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10 Open-Channel Flow
Previous internal flow analyses have considered only closed conduits where the
fluid typically fills the entire conduit and may be either a liquid or a gas.
This chapter considers only partially filled channels of liquid flow referred to as
open-channel flow.
Open-Channel Flow: Flow of a liquid in a conduit with a free surface.
Open-channel flow analysis basically results in the balance of gravity and friction
forces.
One Dimensional Approximation
While open-channel flow can, in general, be very complex ( three dimensional and
transient), one common approximation in basic analyses is the
One-D Approximation:
The flow at any local cross
section can be treated as
uniform and at most varies
only in the principal flow
direction.
V1
V
+ Z1 = 2 + Z 2 + h f
2g
2g
X-1
Study Guide
The equation in this form is written between two points ( 1 2 ) on the free surface
of the flow. Note that along the free surface, the pressure is a constant, is equal to
local atmospheric pressure, and does not contribute to the analysis with the energy
equation.
The friction head loss hf is analogous to the head loss term in duct flow, Ch. VI,
and can be represented by
where P = wetted perimeter
x x Vavg
hf = f 2 1
D h 2g
Dh = hydraulic diameter =
4A
P
Note: One of the most commonly used formulas uses the hydraulic radius:
1
A
R h = Dh =
4
P
Flow Classification by Depth Variation
The most common classification method is by rate of change of free-surface depth.
The classes are summarized as
1. Uniform flow (constant depth and slope)
2. Varied flow
a. Gradually varied (one-dimensional)
b. Rapidly varied (multidimensional)
Flow Classification by Froude Number: Surface Wave Speed
A second classification method is by the dimensionless Froude number, which is a
dimensionless surface wave speed. For a rectangular or very wide channel we
have
Fr =
and
V
V
=
1/2
co (gy)
where
There are three flow regimes of incompressible flow. These have analogous flow
regimes in compressible flow as shown below:
X-2
Study Guide
Incompressible Flow
Fr < 1
Fr = 1
Fr > 1
Compressible Flow
subcritical flow
critical flow
supercritical flow
Ma < 1
Ma = 1
Ma > 1
subsonic flow
sonic flow
supersonic flow
Hydraulic Jump
Analogous to a normal shock in compressible flow, a hydraulic jump provides a
mechanism by which an incompressible flow, once having accelerated to the
supercritical regime, can return to subcritical flow. This is illustrated by the
following figure.
Fig. 10.5 Flow under a sluice gate accelerates from subcritical to critical to
supercritical and then jumps back to subcritical flow.
The critical depth
Q
yc = 2
b g
1/3
channel flow and is used to determine the local flow regime (Sec. 10.4).
Uniform Flow; the Chezy Formula
Uniform flow
X-3
Study Guide
h f = Z1 Z 2 = S o L
Since the flow is fully developed, we can write from Ch. VI
1/2
L Vo
hf = f
Dh 2g
8g
1/2 1/2
Vo = Rh So
f
and
1/2
8g
For fully developed, uniform flow, the quantity is a constant
f
and can be denoted by C. The equations for velocity and flow rate
thus become
Vo = C R h So
1/2
1/2
Q = CA R h So
1/2
and
1/2
1/2
The quantity C is called the Chezy coefficient, and varies from 60 ft /s for small
1/2
1/2
rough channels to 160 ft /s for large rough channels (30 to 90 m /s in SI).
The Manning Roughness Correlation
The friction factor f in the Chezy equations can be obtained from the Moody
chart of Ch. VI. However, since most flows can be considered fully rough, it is
appropriate to use Eqn 6.64:
fully rough flow:
3.7Dh
f 2.0 log
Vo (m/s )
B.G. Units
Vo (ft/s )
[R (m)]
n h
2/3
[R (ft )]
n h
2/3
S1/2
o
S1/2
o
X-4
Study Guide
where n is a roughness parameter given in Table 10.1 and is the same in both
systems of units and is a dimensional constant equal to 1.0 in S.I. units and 1.486
in B.G. units. The volume flow rate is then given by
Uniform flow
Q = Vo A
1/2
A R 2/3
h So
X-5
Study Guide
Example 10.1
Given:
Rectangular channel,
finished concrete, slope = 0.5
water depth: y = 4 ft, width: b = 8 ft
Find:
3
Volume flow rate (ft /s)
4 ft
cross-section
8 ft
n = 0.012
A = b y = (8 ft) (4 ft) = 32 ft
A 32 ft
Rh = =
= 2 ft
P 16 ft
D h = 4 R h = 8 ft
1.486
2/3
32 ft 2 )(2 ft ) (0.00873)1.2 590 ft 3 /s ans.
(
0.012
Alternative Problem
The previous uniform problem can also be formulated where the volume flow rate
Q is given and the fluid depth is unknown. For these conditions, the same basic
equations are used and the area A and hydraulic radius Rh are expressed in terms
of the unknown water depth yn.
The solution is then obtained using iterative or systematic trial and error techniques
that are available in several math analysis/ math solver packages such as EES
(provided with the text) or Mathcad .
X-6
Study Guide
sin2
2
A=R
P = 2 R
Rh =
R sin2
1
2
2
The previous Manning formulas are used to predict Vo and Q for uniform flow
when the above expressions are substituted for A, P, and Rh.
sin2
Vo 1
n 2
2
2 /3
1/2
So
Q = Vo R
sin2
X-7
Study Guide
Vmax = 0.718
Q max = 2.129
R 2/3 S1/2
o
R 8/3 S1/2
o
A = y 2 2 (1+ 2 )
1/ 2
P = 4 y (1+
2 1/ 2
2 y
Rh =
1
y
2
Note: For any trapezoid angle, the most efficient cross section occurs when the
hydraulic radius is one-half the depth.
For the special case of a rectangle (a = 0, q = 90), the most efficient cross section
occurs with
A = 2y
P = 4y
Rh =
1
y
2
b = 2y
X-8
Study Guide
1
3
= 60
or
1/2
Example 10.3
What are the best dimensions for a rectangular brick channel designed to carry 5
3
m /s of water in uniform flow with So = 0.001?
2
1.0
2/3 1/2
Q
A R h So
n
8/ 3
= 1.882 m
8/3
or
y = 1.27 m
A = 2 y 2 = 3.21m2
and
b=
A
= 2.53 m
y
Note: The text compares these results with those for two other geometries having
the same area.
X-9
Study Guide
V
E = y+
2g
q
E = y+
2 g y2
q2
y = yc =
g
Emin occurs at
1/3
Q2
= 2
b g
E min =
1/3
3
y
2 c
Vc = (g y c ) = Co
1/2
and Fr = 1
X-10
Study Guide
Depending on the value of Emin and V, one of several flow conditions can exist.
For a given flow, if
E < Emin
No solution is possible
E = Emin
C
(g y )
= sin o = sin-1
V
V
1/ 2
-1
Nonrectangular Channels
For flows where the local channel width varies with depth y, critical values can be
expressed as
bo Q 2
Ac =
1/3
and
Q g Ac
Vc =
=
A c bo
1/2
X-11
Study Guide
n gAc
Sc = 2
b o Rh, c
and
Example 10.5
Given: a 50, triangular channel has a
3
flow rate of Q = 16 m /s.
Compute: (a) yc, (b) Vc,
(c) Sc for n = 0.018
a. For the given geometry, we have
P = 2 ( y csc 50)
bo = 2 ( y cot 50)
g Ac = bo Q
3
yc = 2.37 m
ans.
Ac = 4.70 m
bo,c = 3.97 m
3
Q 16 m / s
Vc = =
= 3.41 m / s
A 4.70 m
ans.
g n2 P
9.81(0.018)2 (6.18)
Sc = 2
=
2
1 /3 = 0.0542
b o R1/3
1.0
(
3.97
)
(
0.76
)
h
X-12
Study Guide
V1 y1 = V2 y2
and
V1
V
+ y1 = 2 + y2 + h
2g
2g
V y
V
y E2 y + 1 1 = 0 where E2 = 1 + y1 h
2g
2g
3
2
2
2
The problem has the following solutions depending on the initial flow condition
and the height of the jump:
X-13
Study Guide
Key Points:
1. The specific energy E2 is exactly h less than the approach energy E1.
2. Point 2 will lie on the same leg of the curve as point 1.
3. For Fr < 1, subcritical
approach
X-14
Study Guide
V1 2
2 V12 y12
y
+ y1 y2 +
=0
2g
2g
3
2
The development of the theory is equivalent to that for a strong fixed wave (Sec
10.1) and is summarized for a hydraulic jump in the following section.
X-15
Study Guide
V2 =
V1 y1
y2
V12
V22
h f = E1 E2 =
+ y1
+ y2
2 g
2g
or
(y y1 )
= 2
hf
4 y1 y2
Key points:
1. Since the dissipation loss must be positive, y2 must be > y1.
2. The initial Froude number Fr1 must be > 1 (supercritical flow).
3. The downstream flow must be subcritical and V2 < V1.
Example 10.7
3
X-16
Study Guide
3
q 10 m /(s m)
V1 = =
= 8.0 m / s
y1
1.25 m
Fr1 =
8.0
V1
1/ 2 =
1/ 2 = 2.285
(g y1 ) [9.81 (1.25)]
2 y2
2 1/ 2
= 1 + (1 + 8 (2.285) ) = 5.54
y1
and
y2 = 1 / 2 y1 (5.54) = 3.46 m
V2 =
V1 y1 8.0 (1.25)
=
= 2.89 m / s
y2
3.46
Fr2 =
2.89
V2
1/ 2 =
1/ 2 = 0.496
9.81
3.46
(
)
]
(g y2 ) [
(y y1 )
= 2
hf
4 y1 y2
8.0
V
E1 = 1 + y1 = 1.25 +
= 4.51 m
2g
2 (9.81)
X-17
Study Guide
% Loss =
hf
E1
100 =
0.625
100 = 14%
4.51
or
61,300 W/m = 10,000 kg/s m * 4200 J/kg K* T
T = 0.0015K
negligible temperature rise
X-18
Study Guide