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I- Introduction:
Making observations (measurements), and subsequent computations and analyses
using them, are fundamental tasks of surveyors.
Good measurements require a combination of human skill and mechanical equipment
applied. No matter how carefully made, however, observations are never exact and
will always contain errors. Surveyors should understand the different kinds of errors,
their sources, and expected magnitudes under varying conditions, and their manner of
propagation. Only then can they select instruments and procedures necessary to
reduce error sizes to within tolerable limits.
Surveyors must be capable of assessing the magnitudes of errors in their observations
so that their acceptability can be verified.
II- Direct and Indirect Observations:
Observations may be made directly or indirectly.
Direct observations include taping, total station, etc
Indirect observations are made when it is not possible to apply a measuring
instrument directly to the quantity to be observed. The answer is therefore determined
by its relationship to some other observed values.
III- Errors in measurements:
By definition an error is the difference between an observed value, and its true value:
_
E=X-X
_
Where E is the error in an observation, X the observed value, and X the true value.
Note:
1234-
No observation is exact
Every observation contains errors
The true observation is never known
The exact error present is always unknown
IV- Mistakes:
These are observer blunders and are usually caused by misunderstanding the problem,
carelessness, fatigue, missed communication, or poor judgment.
Ex: - Transposing numbers: 73.96 instead of 73.69
- Reading an angle counterclockwise and indicating it as clockwise
The difference between precision and accuracy is perhaps best illustrated to target
shooting.
=/n
where = mean
= the residual of the independent observations (error)
n= number of observations
_________
= 2 / n-1
where = standard deviation
= the residual of the independent observations (error)
n = number of observations
The standard deviation establishes the limits within which observations are expected to
fall in 68.3 % of the time.
Eg: if an observation is repeated 10 times, 7 out of 10 times will fall within the limits of
SD.
For other %s, the following implies:
E50 = 0.6745
E90 = 1.6449
E95 = 1.9599
Where E** the percent error expected.
The 2 is frequently referred to as the 95% error occurrence and
The 3 is frequently referred to as the 99.7% error occurrence
Ex:
Standard deviation calculations:
For the following data, compute the most probable value for the line length, its standard
deviation and errors having 50, and 95 % probability.
Length (ft)
538.57
538.39
538.37
538.39
538.48
538.49
538.33
538.46
538.47
538.55
SUM = 5384.50
Residual (ft)
+0.12
-0.06
-0.08
-0.06
+0.03
+0.04
-0.12
+0.01
+0.02
+0.10
SUM = 0.00
2
0.0144
0.0036
0.0064
0.0036
0.0009
0.0016
0.0144
0.0001
0.0004
0.01
SUM= 0.0554
__
M = 5384.50 / 10 = 538.45 ft
= 0.08 ft
E50 = 0.05 ft
E95 = 0.13 ft
Ex 2:
Assume that a line is observed in three sections, with individual parts equal to (753.81
0.012) ft, (1238.40, 0.028) and (1062.95, 0.020) ft, respectively. Determine the lines
total length and its anticipated standard deviation.
Total Length = 753.81 + 1238.40 + 1062.95 = 3055.16 ft
_____________________
Esum = 0.0122 + 0.0282 + 0.0202 = 0.036 ft
Ex 3:
For a rectangular lot, observations of sides A and B with their 95 % errors are (252.46,
0.053) ft and (605.08, 0.072) ft, respectively.
Calculate the parcel area and the expected 95 % error in the area.
Area = 252.46 x 605.08 = 152,760 ft2
_________________________________
E95 = (252.46) 2 (0.072) 2 + (605.08) 2 (0.053) 2 = 36.9 ft2
Ex 4:
From the series of reading sets below, define which is more precise or more accurate.
a- True value = 250.54
Reading set A:
250.38
250.31
250.34
Reading set B:
250.48
250.40
250.62
Reading set B:
124.54
124.50
124.59