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31 Arts Education and the

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Learning Sciences

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Erica Rosenfeld Halverson and Kimberly M. Sheridan

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In this chapter, we review research on how people learn disciplinary

knowledge and practice in the arts. Learning in the arts is distinct from the
other subjects discussed in this handbook (math, science, history, and literacy) for three core reasons. First, the arts are centrally a representational
domain and learning in the arts involves becoming increasingly aware of
how representational choices communicate meaning to different audiences
(Halverson, 2013). Second, form and meaning are deeply integrated in the
arts; artistic representations are saturated with meaning, and subtle varia'
tions in aspects such as line quality, tone, inflection, and tempo are consid,
ered consequential to that meaning. Third, work in the arts often involve~
explicitly exploring and examining identity and culture, because artistic:
cognition is intertwined with both. We argue that these three distinctive
lures of arts learning have potential implications for our undcrstandin
learning more generally.
There is a long history of research in arts education (for reviews, see D.
2002; Fiske, 2000; Gadsden, 2008). However, this chapter is the first r~
of what we know about learning in the arts from a learning sciences p ~
tive. We consider four complementary questions:
What do we know about the arts within educational contexts?
What do we know about learning in and through the arts?
What are the features of designed learning environments for the~t
How can an arts-based perspective contribute to the learning sci~
.-i

To address these questions, we look at arts in K-12 art education~

environments identified as "arts-based" and the types of learnhi
therein. Arts education is often associated with four primary
drama and narrative arts, music, dance/movement, and visual ai:,t,
2010; Gadsden, 2008). More recently, digital media arts ha~e;
conversation as both a component of contemporary practice 10 ~
art forms and as a fifth arts-based discipline in education (PepJ1j
The desired learning outcomes of arts education across th~1s
plines are for learners to be able to produce and critically re1Jl
works. Learners develop the ability to represent ideas through~~
manipulating diverse materials, and the ability to analyze a 11,

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Arts Education and the Learning Sciences

627

6ther artists have created throughout history and across cultures. In the
arts, tools include two- and three-dimensional visual media from paint
)pture, physical and digital. Theater includes .a~y art form designed
municate a story: staged theater, creative wntmg, performance art,
ore recently) digital video/audio narratives. Dance involves moving
poseful and rhythmical ways and learning to choreograph the movesof others. Music involves learning to use, compose, and perform with
lsuch as instruments and voice and to appreciate the performances of
s. The digital media arts typically refer to creating using digital technoilly enabled modes for representation including video, audio, graphic
gn, multimedia, virtual design, videogames, and digital stories.
"arning in and through the arts often involves multiple art forms simultausly- particularly in digital media arts. Hip-Hop, for example, stretches
6ss the visual arts (tagging and clothing design), music (producing beats
'rhymes), theater (live performance of storied music), and the digital
(lia arts (recording and producing albums) (Hill & Petchauer, 2013). While
ditional arts education has separated artistic media into domain-specific
~es, it is clear that contemporary learning in the arts is often a multidis-linary act that requires understanding how the tools of a given medium
'ord representation and communicate meaning.
'In the next section, we discuss how the arts have been studied within edu'tional contexts, beginning with a brief history of the study of cognition
)d learning in the arts. We review studies of learning in each of the five
_t forms, and then identify and discuss four broad themes: creating repesentations, engagement in identity processes, language development, and
i'eativity and design thinking. We then describe the key design features of
dio arts learning environments: the role of audiences, critique, authentic
ssment, and opportunities for role taking. Last, we discuss how these key
ign features can yield new insights and directions for the learning sciences
ore broadly.

-~- Defining the Arts w~in Educational Contexts

ABrief History of the Arts and Learning
Psychologists have been studying arts since the founding of experimental
psychology itself, with early experiments on aesthetic perception conducted
by William James and Gustav Fechner. At the dawn of the emergence of
cognitive psychology, Goodman (1976) argued that cognition in the arts
involved mental processing of symbolic representations. This influential
work led cognitive psychologists to study how children develop the ability
to read and speak those languages of art (Goodman, 1976). Across artistic
domains, these researchers have shown how children create intuitive schemas

',1',

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Halverson and Sheridan

and notational systems to bootstrap themselves to bnild more complex representations before using more formal or conventional musical notational
systems, story structures, and visual schemas (e.g., Bamberger, 1991; Hanna
2008; Karmiloff-Smith, 1992; Winner, 1982). For instance, Karmiloff-Smith'
demonstrated how young children learning to draw a figure or play a tune
first develop behavioral mastery, but with implicit representations. Then
through a gradual systematic process she terms representational redescrip-'
tion, the representations become increasingly explicit and accessible to learners as they manipulate the representational forms with greater flexibility,
such as deciding to play a portion of a tune at a faster tempo for a particular
effect, or changing the position of the arms on a previously rote drawing of a
figure (Karmiloff-Smith, 1992). Many academic competences - such as literacy and numeracy - generally show linear progress with age and experience.
In contrast, artistic development is more ambiguous. For instance, Gardner
and Winner (1976) argued for steady development in expressiveness and
inventiveness in metaphoric language, pretend play, visual arts, and musical composition until about age five, and then a downward trend through
middle childhood as children become more literal and conventional, result,
ing in a plateau through adulthood without further training in an art forw
(Gardner, 1982; Gardner & Winner, 1976). These assertions about artiStjc
development are not without controversy. For instance, looking at the sa
middle childhood drawings, expert judges in China who value a traditio '
ist approach to visual art see a growth, whereas judges in the United
and Europe are more likely to see a loss in expressiveness and originalit~:
Sheridan & Gardner, 2012).
.
One way to ground discussions of artistic development has been to{
the "end state" of expert-level ability in various art forms. Experts app
their art form in qualitatively different ways from novices-in particul,
think about the whole piece in relationship to its components wit .
fluidity and flexibility (e.g., Ericsson, 1996). With advances in ne;
ing, researchers have identified neurological substrates for arts expef
instance, Solso (2001) described evidence from neuroimaging data,'
fMRI) that suggests that novices tend to approach drawing as a Tf!:~
whereas experts' brains process it as a higher-order task..

A key line of arts learning research has been to examme ho"'.t

a particular art form transfers to non-arts skills, competences,
(Deasy, 2002). In meta-analytic reviews of these transfer stu,.
and Winner (2000, 2001) found support for some instances ~{
primarily asserted that claims for transfer to non-arts ski!ls..
the findings.
.
1
This foundational cognitive psychological work has prov .~,
the kinds of cognition involved in the arts, the developme?t ?fl
ing, and the nature of expertise in different artistic domamy:
learning processes, noncognitive learning outcomes, and ll~

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Arts Education and the Learning Sciences

]nents shape arts learning. Contemporary arts research in the learnnces is exploring how to weave these dimensions together.

hnarv Research on Learning in the Arts

of this research explored the cognitive structures and processes shared
'.the arts. In addition to this type of research, there is a substantial
, [ research on arts learning that is focused on each of the five distinct
0
{rns.
In visual arts, researchers have described how visual arts develop
'utegrate habits of mind such as observing, envisioning, expressing,
'.eflecting (e.g., Eisner, 2002; Hetland, Winner, Veenema, & Sheridan,
and have studied giftedness in children and extraordinary artistic
evernents to understand high-level performance and creativity (e.g.,
~ner, 1993; Simonton, 1994). Arts education research has evolved to
with changes in conceptions of visual art, the art world, and practices
tare prevalent in arts education. For instance, early accounts of visual
. \development focused on representational accuracy (e.g., Lowenfeld,
but soon after visual arts learning became conceptualized as facility
Ka symbolic and communicating language (e.g., Goodman, 1976) rather
'ha mimetic ability, developmental outcomes such as how flexibly chil
learned to use media and techniques to represent and communicate
~re increasingly studied (e.g., Golomb, 2002; Kindler, 2004; Sheridan &
0

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rdner, 2012).
'Research in the narrative arts has focused primarily on how young people
e rn to create and share original narrative art. Dyson's (1997) work with
irnentary schoolchildren has demonstrated that kids use dramatic play
nd their knowledge of popular culture as key tools for meaning making
rough creative writing. Research focused on older learners and creative
'riting explores niche communities - such as fan fiction Web sites - and
escribes how writers iterate through composition (Magnifico, 2012), use
he composition process for language learning (Black, 2008), and engage in
(list-century creative production activities (Jenkins, Purushotma, Clinton,
Weigler, & Robison, 2007). Beyond creative writing as a narrative art form,
research explores the dramaturgical process: the telling, adapting, and per:forming of narratives of personal experiences (Halverson, 2009, 2012; Wiley
;&Feiner, 2001). This work focuses on how young people extend their narrative production from the written word to multimodal forms of communica,tion including live performance and digital production.
Research on drama in learning is often differentiated by the degree of
; spontaneity present in the comp~sition process. The most informal, creative
drama is defined as "an improvisational, non-exhibitional, process-centered
' form of drama" (Davis & Evans, 1987, p. 262) enacted in learning environments by field pioneers Dorothy Heathcote and Viola Spolin (Heathcote &
Johnson, 1991; McCaslin, 1995). Research on process-oriented drama has

629

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Halverson and Sheridan

demonstrated that drama leads to learning gains on reading and writing

assessments (DuPont, 1992; Moore & Caldwell, 1993; Podlozny, 2000).
Cognitive scientists have studied music extensively. One stream of research
has explored how children acquire skills to sing, play, notate, appreciate, and
interpret the cultural forms of music to which they are exposed and taught
(e.g., Bamberger, 1991; Stalinski & Schellenberg, 2012). Researchers have
also characterized the effects of musical training, such as how music instruction impacts neurological and cognitive outcomes (e.g., Schlaug et al., 2005)
and how receiving musical training earlier rather than later in life improves
cognitive and neurological processing and integration of musical components such as pitch, rhythm, and synchronization (see Penhune, 2011, for
a review). McPherson, Davidson, and Faulkner (2012) followed more than
150 children through their musical learning, showing how music education
extends beyond developing instrumental skill to deeper, more conceptual
aspects of musical understanding. They document shifts in motivation, emoi
tional expression, and identity development as young music students weave:;
together the different aspects of their musical lives. Given the centrality ofi:
music in the lives of adolescents outside formal education, research aJSi'l.'''.
documents more informal music learning, such as how playing music-base
videogames such as Guitar Hero helps to develop music performance ski(
without formal musical training (Miller, 2009).
Hanna defined dance as "htunan behavior composed of purpose
intentionally rhythmical, and culturally influenced sequences of nonver
body movements and stillness in time and space with effort" (Hanna;
p. 492). Neuroscientific evidence indicates that moving develops lea
capacity for conceptualization, creativity, and memory in the same
engagement with verbal poetry and prose (Grafton & Cross, 2008):'.',
(2008) outlined the differences in knowledge and skills reqnired for l
ing (learning/imitating someone else's dance) and choreographing (
up your own dance), and argued that these two tasks are substantive! ..
ent teaching and learning enterprises. From a learning sciences perf
dance provides an opportunity to engage with embodied forms.
ing and learning and to use the body as a conduit for the devefo.
symbolization (Hanna, 1987; see Abrahamson & Lindgren, Cha~.
volume).
Learning in digital media arts is a natural topic for learnitf
because the learning sciences is centrally concerned with how-t,
are used in distributed cognitive systems. In fact, the digital me4
reinvigorated an interest in the role of art making more gen~r~;
for productive learning. For example, Ito and her colleagues
nographic studies of kids' technological lives identified "ere.
ti on" as a core form of participation in the digital world;
2010). There is now substantial research on specific form,.
making including videogame design (e.g., Salen & Zimmerm,

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Arts Education and the Learning Sciences

ron (e.g., Chavez & Soe~, 2005), video produc.tion (e.g., Halverson,
&

''nd computational textiles (e.g., Buechley, Eisenberg, Catchen,

tt, 2008).
k;

idci i>eople Learn in and through the Arts?

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'"In the following, we identify four broad themes that apply across all
a\sciplines: creating representations, engagement in identity processes,
kge development, and creativity and critical thinking .
.

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Representations

~tructionism, a theoretical framework central to the learning sciences

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04), radio

.'<Nathan & Sawyer, Chapter 2, this volume), posits that learners create
rtown knowledge by building physical artifacts and that this gradually
els to the construction of conceptual representations. The sociocognitive
1ioach extends Piaget's original claim by proposing a distributed approach
, 'conceptualizing learning, where teachers and learners work together to
'ign and create an external, public artifact (Kafai, 2006; Papert & Hare!,
91). The externality of physical artifacts - whether sculptures, models of
'.e solar system, or videogames - makes visible the understandings, discovr)es, and misconceptions inherent in learners' evolving designs, opening up
'.e possibility for critique by knowledgeable others (Kafai, 2006). Just as
epresentation is an integral process to art making, the design and critique of
jiernal artifacts is central in arts learning. Whether the artifacts are paintpgs, poems, lyrics, dramatic performances, or interactive games, art educa)on primarily involves perceiving, creating, and reflecting on artifacts and
the processes involved in making them.
hGoodman (1976) argued that art making is a fundamentally representa~ional domain. Producing art is a communicative act that requires learn~fS to master the representational tools of the artistic medium. In learning
iciences research, the capacity to construct an external representation of a
';pomplex idea is a marker of mastery in many disciplines (Enyedy, 2005; see
;' also Eisenberg & Pares, Chapter 17, this volume). Tools for representation
'.vary with the forms of language described earlier; dance requires bodies,
digital media requires multimodal tools, and the visual arts require everything from paintbrushes to clay. To use tools effectively, artists must have an
understanding of the design grammar within which they are working and
have a sense of how the tools support communication within a specific con" text (Halverson, 2012). It is not enough to know how to use an audio editing
tool like Garage Band; art makers must understand what forms of audio
editing are expected and acceptable if they are aiming to produce a piece of
documentary radio.

631

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Halverson and Sheridan

Halverson (2013) proposed that digital art-making processes can be

understood as "representational trajectories" that culminate in the creation
of digital artifacts. To successfully create a digital artifact, a learner must
understand the relationship between the idea to be communicated and how
the tools of the digital art medimn can be used to communicate that idea.
This process mirrors the progressive formalization of representations valued
in math and science education (Azevedo, 2000; Enyedy, 2005), which results
in metarepresentational competence (MRC) that marks deep engagement
with complex content (diSessa, 2004).
Learning in the digital media arts has a close connection with learning in
technology, because digital media arts production requires a fairly sophisticated ability to use computer technology, in some cases even computer programming (Clark & Sheridan, 2010; Peppler, 2010). Learning environments
in STEM disciplines have begun to incorporate rich representational forms,
for instance by incorporating digital video production into science inquiry
as a method for measuring competence with scientific constructs and science identity (Calabrese-Barton & Tan, 2010). In learning to produce digital
media arts, young people engage with technological tools that support the
representation of complex ideas over time, and this is a goal of many reform~
oriented learning sciences curricular efforts (see Songer & Kali, Chapter
this volume).

Engagement in Identity Processes

Studies of the role of the arts in learning have described the psychos'
benefits of arts participation in broad identity terms, such as how p.
pation in arts organizations supports positive developmental trajectori'
young people, especially those who do not affiliate with mainstrea
demic settings (Ball & Heath, 1993; Heath, 2000). Specifically, parti,c
in arts-based activities supports identity exploration by "placing o
the center of a work as observer and actor" (Gadsden, 2008, p. 35):
there is evidence that this form of identity exploration is relevant fo1; .
starting in early childhood, the primary focus of identity explor.a;~
is in adolescence. For example, at Teen Talk, a theater program rp~j 1
a Boys and Girls Club, McLaughlin and colleagues described th~'fq
one actress over the course of a given performance:

During the next half hour Rosa is, in turn, a pregnant mothe1!'.~~~
bereaved friend of a drunk-driving victim, and the child of -t~H
parents. When not portraying one of these characters she t~~'., turn as both backdrop and stagehand while other players 9f;
(McLaughlin et al., 1994, pp. 76-77).
_,{'
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Drama provides Rosa with the opportunity to experiment,i'

selves: What would it be like to be a pregnant teen.? Rosa'
.:
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Arts Education and the Learning Sciences

!shoes without actually having to go through a pregnancy. In additlers are free to take on roles that they would not likely be given
ftunity to take on in "real life." In their community-based theater
[);youth, Wiley and Feiner described how one youth with multiple
had the opportunity to try on a different kind of physical self: "She
the opportunity to shed her reputation as a klutz, and the rest of the
~pported her in taking on the ~hallenge of adapting a rol~ with few
;Xtialogue but tremendous physical presence" (Wiley & Femer, 2001,
l'tfty explorations through the arts have proven especially productive
.ulations who feel marginalized from mainstream institutions. Ball
:~ath (1993) demonstrated that, through dance, young people embraced
'pressed their ethnic selves. Halverson (2005) demonstrated that queer
. ;explore possible selves as they perform the narratives of their peers,
lly trying on identities that they had never before imagined for them:'. Artistic production also supports youth as they engage in detypifin; a mechanism for affiliating with a traditionally stigmatized identity
~ositive way (Halverson, 2010a). Fleetwood's (2005) work with adolesparticipating in digital media production demonstrates that art making
urages discussions about the construction of stereotypes, their function
rt, and how these stereotypes reflect individuals' experiences.
'jnally, participating in art-making processes can support both individuJic and collectivistic conceptions of identity (Halverson, Lowenhaupt,
bbons, & Bass, 2009). Researchers who study identity development tend to
jfceive of "identity" as a property of an individual (e.g., Fleetwood, 2005;
\fey & Feiner, 2001; Worthman, 2002). However, in some communities,
J,collective group itself has a prominent role in both the process and the
oducts of students' art (Bing-Canar & Zerkel, 1998; Mayer, 2000). In more
e&llectivist-oriented communities, groups (as opposed to individuals) often
tletermine the topics of youth art and co-compose the products, taking over
tom one another based on availability, expertise, and interest. Halverson
~nd colleagues provided evidence that adolescents use artistic production
(o explore collective identity development, specifically in rural communities
Jhat orient their young people toward community-oriented visions of iden)ity. In their study, one artistic director describes youth film as "not only
\ .. the story of the individual artist, but it also has this indigenous sense in
)hat it is a collective story of the community and of the people, and of the
i timelessness of a lot of the stories that are within there" (Halverson et al.,

rners
ark
ough

ihof

. I 2009, p. 32).
l
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es

Language Development

htial
step

.~'l. While engaging in arts practice, arts learners work with the tools
~

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of the
medium to communicate to an imagined audience. Across narrative artistic

633

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Halverson and Sheridan

forms, language is a core tool for communication, and participation in arts

practice provides unique opportunities for language development (Heath,
2004; Soep, 1996; Werthman, 2002). Heath (2004) pointed out the wide variety of oral and written language activities that learners participate in while
engaged in arts practice, including group composition, journal writing, and
editing. Members of arts organizations learn to be flexible in their use of
language, as the different roles they take on in performance and within the
organization require a variety of language resources.
The narrative arts are most directly linked to the development of language, )
In theater programs where students create their own pieces for performance, ''
they use language as a meditational tool for sense making and empowerment .c
(Werthman, 2002) to construct a representation of self and/or conununity
that can be shared with a public audience. As a result, the majority of their/
work focuses on linguistic decisions: Should a new character be included
to represent a certain aspect of the narrative? Should an individual's narra."
tive be sacrificed for a broader cultural point through the combination of,'
multiple languages or through changing one of the characters' core feature
like gender? (Halverson, 2010a). These questions make clear that there.is'
reciprocal relationship between the development of language and the del
opment of self, as learners negotiate how to represent themselves thro .
language.

.r

The New London Group (1996) first argued that our conceptions o
eracy should be expanded to include multiple forms of communication,
digital media arts include not only language, but many other modalitK
communication: still and moving images, sound, and music. This sjl
thinking has been accelerated by the increasing accessibility of simp .,
ta] media tools. There is ample evidence that learners build languag
through their participation in digital media arts learning, includin '
storytelling (Hull & Nelson, 2005), filmmaking (Fleetwood, 2005;
2010b; Mayer, 2000), radio production (Chavez & Soep, 2005), al);
priation - sampling and remixing media content (Jenkins et al., 20911.1

H:

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Creativity and Design Thinking

Creativity is not unique to the arts; many national and interni
dards docmnents for STEM education describe creativity as a,
acteristic of learners across all disciplines (Sawyer, 2012). Here;
dimensions that are central to inquiries at the intersection d
learning sciences - the qualities of both individual and group
cesses and experiences and insights into how creativity can i
designed learning settings.
/."
Historically, creativity has been thought of as an individual,\1'
1999; 2006). Csikszentmihalyi's (1990) influential work ~ 11 !.
focus from creativity as belonging to an individual, to identifY,

Arts Education and the Learning Sciences

!!

~ective experience that have ties to creativity. Flow refers to the pheiiological experience of being deeply immersed in an activity, including
i~ of intense focns, agency, lack of self-awareness, and a distortion of
perience of time (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). Flow. is intrinsically reward'nd flow encourages the deeper and more sustamed engagements that
ort creative endeavors.
'\le flow was initially conceptualized as an individual experience, artistic
hvors often involve groups and creativity often emerges from collaboh (Sawyer, 2003). For instance, Sawyer and DeZutter (2009) provided
bnce that creative arts processes are distributed cognitive endeavors by
. Ing the development of group theatrical performance.
tireativity and design thinking share many characteristics. Research in cre' ity has focused more on original, novel outcomes and the kinds of think'that cause or are associated with those outcomes, while acknowledging
6that some artistic areas, such as traditional Indian dance, demand "vercreativity": small innovations on a common artistic form (Keiniinen,
hidan, & Gardner, 2006). Research on design thinking has focused on the
?ative process involved in planning, creating, testing, and revising ideas
.,d products for a variety of ends such as coherence, functionality, craft,
s)ability for audience, along with originality. One of the key contributions
I the learning sciences has been to clarify the different components of the
ative process involved in design .
. While the specifics vary across creative domains such as architecture
g., Schon, 1988), digital and video narratives (e.g., Halverson, 2012),
gineering (e.g., Campbell, Cagan, & Kotovsky, 2003), and game design
, alen & Zimmerman, 2004), researchers have identified common aspects
an iterative process that moves from an initial phase of exploration and
eation - which often involves finding or describing a problem - to the
'construction of drafts, sketches, and prototypes that pose potential designs
'or solutions, to reflection on these through some process such as critique.
-This creative process is iterative, with a move toward a refinement of the
design, often ending with some form of sharing the product either through
use, exhibition, sale, or performance (Cross, 2011). Likewise, there are com- monalties across design problems and domains in the kinds of thinking
encouraged at different stages in the creative process. For instance, in the
ideation phase, educators and researchers have highlighted the importance
of thorough exploration. In their classic study in the visual arts, Getzels and
Csikszentmihalyi (1976) found exploratory behavior before completing an
artwork to be strongly associated with work that was judged to be more creative, and furthermore with more general judgments of creativity and artistic success in later years. Hetland and colleagues (2013) identified "Stretch
& Explore" as one of the habits of mind repeatedly encouraged by visual
art teachers through strategies such as generating multiple drafts, working
from multiple exemplars, explicitly trying out different techniques, shifting

635

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Halverson and Sheridan

points of view, and mid-process critiques of multiple versions. Likewise,

studies of more structured design problems describe the need for educators
to support learners past an "early commitment pitfall" by allowing ample
exploration time with tools and materials before posing explicit design
problems (e.g., Kafai & Resnick, 1996; Puntambekar & Kolodner, 2005), In
engineering design, researchers identify an analogous problem of "design
fixation" where designers fixate on a less than optimal design decision and
fail to envision meaningful alternatives (Jansson & Smith, 1991; Purcell &
Gero, 1996). To overcome design fixation and early commitment, learning environments should provide diverse exemplars and scaffolding tools
that encourage multiple design generation (e.g., Pnntambekar & Kolodnet
2005; Purcell & Gero, 1996).
'
.~

...

The Design of Arts-Based Learning EnvironlTlent~;J~ ,,_

:J '',~-'._,_,_

Hetland and colleagues' (2013) intensive study of high school visti~Ul

arts studio classrooms described three flexible studio structures that w i'i!
characteristic of visual arts instruction: Demonstration-lectures, where pi:.
!ems are posed and tools and techniques are shown; Students-at- Work, wli'
students work on the posed problem while the teacher circles around qlfi
ing individualized direction and feedback; and Critique, where student{
teachers pause to reflect on and discuss students' work-in-progress or
pleted works. These structures were used fluidly in varying sequences"
the bulk of time spent in students-at-work. A fourth overarching strti'
Exhibition, where works are created and curated to be shown to outsidil~.
ences, exists outside the classroom but informs work within it. Ad_gr
insights into design features of arts classrooms have come from th_~;gI1
Kingdom, where media studies have made their way into the formM;8
ulum; these studies describe attention to audience, the role of reg('
lion, and use of media language as core components of the desig~~
(Sefton-Green & Sinker, 2000).
...,('
In addition to these studies of school-based arts classes, there,,!i
substantial study of arts learning in informal environments su?;'
organizations, community centers, after school programs, a1)4,,
(e.g., Chavez & Soep, 2005; Halverson, 2012; Heath, 2000; She.
Sheridan, Clark, & Williams, 2013) and in self-directed arts le.
munities on the Internet (Jenkins et al., 2007; Lange & Ito, 201H
2012; Sheridan, 2008). In both formal classrooms and in tThe
arts learning environments, there are four features associated,;
learning that we discuss in the following sections: attention lf''
audience, a focus on critique, authentic assessment embedd3
process and the product, and opportunities for role takmg-: .

Arts Education and the Learning Sciences

hg is co-created by artists and their audiences. When people are

!)}g to produce art, they often talk about how external audiences will
the product (Halverson, 2012; Halverson et al., 2009; Heath, 2004;
&Feiner, 2001; Worthman, 2002). How will the product be perceived
hderstood? What emotions, feelings, and ideas may the work evoke?
'''arts, consideration of the audience is embedded throughout the crea'focess. First, how art is conceptualized is in part based on who the art
~sumed to be for. Fleetwood (2005), for example, described her work
African American youth who employ visual tropes as "racialized" steyped images that make their social identities easily identifiable to an
elhal audience. These visual tropes, while potentially offensive to comnity insiders, serve a function for unfamiliar outsiders. Learners choose
~lher to include these potentially offensive images in their artwork as
yconsider who the final audience for their work will be. The decision
ade early on, while engaged in compositional decisions. Second, arts
rning involves frequent peer and expert critique (e.g., Hetland et al.,
13), where at each stage of the work, the learner must explain and
fend the evolving work to this immediate audience. Finally, the sharing
'completed work with an audience often serves as an assessment or an
'aluation of the work itself (Buckingham, Fraser, & Sefton-Green, 2000;
)lverson et al., 2012).

,,

tudio art teachers dedicate large portions of instructional time to engaging

arners in discussions of works-in-progress, specifically asking about the artt's intent, talking about the apparent intent as represented in the unfolding
. ork (which is often quite different from the artist's intent), and providing
.1uggestions for improvement (Hetland et al., 2013). Through critique, learn.ers develop what Hetland and colleagues (2013) refer to as "Studio Habits of
Mind," which include engagement and persistence, envisioning possibilities,
observation, and reflection. Soep (1996; Chavez & Soep, 2005) has worked
across media - from the visual arts to digital video and radio - and has
shown that when learners participate collectively in arts practice, they work
together to learn the language of critique, developing a discourse similar to
that of professional artists. These same conversations are apparent in communities of youth game designers as they evaluate the games created by other
young learners (Peppler, Warschauer, & Diazgranados, 2010). Halverson
and Gibbons (2010) fonnd that arts organizations offer "key moments" in
the artistic production process where learners must stop and talk about the
idea they intend to represent and how they plan to use the medium to represent that idea. The use of critique as a form of authentic assessment has the

637

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Halverson and Sheridan

potential to transform the way we understand learning in many non-ar

disciplines that involve the production of artifacts.
Authentic Assessment

A long-standing criticism of arts education is that there is no way to obje

tively evaluate what and how people learn. Some have argued that schoo
only value what can be objectively assessed, and this inability to objective
assess arts production has destined the arts to remain peripheral in schoo
(Eisner, 2002). However, in all arts disciplines, evaluation is central to t
creative process. Sefton-Green and Sinker's (2000) collection of essays offe11
examples of how creativity is evaluated across artistic disciplines includin
music, drama, and the digital media arts.
Arts-based learning environments design opportunities for feedbac
throughout art making, and to have learners' finished works received by a
external audience that is motivated to engage with the work. Each artist!
discipline struggles with the question of how to evaluate arts learning an
the relative emphasis to put on artistic process and products.

Process assessments include the critiques described earlier, "key momw\~

in art-making processes that afford reflection and articulation of progrit
(Halverson & Gibbons, 2010), and the documentation of work over ti,.~
that can be used to create a post hoc construction of the art-making pro9~
All of these methods point to the creation of a trajectory of participa1J
that values progress, failure, iteration, and reflection as learning outco '1
Treating process as a legitimate component of the assessment of learni~g'
major contribution of arts-based learning environments to the broader!(,
ing sciences discussion of innovative forms of assessment (see Pellf 1
Chapter 12, this volume).
Coupled with a focus on the assessment of process must also be a fl.'
what is produced. When creative products have been evaluated in.f
Amabile's (1982) consensual assessment technique (CAT) - where
more experts each rate the quality and creativity of diverse artistic Ji
and assessed for blind inter-rater reliability- has been an importan~.
sistently effective tool (Baer, Kaufman, & Gentile, 2004). ExpertN
also used in standardized arts assessments such as the Advance(
and the International Baccalaureate.
,
One of the challenges of assessing artistic products is that cJ1
or standards of quality in the arts are culturally situated an. "
often changing (Ito et al., 2008; Sheridan & Gardner, 2012). ;Ji
be avoided, because developing, understanding, and applyin~
uated evaluative criteria i~ oft~n ~ rn~rJrp.1" r.f ,...-t:r.t;,-. PVnP.ftJse".._c

9 ..

Arts Education and the Learning Sciences

639

f. whether the films are produced by professionals (Sheridan, 2008)

:~dents (Halverson et al., 2012). These criteria focus on locating the

sk within a genre, evaluating how successful the work is in embracing
r
;:ndards of the genre, and whether the filmmaker innovates at all within
fnre. Simply put, one powerful method for evaluating artistic products
,ihare final works with external, interested audiences.
;itunities for Role Taking

ch,

"':or
l.011
cts,
'
011-

rt is
~nt

rd/

~re

l~t

1.
t-

[~

ve
I
y

tier in this chapter, we described the important role that the arts can play
darners' engagement with identity processes. One of the key psychosocial
hanisms for identity is role playing, both within the context of the per., ance arts and in the organizational work of many arts-based learning
fronments. Particularly during out-of-school time, learners take on vary~iroles within the environment, often assuming leadership and mentorg.,positions (Chavez & Soep, 2005; Heath, 2000, 2004; Jenkins et al., 2007;
.~ridan et al., 2013). Many of these learning environments are communi8 of practice (see Greeno & Engestrom, Chapter 7, this volume) where
articipants move from legitimate peripheral participants to central leadtship figures over time (Wenger, 1998). Heath (2000, 2004) described the
lcessity of role taking for arts organizations that depend on artistic perforance or showcase for sources of revenue that keep organizational practices
~live. Without youth leadership across a variety of tasks, from ticket sales to
litrketing, the organizations would not continue to survive. Most arts-based
ptoduction work encourages (and sometimes requires) learners to generate
.,.their own production ideas, developing reciprocal relationships with adult
'mentors who can offer professional expertise around idea development and
;;l\se of tools for representation (Halverson, 2012). This form of role taking
''emerges frequently in arts-based learning environments, and requires nego' J tiation as young people seek to balance participation in these settings with
their prior experiences that separate adult-controlled and youth-controlled
2fspaces (Ball & Heath, 1993; Chavez & Soep, 2005; Sheridan et al., in press).

I:
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,.,

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:{'

Contributions to the Learning Sciences

We began this chapter with a focus on three concepts central to

arts: the centrality and richness of representation in arts, the integration of
form and meaning, and the examination and exploration of identity and
culture in arts learning. Each of these concepts has both a cognitive and a
sociocultural component, made seamless in arts practices, and the elucidation of each lends important insights to the learning sciences. Likewise, we
have argued that the learning sciences perspective has added to arts learning
research by integrating sociocultural theory, noncognitive learning processes

'

!~

640

Halverson and Sheridan

and outcomes, and explicit accounts of the design of learning environments

into our growing understanding of learning and the arts.
In terms of representation, we see across the arts a consistent focus on
how the tools of each medium influence the representations that are created, and how the generation of successive representations demonstrates a
growing understanding of what is being represented. It is through this process that artists develop metarepresentational competence (diSessa, 2004)
and through which they develop a sense of the social and cultural context
for their work through critique and the presence of audiences. Learners'
representational trajectories chart their paths from initial conception to
final piece, highlighting how successive representations are both opportu- !
nities to assess progress and themselves and evidence of a growing under :.
standing of the importance of representations for "getting smart" in theJ
arts (Halverson, 2013).
. ..
Representations in art are relatively replete (Goodman, 1976) with form;!
and meaning inseparable. In addition, art representations regularly shift witht
changes in arts practices, tools, and media. These features suggest a need fdf"
learning environments that are likely to be different than those associatef~
with STEM disciplines. Key practices in arts learning environments - suc!.lf
as analyzing professional works of art in relation to the problems youth{.
working on, ongoing individualized and iterative support from teachers{'
ing the work process, and mid-process critiques - support youths' unqJ)
standing and development of artistic habits of mind {Chavez & Soep,
Hetland et al., 2013). As new media design tools - for video, interactive
design, or music - have become increasingly accessible, they are often u
tools for learning across the academic disciplines. Insights from tmdi
studio arts environments on how to support the design process in 4
media are critical, but often underused (Peppler, 2010; Sheridan, 2011;'
& Sheridan, 2010).

Finally, identity plays an important though often neglected rolei

ing (see Nasir, Rosebery, Warren, & Lee, Chapter 34, this volume);;
argued that the arts add depth to our understanding of how learne.
with identity. Through artistic production, young artists explorf
selves and engage in detypification. Art making can potentially ace
both individualistic and collectivistic conceptions of identity (
2009). Exploring possible selves is one form of role taking; anotM
taking that occurs as artists move from legitimate peripheral pa,f,,
central participants, and eventually become mentors (Sheridanl'
Arts environments provide opportunities to understand ho')'!
explored and constructed through participation in learning envL
Learning scientist Seymour Paper! said that watching an ar\t0
original inspiration for his influential writings on construct19J
sioned how other academic areas could attain the same level g
with an external, public, and evolving representation of le,.

Arts Education and the Learning Sciences

,.saw as children carved soap sculptures (Papert & Hare!, 1991). We

~chapter as building on Papert's initial inspiration, identifying further
Jal for the learning sciences and education from studying arts learning,
,;entifying ways a learning sciences perspective can broaden and enrich
. derstanding of arts education.

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