4-Engine Components and Systems

Engine components and systems
1. Combustion engines main principles and definitions

2. Reciprocating combustion engines architecture
3. Reciprocating engines dynamic properties
4. Engine components and systems
5. The engine management system for gasoline and Diesel engines

6. The emission Requirements & Technology
7. Engine vehicle integration
7.1 Engine layout and mounting
7.2 Engine-vehicle cooling system
7.3 Intake system
7.4 Exhaust system
Scuola di Dottorato di Ricerca 2010 - Road vehicle and engine engineering science
Main engine components and systems

Crankcase
Cylinder head
Crankshaft
The FIVE C
Camshaft
Connecting rod (con-rod)
Engine piston
Engine systems
Engine-vehicle systems

1. The block-crankcase
2. The cylinder head
3. The crankshaft
4. The connecting rod
5. The engine piston

6. The valve train
John Heywood, Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals / McGraw-Hill
Charles F. Taylor, The internal Combustion Engine in Theory and Practice /The M.I.T. Press
Automotive Handbook R. Bosch/SAE
Advanced engine technology (Heinz Heisler) Butterworth/Heinemann
The block-crankcase - Function and components

To support the force-transfer mechanism between
the cylinder head and the crankshaft assembly
To bear
bearings
the
crankshaft
assemblys
support
Oil draining
To incorporate the cylinder sleeves

To include separate water jackets and sealed oil
chamber and galleries
To serve as a mounting and support surface for
most of the engines auxiliary devices
Blow-by channels
Crankshaft axial thrus
Top view
Bottom view
Side view
For an increased stiffness, the crankcase is

generally extended to below the crankshafts
axis center trough an extension of the block
itself (deep skirt) or through a separate
structure (bedplate) integrating the main
bearing caps
Deep skirt
Single caps
Bedplate
Bottom view
Top view

The cylinder blocks are manufactured by:
grey cast iron, very popular for past
and truck-Diesel engines
aluminum high-pressure die-casting
that is becoming a widely used technique
for passenger car blocks , also of Diesel
engines, because of its weight saving
potential
Machined liner
Piston cylinders may be:

Machined from the block casting
with special surface treatment for higher
wear resistance
Separate wet or dry liners, generally
cast iron (aluminum only for niche sport
applications); dry liners are generally
cast-in the cast iron blocks or forced
after a pre-machined cylinder
Separate liner
Cylinder bottom view
Cast iron liner top
Cast iron liner bottom
Cylinder top view
Cast-in iron liners into a light alloy block

Cylinder block construction

Cylinder block construction takes two forms. Closed-deck construction (Figure slide
10) represents long-established practice and resembles a deep box-like enclosure for the
cylinder barrels that also serves as a coolant jacket . Transfer ducts are provided in the
top face or closed deck of the cylinder block, so as to permit the circulation of coolant to
the cylinder head.
With the open-deck construction (Figure slide 9) the cylinder barrels are free-standing
in that they are attached only to the lower deck of the cylinder block, which in past
applications utilized detachable cylinder liners that tended to result in a less rigid
construction. By dispensing with a continuous top face, the open-deck construction
nevertheless reduces the complexity of the cylinder block casting. Where gravity sand
casting is used it facilitates the coring for the mould into which the metal is poured.
However, the increasing preference for using aluminum alloy, rather than grey cast iron,
for the cylinder block and crankcase of modern lighter weight engines, has led to their
manufacture by high-pressure die casting in the interests of economical mass
production. Since this method of casting necessarily involves the use of steel
instead of sand moulds, the need for an open-deck construction to allow
withdrawal of the steel cores becomes mandatory. Also, the liners may be cast
directly into the cylinder block to restore structural rigidity. An open-deck construction
further allows inspection of the coolant jacket for accumulated deposits. To perform this
operation in a closed-deck cylinder block requires the addition of detachable cover
plates.

Open deck
Aluminum high pressure die-casting open deck block

Closed deck
Cast-aluminum closed deck for high

performance application (Pmax>160 bar)
Aluminum bedplate
Cast iron liners casted-in to the
block
The cylinder head bolts oppose the

gas forces to facilitate a force transfer of
maximum linearity and minimal flexural
tendency through transverse support
walls and to the main bearings.
10
4
3
Block general load path

11

Cylinder liner temperature profile

12

Horizontal
section
Liner deformation due to the

cylinder-head bolt tightening
Vertical
section
13

Pmax+3sP =160+3x160x(2.6/100)=173 bar
It includes compression ratio, VGT actuator,injector and
injection timing dispersion and combustion irregularity
4th order less than 5mm with

thin wall liner
Liner deformation due to the

cylinder-head bolt tightening
14

Lower block side-bedpalte loads (V6 Diesel engine)

15
The cylinder head - Function and components
To seal the upper end of the blocks and of

the cylinders
To define the combustion chamber shape
together with the piston top surface
To house the gas exchange valves as well all
the intake and exhaust ducts
Gasoline engine cylinder head
To house the spark plugs, injectors and

heating plugs
In most of the designs, to include also the
valve gear, as camshafts, drive gears, etc
Diesel engine cylinder head

16

In truck and large industrial engines, individual
cylinder heads are often used on each cylinder for
better sealing force distribution and easier
maintenance and repair.
Separate cylinder head design is required for
improved cooling efficiency of air-cooled engines.
One cylinder head for all cylinders is generally
employed for passenger car engines
The cylinder head of industrial and truck large
water-cooled Diesel engines are made of gray cast
iron or of vermicular castings for more severe
applications (higher combustion pressure)
Aluminum material (AlSi9Mg) is widely used for
the cylinder heads of gasoline and Diesel engines
because of superior heat dissipation and lower
weight (tensile strength 250-300N/mm2, hardness
90-120 HB, elongation 3-5%). The greater heat
conductivity of aluminum alloy is beneficial in
maintaining a more uniform temperature throughout
the cylinder head.
Gasoline engine vertical cross section
Diesel engine vertical

cross section
Diesel engine horizontal

cross section
17

Inlet manifold bottom

part Swirl duct
Inlet manifold bottom

part Straight duct
Exhaust side view

Intake side view
4 Cyl 16v Diesel engine cyl head
18

Straight duct
inlet valve
Pre-heating
plug
Swirl duct
inlet valve
Exhaust valve
Bottom view
4 Cyl 16v Diesel engine cylinder head

19

Top view
Bottom view
4 Cyl 16v Diesel engine cyl head Cam carrier
Blind cam
bearings
machining
20
No dowels to
center the cap
Lubrication partial grooves feeded

from the hole on camshaft (the hole
position is in between the couple of
grooves)
4 Cyl 16v Diesel engine cyl head Camshaft bearing cap
21

Pre-chamber undirect injection engine
Direct injection engine
ELETTROINIETTORE
INIETTORE
CANDELETTA DI
PRERISCALDO
CANDELETTA DI
PRERISCALDO
PRECAMERA
CAMERA DI
CAMERA DI
COMBUSTIONE
COMBUSTIONE
Diesel engine cyl head cross section view

22

Mercedes V6/90 2.8l Diesel

23

In the internal combustion a head gasket is necessary
between the engine block and cylinder head. The purpose is to
seal the cylinders to ensure maximum compression and to avoid
leakage of coolant or engine oil into the cylinders
The cylinder head gasket is the most sealing critical
application in any engine and shares the same strength severe
requirements of the other combustion chamber components.
Particularly it must guarantee adequate resistance to high
temperatures and pressures , to gas/water/oil corrosion and to
provide the elasticity necessary for compensating the thermal
expansion generated by the cyclic combustion in to the cylinders
Since mid 90 years, because of increased cylinder pressure
(over 140bar in the CR Diesel engines) and of environment
reasons, most modern head engines are produced with Multi
Layer Steel gaskets: these typically consist of a number of
steel layers up to four, depending on the working maximum
cylinder pressure. The contact faces are usually coated with a
rubber-like coating such as Viton that adheres to the cylinder
block and cylinder head respectively whilst the thicker center
layer is bare.
24

Thermal analysis
Temperature distribution
Strengths analysis
Interference force distribution
25

26
The crankshaft - Function and components
To convert the reciprocating motion of the

piston, conveyed to it by the connecting rod and the
crank throws or pins, into rotary motion delivering
effective torque at the end of the crankshaft itself
To support the force system characterized by a
highly variable periodicity that generates a complex
stress pattern
To interface the bearing system: main and rod
journals.
To drive the auxiliary devices
To seal the block-crankcase at its ends
To supply engine speed and crank angle position
by proper sensors installed on the crankshaft
To connect the flywheel and the clutch
27

Engine balance - It is necessary to provide counterweights for the reciprocating
mass of each piston and connecting rod, which are typically cast or forged as part of the
crankshaft but, occasionally, are bolt-on pieces. While counter weights add a considerable
amount of weight to the crankshaft it provides a smoother running engine and allows
higher RPMs to be reached.
The number of crankshaft bearings is primarily determined by the overall load and
by the engine speed. High loads generally require to incorporate a main journal bearing
between each crankshaft throw and at each end
The fatigue strength of crankshafts - It is usually increased by using a radius at the
ends of each main and crankpin bearing. The radius itself reduces the stress in these
critical areas and frequently the radii are rolled to leave some compressive residual
stress in the surface which prevents cracks from forming.
Crankshaft vibration Flexural vibration is not a critical factor for engine of 3
cylinders or more, while the rotational oscillation of the vibrating system formed by
crankshaft, connecting rods and pistons become increasingly critical with higher number
of cylinders. Vibration dampers are required to reduce the crankshaft torsional vibrations
to acceptable levels and it serves as a pulley for drive belts. The damper is composed of
two elements: a mass and an energy dissipating element: the mass resists the
acceleration of the vibration and the energy dissipating (rubber/clutch/fluid) element
absorbs the vibrations.
28

Overlap between main journal and crankpin
Rc = D d c
2
The proportions of gasoline engine crankshafts are usually such

that the crankpin has a diameter of at least 0.60 of the cylinder
bore dimension and a length of not less than 0.30 of the pin
diameter. Web thickness of the crank-throw is generally in the
region of 0.20 of the cylinder bore dimension. The main bearing
journal is made larger than that of the crankpin with a diameter of
up to 0.75 of the cylinder bore dimension and a length of about
0.50 of the journal diameter.
Adequate crankshaft rigidity to resist both bending and twisting is
a major requirement for smooth operation. With current shortstroke engines, the proportions of the crankshaft are generally
such that in themselves they contribute to greater rigidity. This
results from the combination of a smaller crank-throw radius and
larger bearing diameters, which permit a beneficial overlap
between the main journals and the crankpins
29

Crankshaft Radii Cold Rolling

Since the crankshaft is subjected both to bending and to torsional load
reversals, it must also be designed to resist failure by fatigue. This
condition may be initiated at any point where there is a concentration of
stress or, in other words, a heavy loading confined to a very small area.
In practice, it may occur at any abrupt change of cross-section, or from
the sharp edge of an oil hole or a corner of a keyway. To avoid such
stress raisers and therefore extend the fatigue life of the crankshaft, the
areas in question are provided with carefully controlled small radii. For
example, the corners of each main bearing journal and crankpin may
be subject to what is termed cold rolling to a specified fillet radius.
This confers a beneficial compressive stress on the crankshaft
material. The process of cold rolling basically involves rotating the
crankshaft against small hardened steel rollers, which are forced
against the corners of the crankshaft journals with a pressure
sufficient to cause local plastic deformation and therefore
compression of their surface layers. This widely used process
actually dates back to 1938, when J.O. Almen of General Motors in
America suggested its use to restore the durability of a Chevrolet truck
crankshaft following an increase in engine piston stroke
30

Crankshaft Torsional Damper
The disturbing forces applied to the crankshaft are derived from the pulsating gas and inertia torques acting via each
piston, connecting rod and crankthrow combination. If the crankshaft were perfectly rigid, then the only effect of
these pulsating torques would be to cause some irregularity in its speed of rotation, which could be smoothed out by
the action of the flywheel. However the crankshaft cannot in reality be made perfectly rigid, with the result that
the torque pulses are capable of twisting it and therefore of exciting it into a state of torsional vibration.
This vibration is superimposed upon the continuous rotation of the shaft. If the frequency of the disturbing
vibrations should coincide with one of the natural frequencies of crankshaft vibration, then a condition
known as resonance will occur. A danger of resonant vibration is that the energy of the disturbing vibrations may
be greater than that lost by the twisting and untwisting of the crankshaft, so that the amplitude of torsional vibration
builds up to such a degree that the crankshaft can be over-stressed and eventually suffer a fatigue fracture. In
practice, of course, the design of the crankshaft system is contrived such that its natural frequency of vibration is
raised as high as possible: the natural frequency may be raised by making the shaft as short as possible,
increasing its diameter and using a lighter flywheel. A resonant or critical order vibration would therefore only be
expected to occur beyond the normal speed range of the engine, or in other words if the engine is over-revved.
However, it may still be necessary in the interests of both engine smoothness and satisfactory operation of the
timing drive to suppress the less critical orders of torsional vibration, which do occur within the normal speed range.
For this purpose the crankshaft can be fitted with some form of torsional vibration damper.
The most diffused is the rubber dumper in which two masses of different inertia, represented by the crankshaft and
in this case a single small flywheel, were separated by both frictional and elastic means through the medium of
rubber. In long-established practice the rubber damper essentially comprises three concentric parts, these being a
carrier cum hub assembly that is rigidly attached to the nose of the crankshaft, a ring-shaped flywheel or inertia ring
that may be grooved to accept a V-belt, and a layer of rubber which is either bonded to each of these components or
sandwiched between them under precompression, as in later designs.It will be appreciated that there is no other
connection between the carrier and the ring apart from that established by the intervening layer of rubber. The
advantages of the later non-bonded version are that it is less costly to manufacture and allows a wider choice of
rubber specification.
31
Crankshaft Dampers
Internal Crankshaft Damper

32

Flywheel with torsional vibration damper
Originally developed in the mid-1980s by Toyota for application to
a motor car turbocharged diesel engine, the flywheel with
torsional vibration damper or dual-mass flywheel (DMF) as it
is now often termed, has in more recent years become
increasingly adopted for Diesel engines where manufacturers
seek additional refinement for the transmission system. The
purpose of the dual-mass flywheel is to reduce the extent to
which periodic fluctuations in engine torque are passed on to the
transmission system, which otherwise create vibration, noise and
can lead to wear of components. Typically noticeable with a dualmass flywheel installation is therefore a reduction in
transmission gear noise at low engine speeds. In this context
there is a greater opportunity with a modern five-speed and
reverse, all-synchro-mesh, gearbox for light load rattles to occur
between the teeth of the more comprehensive train of constantmesh gears. As its name suggests, a dual-mass flywheel
basically comprises a two-piece flywheel with an engine-side
mass and a transmission-side mass. The latter is supported from
the former by an interposed ball-bearing race and its relative
oscillatory movements are cushioned by a series of
circumferentially spaced compression springs, which are retained
in windows shared by the two masses. Frictional resistance to
dampen the oscillatory movements between the two masses is
supplied in a similar manner to that for the centre-plate of a
friction clutch.
33
Crankshaft acting forces combination

Combustion gas forces (Pgas) and mass inertia forces (Fm)
At TDC of combustion stroke
Pgas Fm TDC in the crankshaft direction if Pgas > FmTDC
At TDC of gas exchange stroke
+ Fm TDC in the cylinder head direction
At BDC
- Fm BDC in the crankshaft direction
For high combustion load it is convenient to design the crankshaft for the maximum
power operation, where the load oscillates between Pgas FmTDC (combustion) and
FmTDC (gas exchange).
For high revs engines the engine over-speed operation (1000 revs higher than power
engine speed) might be the most severe condition, being the crankshaft load
oscillating between +FmTDC and -Fm BDC.
34
35

The crankshaft - Construction
Monolithic crankshafts are most common, but some smaller and larger engines use
assembled crankshafts.
Crankshafts can be forged from a steel bar usually through roll forging or cast in ductile
steel. The actual manufacturer trend is favoring the use of forged crankshafts due to their lighter
weight, more compact dimensions and better inherent dampening. With forged crankshafts,
vanadium micro-alloyed steels are mostly used as these steels can be air cooled after reaching
high strengths without additional heat treatment, with exception to the surface hardening of the
bearing surfaces. The low alloy content also makes the material cheaper than high alloy steels.
Carbon steels are also used, but these require additional heat treatment to reach the desired
properties. Iron crankshafts are today mostly found in cheaper production engines where the
loads are lower. Some engines also use cast iron crankshafts for low output versions while
the more expensive high output version use forged steel.
Hardening - Most production crankshafts use induction hardened bearing surfaces since
that method gives good results with low costs. It also allows the crankshaft to be reground
without having to redo the hardening. But high performance crankshafts, billet crankshafts in
particular, tend to use nitridization instead. Nitridization is slower and thereby more costly, and
in addition it puts certain demands on the alloying metals in the steel, in order to be able to create
stable nitrides. The advantage with nitridization is that it can be done at low temperatures, it
produces a very hard surface and the process will leave some compressive residual stress in the
surface which is good for the fatigue properties of the crankshaft. The low temperature during
treatment is advantageous in that it doesnt have any negative effects on the steel, such as
annealing and nitriding also leaves some compressive residual stresses in the surface.
36
Breakage
starting
High- strength cast iron crankshaft

Flexional fatigue breakage of the first
crankpin (4 cyl Diesel engine) due to no
cold rolled radius
37
Perno
di biella
Superficie
di rottura
Perno
di biella
Maschetta
Macro ( X 10) picture of no cold rolled

radius: milling operation visible
38
Perno
di biella
Impronta
dovuta alla
rullatura
Maschetta
Macro ( X 10) picture of a cold rolled radius
39
Micro (X30) picture of a non cold rolled

crankshaft radius: no profile variation
40
Micro (X30) picture of a cold rolled

crankshaft radius: profile variation is visible
41
The connecting rod

Basic functions
Transmission of the piston force and piston motion
to the crankshaft
A possible location for holes to supply the piston
with lubricating oil
Basic requirements
Sufficient mechanical strength
Sufficient bearing capacity
Mass as low as possible, because of the crankcase
stress generated by mass forces
Optimum length: short for a reduced engine height,
but not too short because of frictional work caused by
lateral forces and because the 2nd order unbalanced
forces of the 4 cylinder engines

The connecting rod
Design configuration
The small end (eye) of the connecting rod, into which the piston pin is inserted, is
connected to the big end via the connecting rod shank
The connecting rod big end is typically split to be assembled on a single-piece
cranckshaft
Connecting rod stress

The gas forces generate compressive stress on the connecting rod: the maximum
value occurs at ignition TDC
The mass forces generate a tensile stress which are maximum at gas exchange
TDC
This results in alternating stress between ignition TDC and gas exchange TDC:
the gas forces are important at low speed, the mass forces at high speed
The bending stress, caused by mass forces, is usually low and therefore is
neglected
The connecting rod eye and big end are stressed by tension forces and bending
moments
The bearing cap and relative bolts and threads are subjected at high stress,
because located in the power flow, and can be highly deformed weakening the
formation of a stable lubricating film
The connecting rod

Material and Construction
Connecting rod of today fast-running combustion engines are generally forged
in one piece. Once the bolt holes and threads are drilled, the connecting rod cap is
separated from the connecting rod big end
High-carbon steels (C35, C45) are used in standard applications; higher stress
applications require high-alloyed steel (Cr, Mo, Ni, V). For passenger car gasoline
engines malleable cast iron are sometime used while forged sintered connecting
rods are increasingly attractive because of lower weight vs forged
For both cast and forged steel as well sintered connecting rods, the bearing cap
can be separated from the big end through a cracking method, reducing the
manufacturing cost and improving the connection precision
The shaft is most often designed with I-cross section for higher stiffness in the
oscillating direction. To avoid the stress peaks, the transition from the shank to the
con-rod eye and con-rod big end must have large radii
A connecting rod divided at an angle can be necessary to enable disassembly
through the top of the cylinder.

The connecting rod
14.8
Small
(eye)end
1.8
Shank
Big end
Steel con-rod for Diesel engines
The connecting rod
Connecting rod drawing


The connecting rod
In some designs the big-end bearing parting line is arranged diagonally (45 in the
Figure), because otherwise the width of the housing would be such that the
connecting rod could not be passed through the cylinder for assembly purposes.

The connecting rod
To resist the greater tendency for the cap to be displaced sideways relative to the rod, either a serrated or a stepped
joint is generally preferred for their mating faces. Hence, the securing setscrews in their clearance holes are relieved
of all shear loads. Where the parting line between the rod and cap is arranged at right angles to the axis of the shank,
the cap may be secured by either bolts and nuts, studs and nuts, or setscrews. They are produced from high-tensile
alloy steel with special care being taken in their detail design to avoid stress-raising corners, which would lower their
fatigue resistance. Their clamping load must always be such as to exceed the inertia forces acting on the rod.
Connecting rod guided by the piston (a) and by the crankshaft (b)

The connecting rod
The Piston
Main piston functions
Transmission of gas force generated by the combustion to the connecting
rod
Kinematic guidance, supporting the normal force applied to the cylinder walls
Together with the piston rings, sealing of the crankcase against combustion
gas and of the combustion chamber against oil
Support of sealing rings (piston rings)
Limit and design of the combustion chamber
Main piston stress due to
Gas and mass forces
Heat flow of the combustion chamber
Frictional forces at the shaft and in the ring grooves
Movements perpendicular to the running direction (tilt)
Main design target
Sufficient strength with as little mass as possible
Permissible temperatures through design (heat flow), material and cooling
Correct running clearance for all load levels
Quiet operation with limited tilt
51

The Piston
Gasoline engine
Diesel engine
piston
piston
Piston rings
Piston pins
52
The Piston
Gasoline and Diesel pistons
53
The Piston
Piston Rings functions

Sealing the combustion chamber to
the crankcase (compression rings)
Sealing the crankcase to the
combustion chamber (oil control rings)
Regulating the lubricating oil at the
cylinder wall
Heat conduction from the piston to
the cylinder wall
Piston rings must have a split at one
point (ring gap)
The gap clearance of the installed
ring must be small to reduce the
leakage but may never be zero to avoid
seizing
54
The Piston
Gasoline Pistons
Weights:
Piston
170 g
Piston Pin
60 g
Ring Set
18 g
Circlips
2g
Assy Weight:
250 g
typical small gasoline engine
55
The Piston
Material and Construction

The ideal piston material should combine the following characteristics: high thermal
stability (hardness and elasticity), high thermal conductivity, low thermal expansion,
low modulus of elasticity, good running properties /wear and friction) and low density
(low weight)
Most of these requirements are well met by aluminum alloys containing silicon
between 11 and 26%; the only disadvantage is a high coefficient of linear expansion.
The raw mold of the light alloy piston are cast or pressed (forged).
For economical reason the raw piston for combustion engines are mainly produced
via die-casting, while forged piston, more solid and stronger than cast pistons, are
used for high performance applications where mechanical and thermal stress are
much higher
Heat treatment is necessary after casting process to optimize the required physical
properties
Aluminum piston are coated mainly by Fe when combined with aluminum cylinders
Grey cast iron pistons are used for very low speed engines or when thermal stress
are at very high level
56
The Piston
Gasoline Pistons for High Power Output Engines

High Power achieved by high engine
speed leads to increased inertia force
High Power achieved by high pmi leads

to increased gas force and thermal load
Problem
fatigue (pin boss, skirt fatigue)
Problem
fatigue (piston crown, ring groove, pin
boss, skirt)
Solution
forged piston
(optimised
material
properties)
Disadvantage
additional groove reinforcement
required
Solution
cooling gallery
piston
Advantage
Temperature reduction in critical areas (20C)
Permissible loading increased (8%)
reduced knock sensibility (SPA + 3)
--> increased power output
additional reinforcement features
avoidable
57
Various Gallery KS Pistons with Basic Engine Data
180bar, 60kW/l
160bar, 50kW/l
180bar,
58kW/l
180bar, 58kW/l
200bar, 60kW/l
160bar, 50kW/l
Combustion peak pressure, specific power output
58
The Piston
59
The Piston
Piston temperature profile

60
The Piston
61
The Piston
62

The Piston
Temperature distribution in C
High speed DI-piston for Engine 2,0l
85mm dia., version with cooling gallery
Mean stress in MPa

63

The Piston
Stress amplitude in MPa

Safety factors, HCF; 9*10*7 cycles

64

The Piston
Diesel piston failure after 1000hr

durabilty bench testing
65

The Piston
Diesel piston failure after 1000hr

durabilty bench testing
66

The Piston
Diesel engine pistons - 1000 hr test bench durability

67
The valve train

The function of the valve train in a 4-stroke engine is to allow and to control the
exchange of the gases in the internal combustion engine
The valve train includes the intake and exhaust valves, the springs which close them,
the camshaft drive assembly and the various force-transfer devices
The specific tasks of the valve train are to open and close the intake/exhaust valves in
time and to enable a sufficiently large flow cross section
The high acceleration and deceleration required of the valve train parts causes stress
due to mass forces rising with increasing speed
The exhaust valves are subjected to a high thermal stress, due to heat flow from the
combustion chamber and the exhaust gases
Flow cross section
Partial lift
Full lift
Ava = d va hva
Ava =
d va
4
68

The valve train
Valve size
The valve diameter is defined as a compromise among various factors as optimization
of the combustion chamber, flow cross section and thickness of the bridge between the
valves or the valves and the spark plug/injector exposed at high thermal stress
according to the experience, for 2 valve gasoline engines:
d va = 0.45 0.48 D
and for 4 valve gasoline engines:
d va = 0.32 0.34 D
and for 4 valve DI Diesel engine, where the cylinder head is flat because combustion
chamber is designed inside the piston
d va = 0.30 0.33 D
The diameter of exhaust valve is generally smaller of about 10% to guarantee a
reasonable valve bridge and for a better cooling
69

The valve train
Valve opening and closing timing in respect to TDC / BDC
4-stroke work cycle

70
Overlap
Intake valve
opening
TDC
Exhaust valve closing
BDC
TDC
BDC
Exhaust valve
Intake valve
overlap
BDC
Exhaust valve opening

20
100
Lift
Velocity
Acceleration
80
15
Valve timing diagram showing

valve lift, valve velocity and
valve acceleration
Lift [mm]; Velocity [mm / rad ]
lift
60
10
40
5
20
0
-20
-5
-40
acceleration
-10
-60
-15
Acceleration [mm/rad], Jerk [mm/rad]
Intake valve closing
-80
velocity
-20
-100
-80
-60
-40
-20
20
40
60
80
Cam Angle[deg]
71
Crankshaft driven camshaft (crank

case location) with push rod operation
72

Double (twin) overhead
camshaft with direct
tappet actuation
Overhead camshaft with

rocker arm actuation
73

4 cyl engine
V6 engine
2 camshafts
for cylinder head
1 camshaft
for cylinder head
74
Direct acting camshaft with mechanical valve adjustment

75
Direct acting camshaft with hydraulic valve adjustment

76
Cross section of a direct acting camshaft
77
Rocker arm with insert valve lash adjustment element

78

Hydraulic Rocker Arm Components
Rocker arm
Support plate
Hydraulic lash
adjuster
Side washers (2x)

Set of needles
Outer ring
Shaft
Assembly
79
Finger follower with roller and pivot element

80
Finger follower with roller and pivot element
81
Outer Ring
100Cr6
Needles
100Cr6
Sheet Metal Thickness:

2,5 mm ... 3,5 mm
Sheet Metal Body
16MnCr5
Axle
100Cr6
Roller Finger Follower Valve Trains

Roller finger follower parts
82
Roller Finger Follower Valve Trains

HLA composition
socket plunger
reservoir chamber
housing
high pressure
lower plunger
chamber
83
Variable valve trains

In the last decades a certain number of unconventional valve trains have been developed to
vary valve timing and lift during operation with the target of controlling the gas exchange
cycle by optimizing the valve activation
Phasing By camshaft phasing the variation of the intake timing influences on the
cylinder charge and allow a reasonable control of residual gas content, depending on
engine load and speed. The prerequisites for the system are that the engine must have one
intake and one exhaust camshaft and one cannot be driven by the other one. The first
application has been done by Alfa Romeo on the 4 cyl engine for USA spider of 1980 MY.
Transition between cam profiles The variation of the valve lift is realized by a
transition between two different cams. Today different solution are on the market but the
first one has been the Honda VTEC system, where the second cam is designed to enhance
performance at high engine speed. In more recent application the second cam is designed
to actuate a low lift in order to reduce pumping loss at low load operation
Cylinder deactivation With multi-cylinder engines fuel consumption can be reduced
under part-load operation through cylinder deactivation. The improvement is achieved
because the pumping losses of the deactivated cylinder s are eliminated and the activated
cylinders are de-throttled. Again technical solutions vary among the Car Makers and some
are substantially the previous one tuned for this target; the first application has been a 4cyl
Mitsubishi engine in middle 90 years, but Alfa Romeo in the early 80s built up a taxi fleet
deactivating partially the cylinders by ignition interruption.
84
The first cam phase variator

helical/cilindrical toothing
(Alfa Romeo)
85
Variable cam phaser (Cam phase variator)
Content
VCT-Concepts
System function
Components
Development tools
Applications
Development trend
Future systems
Market position
86

Potential of VCT Concepts
typical benefits for FE & Emissions (related
to FTP 75 cycle)
FE
~ - 3%
NOx ~ - 50%
HC ~ - 10%
torque/power + 5%
emissions
internal EGR
catalyst heating
FE
~ - 3%
NOx ~ - 70 %
HC ~ - 15 %
torque/power -
IPS
EPS
Fuel
economy
torque /
power
DIPS
FE
~ -5%
NOx ~ - 70 %
HC ~ - 15 %
torque/power + 10%
comfort
idle
stability
DEPS
( LIVC )
FE
~ - 4-6 %
NOx ~ - 50 %
HC
torque/power -
87
Hydraulic / electronic scheme

cam phaser
cam positon sensor

triggerwheel
Oil control valve

crank sensor
triggerwheel
connected to oil pump
Engine management system
connected to sump
88
Cam phase variator-Function (base position)

pump
oil control valve swiched

off
example for intake VCT
tank
sump
locking pin engaged

fully retarded cam position
89
Cam phase variator-Function (shifting)

pump
oil control valve fully

energized
example for intake

VCT
sump
VCT position change

commences
locking pin unlocks
90
Cam phase variator-Function (controlled position)

pump
oil control valve energized

to mid position (PWM
control)
example for intake

VCT
sump
locking pin remains

disengaged
VCT control position is
frozen
91

Switchable Tappet Valve Train
Valve/Cylinder De-Activation / Cam Profile Switching
for SOHC and DOHC engines
Locking Spring
Outer-Housing
Inner Piston
Inner-Housing
Locking Piston
Anti Rotation Device
HLA
Lost-Motion-Spring
Electro-hydraulic
solenoid 2/3-Way
92

Switchable Tappet Valve Train
Valve/Cylinder De-Activation / Cam Profile Switching
for SOHC and DOHC engines
93
Combined CPV and switchable tappet

94
Variable valve trains - Flexible valve actuation

A flexible valve control allows the possibility to adjust the free flow cross-section to the
engine speed and, overall, provides throttle-free control of load in gasoline engines.
Mechanical valve operation The first application has been introduced by BMW (see
fig.) with a fully variable control which allows continuous variation of the intake valve lift. An
intermediate element, which is controlled by the eccentric shaft, is inserted between the
camshaft and the finger follower. Moving the intermediate element causes a variation of
valve lift and therefore also the effective opening time. The valve lift and the opening time
determine the quantity of the charge and therefore the engine load level: the timing of the
valve opening is controlled by cam phase variators on intake and exhaust camshafts. This
fully variable mechanical valve control makes load control possible without the throttle use
Hydraulic valve operation This systems require a dedicated oil circuit and pump to
generate the pressure necessary to actuate the valves with some device: variation of the oil
pressure allows the control of valve lift, being the pressure controlled by electromagnetic
valves. The high complexity, the cost and the losses encored during the pressure
generation limit the use of hydraulic valve control to special applications.
Electromechanical valve operation Opening the valves against the valve springs
force by using electromagnets requires an excessive amount of current, because the
magnetic field becomes weaker very rapidly with increasing distance. Notwithstanding a lot
of research and experimental activity, this system has not been qualified for vehicle
applications.
95
BMW Valvetronic Mechanical variable valve lift

96
Valvetronic system cylinder head

97

Variable valve trains - Flexible valve actuation
Fiat Multiair system
It is the last system
introduced on Fire 1.4l engine in 2009. It can be
considered as mechanic-hydraulic valve operation,
using electro-hydraulic elements to manage a
continuously variable intake valve lift. The control piston
and the inlet valve are connected each other through an
oil pressure chamber, the pressure in which is
controlled by a solenoid valve. When the valve is in a
closed position, the inlet valve follows the cam profile.
An early close of the inlet valve can be achieved by
opening the solenoid valve after a particular degree
cam angle. The oil flows out of the high pressure
chamber into the reservoir. The valve is now decoupled
from the cams motion and hence is closed by the
return forces of the valve spring. The valve seating
velocities are held within safe limits by a hydraulic
damper. By means of a spring in the reservoir, the oil
flows back into the high pressure chamber after the
completion of the cam stroke. The Multiair system
allows a throttle-free load control and also the
optimization of cylinder filling at full load.
High Pressure
Oil Chamber
Solenoid Valve
Accumulator
Cam
Piston
Piston
Hydraulic
Intake
Intake
Brake &
Valve
Valve
Lash Adjiuster
98

Engine Valve Lift
10
9
8
EIVC
7
6
LIVO
5
4
3
2
1
0
320
360
400
440
480
520
TDC
560
BDC
600
640
680
720
Crank Angle
INTAKE VALVE ACTUATION MODES
SOLENOID VALVES
ACTIVATION
F1
F2
F1 F2
F1 F2
F1F2F1 F2
INTAKE VALVE LIFT

FULL LIFT
FULL
LIFT
EIVC
LIVO
MULTI-LIFT
MULTI-LIFT
EIVC
LIVO
Early
Valve
Closing
Late Valve
Opening
Early
Valve
Closing
Late
Valve
Opening
99
High Response
Solenoid Valve
(ON-OFF)
Oil Reservoir
Pump Piston
Low Friction Tappet (RFF)
High Pressure
Chamber
Individual Valve Actuation

Assembly
(Piston + Brake
+ Lash Adjuster)
Camshaft
(Intake + Exhaust)
100
Fiat 1.4 Multiair - Electric / hydraulic variable valve lift system




4-Engine Components and Systems

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4-Engine Components and Systems

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Engine components and systems

1. Combustion engines main principles and definitions

5. The engine management system for gasoline and Diesel engines

Engine components and systems

Main engine components and systems

Engine components and systems

Engine components and systems

5. The engine piston

Engine components and systems

The block-crankcase - Function and components

To incorporate the cylinder sleeves

Crankshaft axial thrus

Engine components and systems

The block-crankcase - Function and components

For an increased stiffness, the crankcase is

Engine components and systems

The block-crankcase - Function and components

Piston cylinders may be:

Engine components and systems

The block-crankcase - Function and components

Cylinder bottom view

Cast iron liner top

Cast iron liner bottom

Cylinder top view

Cast-in iron liners into a light alloy block

Engine components and systems

Cylinder block construction

Engine components and systems

Aluminum high pressure die-casting open deck block

Engine components and systems

The block-crankcase - Function and components

Cast-aluminum closed deck for high

The cylinder head bolts oppose the

Engine components and systems

Block general load path

Engine components and systems

Cylinder liner temperature profile

Engine components and systems

Liner deformation due to the

Engine components and systems

4th order less than 5mm with

Liner deformation due to the

Engine components and systems

Lower block side-bedpalte loads (V6 Diesel engine)

Engine components and systems

The cylinder head - Function and components

To seal the upper end of the blocks and of

Gasoline engine cylinder head

To house the spark plugs, injectors and

Diesel engine cylinder head

Engine components and systems

The cylinder head - Function and components

Gasoline engine vertical cross section

Diesel engine vertical

Diesel engine horizontal

Engine components and systems

Inlet manifold bottom

Inlet manifold bottom

Exhaust side view

4 Cyl 16v Diesel engine cyl head

Engine components and systems

4 Cyl 16v Diesel engine cylinder head

Engine components and systems

4 Cyl 16v Diesel engine cyl head Cam carrier