373-

The Self-Directed Search: A Family of

Self-Guided Career Interventions
Arnold R.

Spokane
Lehigh University

John L. Holland
Johns Hopkins University
The Self-Directed Search (SDS; Holland, 1994) is a pair of booklets
that simulate career counseling, accompanied by a set of derivative
tools for use with the SDS. It is theoretically based, can be selfadministered, self-scored, and self-interpreted and has a substantial
base of studies examining its "functional utility" or therapeutic
effects. The SDS has been revised three times since its development
in 1970, resulting in the latest revision or Form R (1994). Form R
(1994) was created in two steps. An experimental version of the
Assessment Booklet was compiled with 70 new items and
administered to 701 individuals. These data were then used to
identify good and bad items. In a second step, 2,600 students and
adults from 25 states completed the final Form R. Internal
consistencies for the revised summary scales range from .90 to .94.
Test-retest reliability range from .76 to .89 over a period of 4 to 12
weeks. The Occupations Finder (Holland, 1994) was revised and
two manuals created: one a technical manual and one a professional
users guide. As in other revisions of the SDS, the goal was to make
the experience more useful to clients and to counselors.

The SDS and its derivative instruments constitute the first viable selfscoring and self-interpreting inventory developed from Hollands theory of
persons in vocational environments (Holland, 1992). Since its development
in 1970, the SDS has been revised and broadened three times (1977, 1985,
1994) to include a coordinated set of forms and closely related products
and tools.
The SDS is unique among interest inventories and has established a
special niche based upon three essential qualities. First, the SDS can be selfadministered, self-scored, and self-interpreted. Indeed, completion of the
inventory in every aspect is an exploratory experience. The SDS scoring
system requires no electronics, and the scoring process is open to inspection
by the respondent, thus becoming an informational intervention in itself.
Portions of this manuscript were excerpted from a paper presented by J. L. Holland
a symposium on Interest Measurement (W. Bruce Walsh, Chair) at the American
Psychological Association, August 1995, New York.
at

Published and

copyright @

1995

by Psychological Assessment Resources,

Inc. All

rights reserved.

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Second, the homogeneous and theoretically derived scales reflect the

organizing system in Hollands theory and provide the user a wide array of
derivative career tools based upon the same system. Finally, multiple
studies of the SDS-its structure, and especially its effects-now
exist in the professional literature, another unusual quality for a selfguiding vocational inventory.
The main assumption in self-guiding inventories is that, with a minimum
of assistance, clients can engage in a systematic exploration of career
possibilities and better understand those activities and career options that
are appropriate choices considering a clients characteristics. The publishers
reports indicate that the SDS is the most widely used interest inventory in
existence. The SDS and its theoretical model can provide career assistance
to individuals, groups, workshops and classes, and the typology can also be
used to organize and interpret client and occupational information in career
centers, libraries, and industry settings. This information can be used in
evaluation studies, research, labor force projections, and strategic and
succession planning. The SDS is used in an increasingly wide array of
settings. For example, Levinson (1990) argues that the SDS is an appropriate
intervention for school psychologists who want to become more involved in
vocational assessment.

empirical

The SDS: Form Follows Functions

The SDS is a pair of booklets that simulate career counseling. The
Assessment Booklet estimates a persons resemblance to six interest or
personality types, and the occupational classification booklet (The
Occupations Finder) organizes occupations into the same six categories
used in the Assessment Booklet. Consequently, the test-taker can complete
the Assessment Booklet and search The Occupations Finder for compatible
occupations. All forms of the SDS employ the same two-booklet system. In
addition, a third booklet-You and Your Career (Holland, 1994b) provides
supplemental information for the respondent on the theory and the
interpretation of Holland codes. The SDS contains a daydreams section in
which the individual lists occupations under consideration. Called expressed
choices, these lists are surprisingly robust estimates of the occupations
that respondents eventually enter (see Holland, Fritzsche, & Powell, 1994,
p. 4 for a list of these studies on the validity of expressed choice). There are
four parts in the SDS that contribute to the calculation of the Summary
Code. These sections are:
1. Activities (6 scales of 11 items are endorsed like or dislike), which
measures personal involvement and potential (e.g., sketch, draw,
2.

paint).
Competencies (6 scales of 11 items endorsed yes or no), which
estimates proficiencies and skills (e.g., I can play a musical
instrument).

3.

Occupations (6 scales of 14 occupational titles endorsed yes

no).

4. Self-Estimates (two

ratings per type of ability and skill).

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or

375

After completing the assessment scales, the totals for the subsections of
the SDS are transferred to a summary page and added to obtain a total score
for each of the six types. The highest three total scores indicate the threeletter summary code for use with The Occupations Finder. The SDS takes
about 35 to 50 minutes to complete, and the hand scoring by client or
counselor generally takes about 5 minutes.
Currently, there are separate forms for middle-school students (SDS
Career Explorer; Holland & Powell, 1994) and high-school students, both of
which can be completed in one class period, and several forms for adults.
There is a form (Form CP) for business and industrial clients who requested
a version tailored to their unique needs and concerns. There are also forms
in Braille and a form for those who read below the sixth-grade level (Form
E). There have been numerous translations of the SDS, and the Spanish,
Vietnamese, and French Canadian editions are published in the U.S.

Derivative Materials and Tools

User experience with the SDS has led to multiple supplementary materials
based upon the Holland theory and designed to perform a specific ancillary
function.
For example, an alphabetized occupational classification booklet was
developed first to assist test-takers in locating occupational codes in The
Occupations Finder as the number of occupations listed increased. Demands
for a more comprehensive Occupations Finder led G. D. Gottfredson to
develop a conversion formula to derive three-letter Holland codes for all
occupations in the U.S. labor force-resulting in the Dictionary of Holland
Occupational Codes (DHOC; G. D. Gottfredson & Holland 1989; G. D.
Gottfredson, Holland, & Ogawa, 1982).
Because the DHOC did not allow for unique or eccentric work
environments, and because the DHOC was occasionally incomplete regarding
a very specific work environment, The Position Classification Inventory
(PCI; G. D. Gottfredson & Holland, 1991) was developed to permit a small
number of employees or supervisors (8 or 9) to rate their work environment
using Hollands system. The PCI is an 84-item inventory containing six
13-item scales corresponding to each of the six Holland work environment
types. Correlations between supervisor and employees ratings of the same
jobs using the PCI were substantial, ranging from .59 to .79. Alpha
coefficients ranged from .70 to .94 for a mixed sample of employees and
supervisors across scales. There are, as a result of the PCI, two empiricaltheoretical tools for classifying any occupational environment.
Three additional exploration devices include The Educational
Opportunities Finder (Rosen, Holmberg, & Holland, 1994), a classification
of 750 education and training opportunities, and its more elaborate
counterpart, the Dictionary of Educational Opportunities (Rosen, Holmberg,
& Holland, 1994), and The Leisure Activities Finder (Holmberg, Rosen, &
Holland, 1990), a classification of 760 avocations, hobbies, and sports.
Because these devices share the same coding system and theoretical
underpinning, clients and counselors should find these tools easy to
understand and integrate with other information. Most SDS inventories are

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also available in different computer versions that administer, score, interpret,

and embed a persons responses in the context of other client information.
The Holland types can also be assessed using the Vocational Preference
Inventory (VPI; Holland, 1985), the new Strong Interest Inventory (SII;
Harmon, Hansen, Borgen, & Hammer, 1994), the Career Assessment
Inventory (CAI; Johansson, 1986), the new Armed Services Vocational
Aptitude Battery (ASVAB) workbook, a clever and colorful intervention for
students (Department of Defense, 1993), the Vocational Exploration and
Insight Kit (VEIK; Holland, 1991), and other vocational card sorts. The
interchangeability of type scores derived from these various instruments is

largely unexplored.
The 1994 Edition of Form R
The 1994 edition of the SDS Form R is a direct descendant of the first form.
The goal of the 1994 edition was, again, to make the SDS more useful for clients
and for counselors. This goal entailed multiple editorial and research tasks.
The editorial tasks included clarifying the directions in the assessment
and classification booklets, revising the reading list, and updating The
Occupations Finder. The directions for The Occupations Finder were also
revised to increase the potential for occupational exploration for men and
women by directing test-takers to search for all permutations of their
Summary Code. Some revisions are obviously helpful; other revisions will
require experimental evaluations to fully assess the assumed improvements.

The Assessment Booklet

The main research task was to increase scale validity and reliability by
trying out new or revised items, deleting weak or outdated items, and
omitting items with extreme endorsement rates among either males or
females. Because there have been nine item analyses of the four forms of the
SDS by its authors and by other researchers from 1970 through 1993, it has
become increasingly difficult to improve the inventory using item analysis.
The 1994 edition was created in two steps. In the first step, an
experimental booklet consisting of the items from the 1985 edition and
other forms of the SDS, along with 70 new items, was administered to a
sample of 701 individuals. Subjects came from seven states. The data from
this experimental booklet were used to identify good and bad items. Items
that correlated highly with the summary scales they were intended to
measure, that improved item scale correlations, and that were endorsed by
at least 5% of males and females were retained.
In the second step, a sample of 2,600 students and adults from 25 states
took the final form of the SDS Form R: 1994 Edition. This sample included
1,600 females and 1,000 males ranging in age from 17 to 65 years, and
was collected from high schools, colleges, clinical and counseling
practitioners, employment services, and counseling centers. The data from
these diverse sources were used to assess the internal consistency, concurrent
validity, item endorsement rates, item validity, scale intercorrelations,
gender and ethnic group differences, and to provide new scale norms.
Percentile ranks are provided for consistency and differentiation, as well as

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for the separate sections of the SDS (Activities, Competencies, Occupations,

Self-Estimates) and Summary Code distributions. Sixty-seven of 228 items
from the 1985 SDS edition were replaced or revised. Internal consistencies
for the revised summary scales ranged from .90 to .94 and for the separate
sections (e.g., Activities, Competencies, Occupations, Self-Estimates) ranged
from .72 to .92, representing a modest increase in reliability. Test-retest
reliability for a sample of 45 females and 28 males, ages 14 to 28 years,
ranged from .76 to .89 over a period of 4 to 12 weeks.

The Classification Booklet

The classification booklet or The Occupations Finder was also revised in
1994. These revisions include:
1. Addition of fast-growing jobs for the 1990s.
2. Deletion of fast-declining jobs for the 1990s.
3. Addition of more jobs requiring higher GED levels.
4. Substitution of more common job titles for some occupations.
5. Inclusion of all three-letter Holland codes (notes instructing the
reader to explore other permutations are included for codes with
fewer than six jobs listed).
6. Reminders throughout the booklet to explore every permutation
of ones code.
These revisions to The Occupations Finder resulted in a total of 1,335
occupations, 1,315 of which had an empirical three-letter code taken from
the DHOC. The remaining 20 codes were created by three expert raters using
a consensus

procedure.

The SDS Technical Manual (Holland, Fritzsche, et al., 1994) summarizes

the information and history of all SDS forms, including the 1994 edition.
Detailed information on the 1994 revision is contained in the 1994 SDS Technical
Manual. Although our review focuses on the use and effects of the inventory with
clients, the substantial database testing the Holland model, the characteristics
of the types, and the nature of person-environment interactions is unprecedented
as background support for a model underlying an interest inventory (Brown &
Brooks, in press; Holland, in press; Osipow & Fitzgerald, in press).
Most of the analyses for the 1994 edition replicate findings from earlier
versions. For example, repeated revisions to reduce gender differences in type
distributions increased the scores of both women and men, but the
differences between the two groups remain much the same. Attempts to
apply normative corrections to Holland raw scores to alter gender or race
differences have impaired concurrent validity to a considerable extent
(Swoope & Bunch, 1978). The sex differences found on the SDS appear to be
stable and not artifactual. Very convincing arguments have been made for
considering such differences as real (Eagly, 1995) and, thus, reaffirming the
value of the SDS as one of the only remaining raw score inventories in our
field (L. S. Gottfredson, 1983). Table 1 contains the distribution of SDS
high-point codes by gender and race in the 1994 validation sample.

Practitioners will find a comprehensive account of the potential application

interpretation of all SDS forms in the SDS Professional Users Guide

and

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378

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(PUG; Holland, Powell, & Fritzsche, 1994). The information about the use
of all SDS forms, reported earlier in manuals and guides, is now integrated
into a single guide. Although the essential findings from the SDS Technical
Manual are summarized in the PUG, its main purpose is application. Figure
1, for example, taken from the PUG, is a diagram of the exploration process
that occurs when a respondent completes the SDS.
Several supplemental diagnostic indicators can be derived from the SDS
scores as in the following descriptions in Table 2.

Congruence
Congruence indicates the degree of fit between

an

individuals

personality

and the type of work or educational environment he or she inhabits (for

example, an IRC individual in an IRC environment). Congruence has been
calculated using first-letter codes, three-letter codes, and six-letter codes,
but can also be estimated with the use of one of several mathematical
indexes (Brown & Gore, 1994; Camp & Chartrand, 1992).

Consistency
Consistency is a measure of the internal harmony within an individuals
Summary Code. Consistency is determined using the first two letters of the
three-letter code on the hexagon. Types that are adjacent to each other on
the perimeter of the hexagon (e.g., Realistic and Investigative) are more
common and, therefore, harmonious than types that are opposite each other
on the perimeter of the hexagon (e.g., Enterprising and Investigative). An
individual with an I-E type would be inconsistent. Enterprising and
Investigative interests are not often found together and require very
different repertoires of behavior.
Differentiation
Differentiation is a measure of the crystallization of interests and provides
information about the relative definition of types in an individuals profile.
Differentiation can be defined as the highest minus the lowest score among
the six types, or it can be calculated using a mathematical index. As Holland
indicated, &dquo;My purpose was to create a concept that would capture what
clinicians mean by a well-defined profile&dquo; (Holland, 1992, p. 26).
Each of these indexes is calculated in the following sample case of Ruth, and
the relationships between the various indexes are summarized in Table 2.

Sample Case Using the SDS

A professional colleague, Ruth, a 43-year-old school guidance counselor

with a masters degree, completed the SDS and used the Leisure Activities
Finder in addition to the regular Occupations Finder. Ruth reports being very
satisfied in her job, which she has held for 3 years. &dquo;I think its perfect. I feel
competent in it, and I think I am paid fairly. I still have a lot of things to
learn, but I look forward to learning them.&dquo; She agreed to complete the SDS
in order to learn more about the instrument and its potential for use with
high-school populations. Ruth had never taken the SDS, but was familiar
with the theory and with the SDS as an instrument. Figure 2 contains the
Summary Page from Ruths SDS.

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Code was SIE, and she reports being surprised at how

&dquo;I think I have more I competencies than I do I
interests.&dquo; Ruth made one minor scoring error resulting in a 1-point
discrepancy in her Social high-point code. In order to better interpret the
meaning of these scores, we used the norm tables in the SDS Technical
Manual to calculate the percentile levels for the Summary Code scores,
differentiation, consistency, and congruence. Table 3 contains Ruths
Summary Codes and their percentile ranks. The SIE code is a fairly common
one, occurring in 2.22% of the 1994 validation sample. Her Social score
(82%ile) is clearly a high one, though her Investigative score (78%ile) is also
high. Ruths differentiation score, when calculated by the traditional method
(highest score [42] minus lowest score [10] 32), is at the 74th%ile. Using
the Iachan Differentiation Index (see SDS Technical Manual), which utilizes
the relative differentiation of the first three scores in the code from the
fourth, the differentiation score is at the 97%ile-a better reflection of the
high level of differentiation we see in Ruths code. The formula for the
Iachan Differentiation Index is a straightforward one:

Ruths

high her

Summary
I

score was.

where

X, highest score in a profile

x2 second highest score
x3 = fourth highest score
=

Table 3

Ruths

Summary Code Scores and

Percentile Ranks

Consistency for Ruths code is moderate with the first two letters of her
code SI being one removed (one apart, but not opposite or adjacent) from each
other around the hexagon-a consistency score in the 38%ile using the
consistency norms in the SDS Technical Manual. This consistency score
reflects the fact that an SI code may not comfortably fit together and may
indicate some internal friction or conflict between aspects of Ruths
personality (SA or SE would have been more consistent).
Finally, if we presume the work environment of a counselor to be S, or
SER using the DHOC (G. D. Gottfredson & Holland, 1989), we can calculate

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385

congruence using the Zener and Schnuelle conversion, which would yield a
congruence level at the 73%ile, or we can use the Iachan congruence formula
which is calculated using Table 4.

Table 4

Calculation of the Iachan Agreement Index

The Iachan procedure yields a congruence score at the 90th%ile-again,

better estimate of the degree of congruence in the profile and more
consistent with the clients self-expressions regarding her satisfaction with
her job. A somewhat different work environment profile for a counselor
was generated by a sample of 11 counselors in the PCI manual and is
reproduced in Figure 3. Use of the profile from the PCI manual would
result in even higher congruence estimates for Ruth.
a

Ruth used the Leisure Activities Finder to explore avocational activities and
discovered three that seemed interesting to her-Social Activism, Self-Help
Groups, and Adult Education. Indeed, Ruth reports having engaged in each
of these activities at one time in her life and had worked in adult education
for several years. Ruth did note that many of the activities she was interested
in were SR in nature-a reflection of her outdoor interests and, interestingly,
consistent with the counselor type.
In short, Ruth has a highly differentiated three-letter code with a strong
Social component. She demonstrates many of the skills associated with
the Social Holland type, including strong interactive skills with a wide
range of individuals and very good counseling skills. She is congruent,
though moderately inconsistent in theoretical terms, and her profile is
quite consistent with her self-reports regarding her feelings about her job.

The Influence of

Self-Guiding Interventions
There is now little doubt that self-help interventions are generally
associated with positive outcomes (Ogles, Lambert, & Craig, 1991; Scogin,
Bynum, Stephens, & Calhoun, 1990), but that such interventions vary in
quality (Ellis, 1993) can be oversold and misused (Rosen, 1988, 1993) or even
employed exploitively. Clearly the number of careful evaluative studies is
disproportionately small considering the extraordinary number (Rosen,
1993) of self-help interventions used today. As Rosen (1993) indicated, the

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psychology establishment has failed to promote the benefits and increase the
of effective self-help interventions.
As Spokane (1990) argued earlier, the career arena is one enterprise in
which self-help has been carefully and systematically applied. This is
especially true for the SDS. Meta-analytic data (Oliver & Spokane, 1988;
Spokane & Oliver, 1983) confirm that counselor-free career interventions are
modestly effective at a cost ($1.21 per client contact hour) less than one tenth
use

that of counselor-involved interventions.

The SDS not only exceeds any reasonable standards for these self-help
interventions (Spokane, 1990), in many respects it has set the benchmark.
Tinsleys excellent (1984) paper on test interpretation cautioned that the
counselor (presumably also the client) should fully understand the meaning
of test scores, encourage client feedback, show the client the profile, keep
the clients goals in mind, and so forth. Similarly, Pope (1992) argued that
lack of feedback was the most neglected aspect of assessment and outlined
10 fundamentals of this feedback process, including framing the feedback,
misuse of feedback, documentation of records, and assessing and
understanding client reactions. The SDS ensures many of the essential
components that Tinsley (1984) and Pope (1992) discussed. The four key
elements that a self-guiding career inventory should include are: (a) provide
a cognitive framework for understanding tests scores, (b) provide a direct
link to a valid job classification system and educational options, (c) provide
referral information, and (d) provide evidence for the effectiveness of the
intervention.

Studies of the Effects and Outcomes of the SDS

Although the psychometric properties of the SDS are important, the
influence of an interest inventory-how it affects a respondents thinking,
feeling, and action-is an equally important aspect of validity. The nearly
two dozen studies of the effects of the SDS reviewed in Holland, Fritzsche,
et al. (1994) are unusual in not just the psychometric properties of the
SDS, but also its functional or clinical utility. It is worth noting that no
negative or deterioration effects have been found in using the SDS, although
there is some evidence that the SDS may be more effective as a standalone intervention with certain kinds of clients.
The first of a series of &dquo;effects&dquo; studies (Zener & Schnuelle, 1976) compared
the SDS, the VPI, and a no-treatment control with high-school students and
first used a new measure of congruence. Both the VPI and the SDS were
effective in comparison to a control condition in generating occupational
alternatives. This large scale experiment and other studies suggest that the
SDS: &dquo;(a) increases the number of career options an individual is considering,
(b) increases satisfaction with a vocational aspiration, and (c) increases
self-understanding&dquo; (Holland, Fritzsche, et al., 1994, p. 53). Several studies
found, surprisingly, that the effects of the SDS on career outcomes were
equivalent to those achieved with a counselor (Krivatsy & Magoon, 1976).
Fretz and Leong (1982) confirm the results of earlier studies by Power,
Holland, Daiger, and Takai (1979) and Takai and Holland (1979) and found
that self-guiding interventions were most effective with high identity, low

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indecision clients and that following intervention, clients generally found

one additional option that they would not have otherwise considered. Taskoriented individuals (Investigative and Conventional types) seem to perform
better on the SDS than did socially oriented individuals (Social and
Enterprising types) (Kivlighan, Hageseth, Tipton, & McGovern, 1981).
Most recently, Gati & Blumberg (1991) created two algorithms to score the
SDS subscales and summary score, with the finding that career counselors
identified more fields than did the algorithm because they employed a lower
cutoff score for consideration. Indeed, counselors were very flexible and,
generally, overinclusive in identifying relevant fields from the SDS protocol.
These effects studies, although a relatively small fraction of the research
conducted on Hollands theory, establish the functional utility of the SDS.
A great deal remains to be done in determining which aspects of interest
inventories promote exploration and aid in decision-making and encouraging
greater use of self-guiding interest inventories.

The Present and Future of the SDS

The SDS is an inventory with desirable psychometric characteristics
that incorporates a persons history of vocational daydreams, which can
be used to increase predictive validity and to form an impression of a
clients goals and background and that encourages the immediate
preliminary exploration of more than 1,000 occupations. Because it is selfscored and can be interpreted by many, perhaps most, clients, it encourages
active participation in the resolution of career problems and questions.
In addition, the effects of the SDS on the test-taker are now documented
by 22 experimental studies. The interpretation of the SDS scales is also
supported by a substantial literature examining the RIASEC typology.
Most recently, the relationship between the &dquo;Big Five&dquo; personality factors
and the RIASEC types continues to both clarify the interpretation of the
types and contribute to our understanding of the nature of, and overlap
between, interests and personality.

References
Brown, D., & Brooks, L. (in press). Career choice and development (4th ed). San Francisco:
Jossey Bass.
Brown, S. D., & Gore, P. A. (1994). An evaluation of interest congruence indices: Distribution
characteristics and measurement properties. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 45, 310-327.
Camp, C. C., & Chartrand, J. M. (1992). A comparison and evaluation of interest congruence
indices. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 41, 162-182.
Department of Defense. (1993). Exploring careers: The ASUAB workbook. HQUSMEPCOM/
MEPCO, Chicago: Author.
Eagly, A. H. (1995). The science and politics of comparing women and men. American
Psychologist, 50, 145-158.
Ellis, A. (1993). The advantages and disadvantages of self-help therapy materials.
Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 24, 335-339.
Fretz, B. R., & Leong, F. T. L. (1982). Career development status as a predictor of career
intervention outcomes. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 29, 388-393.
Gati, I., & Blumberg, D. (1991). Computer versus counselor interpretation of interest
inventories: The case of the Self-Directed Search. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 38,
350-366.

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Gottfredson, G. D., & Holland, J. L. (1989). Dictionary of Holland occupational codes

(2nd ed.). Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.
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codes. Palo

Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.

Gottfredson, L. S. (1982). The sex fairness of unnormed interest inventories. Vocational
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Inventory: Applications and technical guide. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
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Holland, J. L. (1991). Vocational Exploration and Insight Kit. Odessa, FL: Psychological
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Holland, J. L. (1992). Making vocational choices: A theory of vocational personalities and

work environments (2nd ed.). Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.
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Holland, J. L. (in press). Making vocational choices: A theory of vocational personalities and
work environments (3rd ed.). Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.

Holland, J. L., Fritzsche, B. A., & Powell, A. B. (1994). SDS technical manual. Odessa, FL:
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