpensiverawmaterialintheblastfurnacecharge.Charcoal'sphysical
propertiesinfluencetheoutputoftheblastfurnacewhereaschemicalpropertiesaremorerelatedtothe
amountofcharcoalneededpertonofironandthecompositionofthefinishedironorsteel.(29)
Blastfurnacecharcoalmustbestrongincompressiontowithstandthecrushingloadoftheblastfurnace
chargeof"burden".Thiscompressionstrength,alwayslessthancharcoal'srival,metallurgicalcokemade
fromcoal,determinesthepracticalheightandhenceefficiencyandoutputoftheblastfurnace.Theabilityto
resistfracturingwhenhandledisimportanttomaintainconstantpermeabilityofthefurnacechargetotheair
blastwhichisvitalinmaintainingfurnaceproductivityanduniformityofoperations.
Varioustestshavebeendevelopedtomeasurefractureresistancearatherdifficultpropertytodefinein
objectiveterms.Thesetestsrelyonmeasuringtheresistanceofthecharcoaltoshatteringorbreakdownby
allowingasampletofallfromaheightontoasolidsteelfloororbyrumblingasampleinadrumtodetermine
sizebreakdownafteraspecifiedtime.Theresultisexpressedasthepercentagepassingandretainedon
varioussizedscreens.Charcoalwithpoorshatterresistancewillproducealargerpercentageoffineswhena
sampleistested.Finecharcoalisundesirableintheblastfurnacesinceitblockstheflowofairblastupthe
furnace.Fragilecharcoalmayalsobecrushedbytheweightofthechargeandcauseblockages.
2.9.1.7Adsorptioncapacity
Woodcharcoalisanimportantrawmaterialforactivatedcharcoal.(SeeChapter6).Somedatacouldbe
usefulwherecharcoalproducersaresellingcharcoaltobeturnedintoactivatedcharcoalbyspecialist
factories.(27)
Asproduced,normalwoodcharcoalisnotaveryactiveadsorptionmaterialforeitherliquidsorvapours
becauseitsfinesstructureisblockedbytarryresidues.Toconvertthecharcoalto"activated"thisstructure
mustbeopenedupbyremovingthetarryresidues.Themostwidelyusedmethodtodayconsistsinheating
thepulverisedrawcharcoalinafurnacetolowredheatinanatmosphereofsuperheatedsteam.Thesteam
preventsthecharcoalfromburningawaybyexcludingoxygen.Meanwhilethevolatiletarscanbedistilled
awayandarecarriedoffwiththesteam,leavingtheporestructureopen.Thetreatedcharcoalisrunoffinto
closedcontainersandallowedtocool.Activationfurnacesareusuallycontinuous,i.e.thepowderedcharcoal
passescontinuouslycascadefashionthroughthehotfurnaceinthesteamatmosphere.
Afteractivationthecharcoalistestedtoqualityspecificationstodetermineitspowertodecolorize,by
adsorption,waterysolutionssuchasrawsugarjuice,rumwine,andsoonoilssuchasvegetableoilandto
adsorbsolventssuchasethylacetateinair.Adsorbtivepowertendstobespecific.Gradesaremadefor
aqueoussolutions,othersforoilsandothersforvapours.Thetestsmeasuretheadsorptivepower.Thereare
smalldifferencesinthefinishedproductmadefromrawcharcoalsofdifferentoriginbutgenerallyallare
useableifproperlyburned.Agoodbasiccharcoalformakingactivatedcharcoalcanbemadefromthewood
ofEucalyptusgrandisinbricktypekilns.
Charcoalforadsorptionofgasesandvapoursisusuallymadefromcoconutshellcharcoal.Thischarcoalhas
highadsorptivepowerandresistspowderingintheadsoptionequipmentaveryimportantfactor.
2.9.1.8Thechemicalcompositionofcharcoal
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Theconstituentsofcharcoalarecarbon,tarandash.Therelativeproportionsofeachreflecttheashcontent
ofthewoodfromwhichthecharcoalwasmadeandthetemperatureatwhichcarbonisationwasterminated.
TogiveanideaofthewaythesevaluescanvarythefollowingdataderivedfromworkonAustralian
eucalyptusisgiven.SeeTables3and4.(11,24).Althoughmanyspecieswerestudiedonlytheresultsfor
twospeciesofinternationalinterest,Eucalyptussalignaandcamaldulensisarequotedhere.Amorecomplete
tabulationoftheseresultsisquotedin(20).
Table3VolatileMatterandYieldofCharcoalatVariousTemperatures
Species

CarbonizationTemperatureC
350 400 450 500 590 700 800 950

Euccamaldulensis
%volatiles 39.4 35.8 31
%yield

26

16.7 4.4 0

49.7 46.8 43.6 40.7 36.2 31.5 30.1 30.1

Eucsaligna
%volatiles 40.4 37.8 30
%yield

24.9 15.8 4.1 0

49.9 47.9 42.6 39.8 35.4 31.1 29.8 29.8

Meanof15spp
%volatiles 39.8 35.3 29.9 24.6 16.2 4.6 .5
%yield

47.4 44.1 40.7 37.8 34.1 30

28.7 28.5

Table4InorganicContentofBarkSapwoodandHeartwood
Species

Percentage

partspermillion

%Ash %Silica P

Ca

Mg

Na AL Fe Mn Zn

Cl

Euccamaldulensis
bark

9.65

1.768

385 32150 2765 4185 1060 130 70 415 15

2455

sapwood

.49

.004

155 675

220 1858 303 20 38 83 5

910

trace

14 235

100 53

heartwood .07

33

18 7

Eucsaligna
bark

9.19

1.208

185 32030 1700 3250 1955 125 75 330 8

1660 2615

sapwood

.43

.056

100 550

250 900 215 15 50 15 9

660 440

heartwood .07

.002

60

340 65

280

100 60

10 25 4

2.9.2Pyroligneousacid
2.9.2.1Aceticacid
2.9.2.2Methanolandacetone
2.9.2.3Thetars
Thewaterycondensateofthevapoursleavingtheretortisknownaspyroligneousacid.waterinsolubletars
condenseatthesametimeandseparatefromthewateryphaseonstanding.Thecompositionof
pyroligneousacidisextremelycomplexandonlythemajorconstituentscanbementioned.Theyieldis
importantfordeterminingtheeconomicsofrecoveryandvarieswiththetypeofwoodcarbonised.European
beech,thehardwoodwhichformedthebasedoftheEuropeanindustry,hasahighcontentofpentosan
sugarsandthisgivesahighyieldofthevaluableaceticacid.Eucalyptwoodontheotherhandgivesamuch
loweryieldofaceticacidandotherproducts.Thetypeofcarbonisationplantalsoinfluencesyields.Itisnot
possibletogivedefinitepredictionsofyieldaccuratelargescaletestsmustbemadebeforeinvestingmoney
inbyproductrecovery.
Forguidancethefollowingaretypicalyieldsobtainedfrompyroligneousacidproducedbycarbonising
northernhemispheredeciduoushardwoods.
Yieldper1,000kgofairdrywood
Aceticacid

50kg

Methanol

16kg

AcetoneandMethylAcetone 8kg
Solubletars

190kg

Insolubletars

50kg

2.9.2.1Aceticacid
Aceticacidisthemostvaluableproductintermsoftotalcashreturnthatcanberecoveredfromthe
pyroligneousacid.Althoughtheamountofaceticacidmarketedasabyproductofwooddistillationnowadays
isratherinsignificanttheacidfromwooddistillationissoughtafterforcertainusesbecauseitisfairlypure.
Themethodusedtorecovertheacidfromthecondensateisusuallybysolventextractionofthecrudeacid
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liquorusingethylacetateafterthesolubletarsandthemethanol/acetonehavebeenseparated.Theacetic
acidpassesintotheethylacetatephase.Theethylacetateisrecoveredinastillandreturnedtotheextraction
column.Theaceticacidispurifiedbydistillation.Severalgradesmaybeproducedwhichvaryintheirpurity
andacidcontent.
2.9.2.2Methanolandacetone
Becauseofthelowpricesrulingfortheseproductsmadebythepetrochemicalrouteandthehighcostof
separatingthemaspuregradesfromthepyroligneousaciditisusualtorecoverthemasamixturewhichalso
containsmethylacetone.Themixtureissoldasasolventforuseinthepaintindustry.
Themixedsolventisrecoveredbydistillingthewaterphaseaftertheinsolubletarhasbeendecanted.The
liquidisdistilledinaprimarystillandtheaceticacid,methanol,acetone,etc.isvarpourised.Thesolubletars
remaininthestill.Thevapoursarefractionatedinacolumnandthecrudemixedmethanolsolventfraction
(about85%methanol)isseparatedfromthemixtureofaceticacidandwater.Thislattermixtureispurifiedas
describedabovebysolventextractionoftheaceticacid.Thecrudemethanolcutcouldbefurtherpurifiedbut
pricedoesnotallowitasaruleanditissoldasmixedsolvent.
2.9.2.3Thetars
Theinsolubletarisausefulproductinveterinarymedicineasanantisepticandasawoodpreservationagent
andcaulkingcompound.WhenproducedfromsoftwooddistillationitisusuallycalledStockholmtar.It's
recoverybydecantationfromthecondensateissimple.Aromaticsubstancesvaluableinmedicineand
perfumerycanbeseparatedfromthistarbycomplexchemicalprocesses.Ifthistarwereproducedinthe
developingworlditwouldprobablyfindlocalmarketsatareasonableprice.
Thesolubletarismoredifficulttomarket.Thismaterialisacomplexmixtureofhighlycondensedyetwater
misciblesusbstancesforwhichveryfewusesseemtoexist.Ithasbeenusedasanadmixturewithclayin
brickmakingtoproduceporousbricksandofcoursecanbeburnedasafuel.
Thetarsfromwooddistillationmustberecognisedaspollutantsoftheenvironmentandhencecannotbe
allowedtoescapeintostreams.Wasteliquorsofallkindsfrombyproductrecoverymustberunintoclosed
shallowpondsandthewaterallowedtoevaporateleavingbehindthetarryresidues.These,aftertheyhave
accumulatedcanbeburnedtoremovetherisktheyposetostreamlife,fish,watersuppliesandsoon.This
methodworkswellinareaswherethenetevaporationexceedsthenetprecipitation,i.e.wherecharcoalis
beingmadeinasemiaridclimatebutisanobviousfailureinthehumidtropics.
Alternativelythetarsandallthevolatilematerialexceptthewatercomponentcanbeburnedasfuel.Inmany
waysthisisthebestwayofusingthematerialratherthaninvestinginbyproductrecoveryschemes.Because
ofthelargeamountofenergyneededtoevaporatethewateritisbesttoburnthemixtureofgasand
condensiblesashotuncondensedgasascloseaspossibletothecarbonisingequipment.

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