Essay on DIN-I-ILAHI AND SULEH-I-KUL

(Mughal Empire)
VIJAY RAYAN

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In an ideal Islamic state, there should be no religion other than Islam; it is a country
of and for the Muslims and Muslims only. But, even in the Prophet's time, there were
non-Muslims who refused to convert to Islam and it was necessary to accommodate
them within the land or abode of Islam (Dar-ul- Islam). So rules were framed, under
which the non- believers were divided into two categories: ahl-e-kitab or those who
had some kind of revealed scripture and kafirs or the infidels.
The Prophet accepted the Jew and the Christian residents of Madina as ahl- e-kitab
and offered them security and some freedom to practise their religions subject to the
condition that they paid the jiziya or poll-tax. The word jazfl means compensation of
requital from good or evil and it is in the latter sense jiziya is derived, meaning the
tax imposed on non-believers for the security of life and property they enjoy by living
in an Islamic state where ordinarily they have no business to be.
When the governments in Delhi became predominantly Muslim with the advent of
the Sultanate, important modifications were bound to occur in the lives of the
Indians.
Here, an observation by V.A. Smith is of significance: "The Muslims were not
absorbed in the Indian caste system of Hinduism as their foreign predecessors, the
Shakas, Hunas and others, had been absorbed in a generation or two. The
definiteness of the religion of Islam, founded on a written revelation of a known date
preserved its votaries from the fate which befell the adherents of Shamanism and the
other vague religions of Central Asia.
Then it was time for the Sultanate to disintegrate, bringing in a number of states and
chieftaincies. In the Deccan, the Bahmini and the Vijayanagara states took shape; in
the north and central areas, the Muslim states of Bengal, Jaunpur, Gujarat and
Malwa were established; and the Rajput states of Mewar and Marwar emerged as
powerful Hindu kingdoms.
The Muslim states more or less functioned like the erstwhile sultanate, while the
Hindu kingdoms were modelled after the Dharmashastra's prescription for kingship.
The Vijayanagara empire, lasting for about two centuries was the most powerful of

the Hindu kingdoms of the times. It was also a theocracy in the sense that it was
based on Dharma.
But tolerance to other religions existed in the Hindu kingdoms. In the first place,
Hindu Dharma is not a proselytizing religion. In the second place, the
Dharmashastras do not lay down any specific laws prejudicial to the non Hindus. It
is because this that so many faiths and sects could flourish side by side in India.
Furthermore, there was also an economic angle to, for example, the Vijayanagara
rulers policy of religious tradition.
They had considerable income from external trade through their ports on the
western sea-coast and any policy of religious intolerance would have driven the
commerce elsewhere. In the same way, the sultans tolerated the Hindu infidels as
zimmis because without their help even the bare civil administration they were
providing would have collapsed.
Here, also a sort of enlightened self-interest worked. Probably, they realized that
without a modicum of administration they cannot generate the revenue required to
maintain themselves.
Be that as it may, in the time of Akbar, the conditions were somewhat different.
Akbar since his boyhood was exposed to the liberal influences of the Shias, Sufis,
fakirs, Hindu yogis, etc., and this had some effect on his thinking in such matters.
It should, however, not be concluded from this that the Sufis were in ascendancy at
that time. The ulema, custodians of the law, who were attached to the royal courts or
held the positions of muftis (legal advisers) or qazis in provincial capitals, were very
hostile towards any religious movement which they believed would affect the
pristine purity of Islam and dilute iman (faith) with kufr (infidelity).
The religious life of the Muslims in India were not only affected from time to time by
puritan fury directed against what was regarded as Hinduising influences on Islam,
but also the endemic Shia-Sunni differences which became much pronounced after
the establishment of the Mughal rule.
Its founder, Babar was an orthodox Sunni who was, however, remarkably tolerant
towards the Shias, many of whom accompanied his cortege in the funeral procession
taken out after his death. The story of Humayun's conversion to shiaism during his
years of exile in Persia was probably a myth, but a number of his followers,
especially, the great Bairam Khan, were Shias.
Consequently, there was regular contacts between the Mughal and Persian courts
leading to a kind of Persianisation of the Mughal court. While it meant improvement
in the culture and sophistication of the higher levels of the society, there was a
corresponding intensification of the Shia-Sunni fights. As, however, the number of
Shias were relatively small and considering that the Sunnis enjoyed royal patronage,

the Shias generally did not push their differences with the Sunnis to the extreme,
thereby avoiding bloodshed.
This possibility of violence due to Shia-Sunni differences was very much there when
Akbar ascended the throne. It was further compounded by the fact that two great
Sunni bigots, Makhdoum-ul- Mulk and Abdun Nabi were holding the positions of
chief ulema and sadr-us-sadr (supreme judge) respectively, powerful official
positions which they were holding at the time of Humayun as also of Sher Shah Sur.
For the young and inexperienced Akbar, who did not have much of an education, it
was necessary to follow their advice in matters of law, state and religion.
Akbar was no doubt aware that some harmony was needed between these warring
groups in order to bring peace and prosperity in the empire and that could only be
done by curbing fanaticism whenever or in whatever form it might appear. For a
time, probably he felt powerless to take any action against the ulamas, but when
their depredations crossed the limits, he took the plunge, removing them from their
perches of power and influence.
The second and far more bolder step taken by Akbar against the ulemas at that time
was to declare himself as the spiritual and secular leader of his subjects. Akbar
needed scriptural authority for such a step; Shaikh Mubarak found out verses from
Quran and traditions of the Prophet supporting such actions of a Muslim ruler. A
manifesto drafted by Shaikh Mubarak and duly signed by several jurists raised Akbar
to the rank of a Mujtahid of his time (Mujtahid-i-Asr).
Shaikh Mubarak was the leading scholar of his times, persecuted (before he met
Akbar) for his unconventional views. Faizi, Shaikh Mubarak's eldest son was a poetphilosopher, while Abul Fazal, the other son, was a famous intellectual even in his
younger days. Akbar's discourses with the trio had apparendy created the most
lasting influence in Akbar's mind.
Akbar assumed the role of the spiritual leader of Islam. In 1579, he issued the socalled Infallibility Decree (.Mahzfirj in this regard. This decree made him the 'Pope
as well as king', by which he appropriated to himself the right to choose any
interpretation of the Quran in the interest of public good. This ended the dominance
of bigots.
Earlier, in 1575, Akbar had built the Ibadat Khana at Fatehpur Sikri. Here he gave
impartial hearing to all religious experts-Hindu, Muslim, Jain, Christian and
Zoroastrian. He was against rigid orthodoxy and narrow sectarianism of the Sunnis,
who were bitterly opposed to his tolerant policy.
From 1579 to 1582, when the debates came to an end, representatives of other
religions were admitted and the disputants met in the private apartments of the
palace. The site of the House of Worship has, however, been utterly forgotten and no

trace of the building, which was large and highly decorated, has been discovered.
The probability is that Akbar pulled it down when he had no longer any use for it.
Akbar now took the bold step of introducing his four-fold path of renunciation, the
Din-i-Ilahi in 1582. The sacrifice of course was to be made to Akbar, who was now
the vice regent of God. Prostrating before him and chanting Allahu Akbar, the
intending devotee had to bequeath property, life, honour and religion to him.
[Badauni says it prompted a contemporary poet, Mulla Shiri to write a satirical
couplet: "Badshah imsal dawa-i-Nubuwat Karda-ast; Gar Khuda Khwahad pas az sali
Khud Khawahad Shudan." ("The king has this year claimed prophethood; God
willing after a year he will become God.")]
Din-i-Ilahi, or Tawahid-i-Ilahi, was not inspired by any Revelation nor was it based
on any well- defined philosophy or theology. Dr. S. Roy observes: "It was deism
modified by Hindu and predominant Zoroastrian influence, a religion without
priests or books. It was an ethical rationalism leading to the ideal of mystic union of
the soul with the divine. In this respect it was based on the Sufi idea of absorption of
the soul in the Divine Being.
It enjoined such ethical and social reforms as recommending alms-giving and
sparing of animal life, permitting remarriage of widows, prohibiting child- marriage
and marriage among close relations as also as forced sati, recommending
monogamy, enforcing chastity and controlling gambling and drinking by restricting
the sale of drink. The Din-i-Ilahi was definitely an attempt at religious syncretism. It
was as much a child of Akbar's spiritual development as a product of the age,
following as it does the movements of Kabir and Nanak."
In the Ain-i-Akbari, Abul Fazal gives twelve principles of the Din-i-Ilahi after stating
that Akbar is now "the spiritual guide of the nation" who "sees in the performance of
this duty a means of pleasing Allah (God)." These principles do not contain any
dogma or belief which can be regarded as the tenets of a new faith in
contradistinction to Hinduism, Islam or Christianity.
These principles describe the ceremonies performed by the Ilahia (member) upon
entry or initiation and the code of conduct to be followed by him. The intending
Ilahia is to perform sijdah (prostration) before Akbar when he raises the Ilahia by
touching his shoulders, places the turban on the entrants head and gives the Ilahia
his own portrait or shast on which is engraved the chant Allahu Akbar. The Ilahia is
required to celebrate his birthdays by feeding his associates and one special dinner
once in his life in anticipation of death, which would liberate him from this material
world of desires, sufferings and sorrows.
The Ilahias are required to abstain from a diet of meat as far as possible, not to dine
with or use the utensils of butchers, fisher folk and bird trappers. They should not
marry old women or minor girls and should be regularly giving alms to the poor and

the needy. Their devotion to Akbar is graded according to the number of items or
possessions they would pledge as a sacrifice.
These are property, life, honour and religion. The person pledging one of these to the
emperor (his spiritual guide) would be of one degree of devotion, the person
pledging two would be of two degrees and so on in ascending order upto four. It
would be seen that the pledging of religion was regarded as the most valuable
sacrifice of all, but was not essential to become elligible for the honour.
There is a book, Dabistan-i-Mazfihib written by Mohsin Fani, decades after Akbar's
death, in the middle of the seventeenth century. Fani says that he received the details
given in the book from one Mirza Shah Muhammad, son of Mirza Baigh Khan.
This Mirza Baigh got the information from Azam Khan, a trusted officer of Akbar
and a follower of the Din-i-Ilahi. The Dabistan-i-Mazahib is a treatise on the Din-iIlahi in the form of dialogues between men of religion and a philosopher imagined
by the author. According to this book, there are ten virtues which the Din-i-Ilahi
professes. These are:
(1) liberal-mindedness and generosity;
(2) forgiveness of evil-doers and repulsion of anger with mildness;
(3) abstinence from worldly desires;
(4) non-attachment to the materialistic world;
(5) careful weighing of pros and cons of actions to be taken;
(6) performance of noble deeds with courage;
(7) softness of voice and gentle speech;
(8) good behaviour to others;
(9) absolutely no connection with bad characters and evil-doers; and
(10) total dedication to God.
It appears there was another reason for the promulgation of the Din-i-Ilahi at that
time. The Shias, Sunnis, Mehdavis and Sufis were then fighting merrily amongst
themselves in Kashmir and in Ahmednagar thereby causing damage to the life and
property of the subjects. Probably, Akbar felt that a syncretic creed would quell the
warring urges of the factions and help bring peace and tranquility. Presumably, as
the first step, he wanted to change the thinking of the leading men, ulemas and the
nobility.

The Din-i-Ilahi was Akbar's attempt to unify different schools of religious thought.
The Ain-i- Akbari states that there were only eighteen Ilahias who by pledging
property, life, honour and religion qualified for the highest degree of devotion and
the only Hindu among them was Raja Birbal. The total number of followers of all
degrees were only a few thousands. According to Badauni, Raja Man Singh and Raja
Bhagawan Dass, two of Akbar's most trusted lieutenants, categorically refused to
join the creed.
The principle of suleh-i-kul or universal tolerance which Akbar made a state policy
in the second half of his reign, was actually the avowed creed of Shaikh Mubarak and
Abul Fazal even before they came in contact with the emperor and started to attend
the court. Thus, in the period of reign after circa 1580, the policy of universal
toleration was fully applied in favour of Hindus, Christians, Jains, and Parsees, who
enjoyed full liberty both of conscience and of public worship.
The policy adopted by Akbar in relation to his Hindu subjects was generally
independent of his personal fancies or beliefs in respect of religion. It was a measure
of his perspicacity to have realized at an early age that the badshah should be the
impartial sovereign of all his subjects, regardless of religion.
In that medieval environ, it was remarkable that he considered this to be the
absolute politically necessity. It should also be admitted that Sher Shah was also
following such a goal and had he lived longer perhaps his reign would have also
adopted similar measures.
Nonetheless, Akbar married Hindu princesses, abolished pilgrim tax, removed jiziya,
and provided the Hindus with employment readily when he was a practising Muslim
who took his religious duties seriously. Accepting Hindu princesses in marriage was
not that uncommon among the Muslim rulers, especially in the Deccan, a fact which
was known to Akbar. He, however, differed from the existing norms in the sense that
he accepted his in-laws as members of the royal family and all due honours were
accorded to them.
The Rajput families he married into, the Rajas of Amber, Bikaner or Marwar were
never pressurized to convert into Islam. Without any restrictions they were taken
into the highest command of military services or given the responsibility of the
topmost civilian officer.
That was a policy decision Akbar entirely took on his own. No Shaikh Mubarak or
Abul Fazal was behind this decision and this policy of Akbar afforded the strongest
support to his reign and the reigns of his successors. It should also be admitted that
the Rajput princes on their part gave their unflinching loyalty to the cause of the
empire.
In his later years, he chose his friends and senior officers from among both Hindus
and Muslims with a preference for the former. Raja Man Singh, riephew and adopted

son of Raja Bhagawan Das of Amber was one of Akbar's best generals and governors.
He was the designated governor of Kabul for some time and is said to have ruled the
eastern provinces with great prudence and justice.
Raja Todar Mai, withoi: the advantage of a royal connection, rose by shee merit to
the top of the royal service and made hi, name as a revenue expert of exceptional
abilities He was also an able military commander and was regarded as the ablest of
the king's courtiers, second to Abul Fazl. The sharp wit and ready repartee of Raja
Birbal made him Akbar's favourite. It seems Akbar developed a genuine friendship
with the Jesuit fathers who visited his court and took part in the religious
discussions at the ibadatkhana.
Using a twentieth-century term, it can be said that Akbar's relations with the nonMuslims were politically correct.