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Scholars have studied communication for years, and in the field of communication
science we share many theories, models & methods with other disciplines. It is
useful to see connections with those disciplines, and they are shown on the
pyramid of communication below:
Institutional: performed by
religions, corporations, political
bodies, etc.
Group: performed among
audiences that feel a high level
of group identification, such as
families or fan clubs.
Interpersonal: communication
between two or more people.
Intrapersonal: communication
with yourself. This includes
information processing, thinking,
internalising information & giving
meaning to the world around us.
communicating ideas
sharing thoughts
absorbing new information
being entertained
being persuaded somehow
Communication enables
us to function as social,
cultural and political
animals.
Concepts play an important role in the development of theories. For example, the
theory of gravity predicts that if I drop a pen, it will fall to the ground. This is a
hypothesis.
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If you change the example and consider the theory that giving someone a gift will
cause them to like you better, the independent variable is gift-giving & the
dependent variable is how much the receiver likes you.
By actually dropping a pen or giving a gift, and checking to see if the results
correspond with our expectations, we can prove or disprove our hypotheses, and
by extension the connected theory.
In other words, we test & improve our theories by conducting research. This could
be primary or secondary research.
This is the ideal scientific situation, but in reality many theories cannot be tested,
for instance, where we cannot observe a presumed relation. The theory that
everything happens for a reason may be true, but there is no scientific method to
test this.
Sometimes, a theory will combine a set of theories, for instance the uses and
gratification theory (will be discussed later in the course). This theory contains
several ideas about reality:
1. People make conscious decisions regarding their use of media
2. People are conscious of their media-related needs
3. People select the media that is best suited to fulfil their needs
These are only three of the elements of this theory, but while each theory can be
tested and proven independently, they are still part of the same theoretical
framework, and therefore collectively labeled.
The definition of theory is not as easy, therefore, as we first thought. Some
theories dont predict anything, but serve more as perspectives on reality, to sum
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Paradigm: a framework of
explanation which may contain
theories from various schools
of thought. (Watson & Hill, p218)
For instance, stakeholder theory tells us we should study the stakeholders in any
situation and be aware of their various interests and agendas. These perspectives
are sometimes called theories, but could also be referred to as paradigms or
approaches since they dont really fit the dominant definition of scientific theory.
Scientific theory stresses that theories should have a predictive
value, while paradigms or approaches serve more as view
glasses which we use to study the world.
They amplify some aspects of reality and guide our research.
Harold Lasswell
Lasswells model
Sender
Message
engine might drown out the speakers voice. The listener may have other things
on his mind, and there are many other things that can cause a disruption of
effective communication.
It is important to note that communication, in this linear way of looking at it, is
only effective when the desired effect is reached when the message successfully
reaches, and is correctly interpreted, by the receiver.
Claude Shannon
That many things can distort a transmission becomes clear in the transmission
model that Shannon and Weaver created in 1949. This model contains five
elements, like the model of Lasswell, but also accounted for noise.
Warren Weaver
In the example from earlier, the passing car can create many forms of noise:
the sound of its loud engine can cause confusion as the listener cant hear
the speaker correctly
the distraction it creates for the listener so he doesnt pay attention
The important thing with both of the models above is that they see
communication as a linear process, which in itself leads to an emphasis on effects,
as we want to know if communication has the desired effect.
This is one of the dominant approaches to viewing communication, and is also
very different from another approach that will be examined later.
During the 60s, many critics objected to this linear, effect-oriented approach.
They argued that many people give a different meaning to a message than what
was intended, but why should that be wrong?
Instead, they focused on the recipients of communication, and how they give
meaning to a message by using their own unique toolkit of background,
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This idea was hardly new. Scientists had studied the phenomenon of polysemic
messages for a long time. According to these scientists, each act of
communication relies on a communication system, without which we wouldnt
understand each other. Study of these systems is called semiotics.
In this context, a sign is anything that communicates something. A word, a
gesture, a picture, a cartoon, a sentence, a hieroglyph; they are all signs.
The process of giving meaning to these signs is called signification (think giving
significance).
Without digging too deeply into semiotic theory, it is important to consider the
influence of semiotic theories on mass communication theory:
This approach views communication not as a linear process but as
an exchange of meaning.
Under the influence of semiotic theories, scientists became more interested in the
reception of a message, and acknowledged that communication can indeed have
multiple valid outcomes.
Roman Jacobson
Act
Function
Sender
Emotive
Receiver
Conative
Context
Referential
or
descriptive
Channel
Phatic
Message
Poetic
Code
Metalingual
Definition
When the primary purpose of a
message is to communicate the
emotions and attitudes of a
sender
If a receiver is directly addressed
to do something specific
Happens when a message
primarily describes a situation
When the primary purpose of the
communication is to keep the lines
open
The message is an end in itself
Example
Writing a love letter
to a girlfriend
A commercial that
tells us to buy this
flavour of ice cream
A news report
The third approach is a continuation of Jacobsons line of thought, but shifts the
focus to cultural and social aspects of communication. This approach deals with
how we use communication:
(Cultural approach)
Communication: the means to
share and reinforce ideas,
thereby constantly creating and
adapting our culture.
This perspective makes use of insights from the fields of sociology, social
psychology and anthropology, where much attention is given to the social context
in which communication takes place.
The definition of the concept of communication differs slightly in this cultural
approach. It sees people as social animals, and as such we are constantly involved
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Theodore Newcomb
He therefore introduced a new element the social environment that person A &
person B share. Well call this social environment X for now:
These three elements, A, B & X, are all connected to each other in one social
system. If one element changes, this changes the relationship of the three.
David and Shirley are colleagues in the same department, so this is their shared
social environment. If David quits his job to work somewhere else, this means
they no longer have that same shared social environment; the workplace, shared
office lunches, chats around the water cooler, etc. This will inevitably change the
relationship between David and Shirley.
Perhaps theyll decide they enjoyed their lunch breaks so much that they will now
have coffee each month, even though they dont work together any more
thereby going from colleagues to friends.
In another scenario, David changes jobs within the company and becomes
Shirleys boss. This will also influence their relationship. Will they still continue to
have friendly lunches each day?
X can take many forms; the place you work, political allegiance, a group you
belong to, it can even be a person.
Lets say X is another co-worker named Ellen. David and Shirley both like Ellen,
until Ellen and Shirley get into a fight. Now, Davids relationship with both of them
will change he might choose sides, or establish himself as a neutral party.
Regardless of his choice, a new social balance will be found, and equilibrium
restored.
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We have made a very broad distinction between three perspectives in the field of
communication science:
1. Linear approach (Lasswell; Shannon & Weaver) correct communication
causes the desired effect, therefore its focus is on effects
2. Signification approach (Jacobson) views communication as the
production and exchange of meanings. It is concerned with the
construction of messages using signs, and the process of extracting
meaning from these messages, called signification. The interpretation of
communication can lead to different but equally valid outcomes.
3. Cultural approach (Newcomb) looks at how we use communication to
construct our social reality. It examines the many ways we connect with
people around us, by constantly sharing ideas and thereby constructing,
reinforcing (or deconstructing) our identity. This perspective views
communication as the binding force of every society, group or culture.
The potential to bind goes hand in hand with the potential for group
deconstruction, audience fragmentation and cultural alienation.
There are many more ways to distinguish schools of thought in the field, and these
categories are by no means fixed or universally agreed upon, but for this
introductory course, these basic perspectives are a useful tool to categorise some
of the more widely used theories and models.
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