Recent Discoveries and

Perspectives in Human Evolution

Papers arising from Exploring Human Origins:
Exciting Discoveries at the Start of the 21st
Century Manchester 2013
Edited by

Anek R. Sankhyan

BAR International Series 2719

2015

Published by
Archaeopress
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BAR S2719
Recent Discoveries and Perspectives in Human Evolution: Papers arising from Exploring Human Origins:
Exciting Discoveries at the Start of the 21st Century Manchester 2013
Archaeopress and the individual authors 2015

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Table of Contents
List of Figures ...................................................................................................................... iii
List of Tables ........................................................................................................................ vi
Recent discoveries and perspectives in human evolution: Introduction ................................. 1
Anek R. SANKHYAN
1. A new juvenile cranium from Zhaotong City, Southwest China indicates
complexity of hominoid evolution in Eastern Asia .......................................................... 7
Ji XUEPING, Deng CHENGLONG & Yu TENGSONG
2. Australopithecines shoulders: New remains for Old Debate .......................................... 11
Jean-Luc VOISIN
3. Hominin palaeoanthropology in Asia comes of age ....................................................... 23
Robin DENNELL
4. Pleistocene hominin fossil discoveries in India: implications
for human evolution in South Asia ................................................................................. 41
Anek R. SANKHYAN
5. Geoarchaeological and environmental aspects of the Central Narma
da alluvium ..................................................................................................................... 53
Satya DEV & Anek R. SANKHYAN
6. The role of Balkans in peopling of Europe: new evidence from Serbia ......................... 63
Mirjana ROKSANDIC
7. The role of landscapes in shaping hominin habitats in Africa ........................................ 69
Sally C. REYNOLDS
8. The Denisova Genome: an unexpected window into the past ........................................ 77
John HAWKS
9. Preliminary results on the first paleontological, anthropological and
archaeological Pleistocene locality in Adrar, Mauritania ............................................... 81
Chrif Ousmane TOURE & Anne DAMBRICOURT MALASSE
10. The Orsang Man: a robust Homo sapiens in Central India with
Asian Homo erectus features .......................................................................................... 87
Anne DAMBRICOURT MALASSE, Rachna RAJ & S. SHAH
i

11. Geoarchaeology of the fluvial terraces of middle Tagus River,

Central Portugal .............................................................................................................. 93
Satya DEV
12. Morphometrics of the frontal bone: a new method for measuring intracranial
profiles .......................................................................................................................... 119
Yannick KORPAL
13. Discovery of two prehistoric sites at Galudih in east Singbhum, Jharkhand:
a study in typo technology and geomorphology ........................................................... 131
Ratna BHATTACHARYA
14. Unbalanced endemic island faunas: are hominins the exception? ................................ 135
Anneke H. VAN HETEREN
15. Imaging Oldowan-Acheulian knappers: scope & limitations....................................... 141
Tanusree PANDIT & Anek R. SANKHYAN
16. Pleistocene beads and cognitive evolution ................................................................... 149
Robert G. BEDNARIK
17. The Andaman pygmy: origins and new adaptations .................................................... 161
Anek R. SANKHYAN & Ramesh SAHANI
18. Amazing Skills: practice of Trepanation around the world .......................................... 173
Alexandra COMA & Anek R. SANKHYAN
19. Decryption of ethnic identity of the white mummies in Tarim Basin, China ............... 183
Xinyan CHI
20. Identification of a breast cancer BRCA1 mutation in West Bengal, India ................... 193
Abhishikta GHOSH ROY, B.N. SARKAR, R. ROY & A.R. BANDOPADHYAY
21. Depleting biosphere reserves: traditional and modern concerns in India ..................... 199
Umesh KUMAR
22. Rock art in India: a data appraisal ................................................................................ 205
Somnath CHAKRAVERTY
23. Astronomical orientation of the Trepanned neolithic woman of Burzahom,
Kashmir ........................................................................................................................ 219
Iharka SZCS-CSILLIK, Alexandra COMA & Anek R. SANKHYAN

ii

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6.
THE ROLE OF BALKANS IN PEOPLING OF EUROPE:
NEW EVIDENCE FROM SERBIA
Mirjana ROKSANDIC
University of Winnipeg, 515 Portage Avenue, Winnipeg. Manitoba, Canada R3B 2E9
m.roksandic@uwinnipeg.ca

Abstract: Systematic excavations of the Mala Balanica cave, Sicevo, (Serbia) yielded a left semi mandible: BH-1, the only specimen
from the Balkan Peninsula securely dated to the Middle Pleistocene. The primitive morphology of the mandibular body and the lack
of derived Neanderthal traits place this specimen outside the variation of Middle Pleistocene European hominins. The specimens
primitive morphology is more consistent with the new radiometric age estimate that places it into the earlier part of the Middle
Pleistocene. Here I examine the significance of this specimen for the role that the Balkan Peninsula the only refugium that never
experienced isolation could have played in maintaining gene flow and allowing primitive traits to remain present in the population
for a longer period of time.
Keywords: human evolution, mandible, morphology, Middle Pleistocene, Balkan, palaeoanthropology

contemporaneous with Ubeidiya in Israel (Belmaker et al.

2002). Furthermore, paleontological evidence supports
successive movement of animals from Africa / Southwest
Asia (SWA) into Europe in the Early and Middle
Pleistocene (see issue 295 (5) of Qi (2013) devoted to the
question). This notion of successive movement has
recently been explored by Dennell et al. (2011) and
Bermudez del Castro and Martinon-Torres (2013) using a
demographic sinks and sources model. The authors
postulate a demographic source population in SWA,
which would have repopulated Europe in successive
migrations, intermixing to an extent with humans that
were present in southwestern European refugia at the
time.

INTRODUCTION
The Middle Pleistocene fossil record plays a crucial role
in later human evolution as it documents greater encephalization and the emergence of modern morphology and
behavioural repertoire (Marean et al. 2007; Roebroeks
2001). In Europe, the Middle Pleistocene is generally
associated with Homo heidelbergensis (Schoetensack
1908), commonly accepted as ancestral to Neanderthals,
since all of the European specimens included in the H.
heidelbergensis hypodigm present some Neanderthal
traits. Given the ambiguity associated with the species
definition for African, Asian and European Middle
Pleistocene specimens, Cartmill and Smith (2009) opt for
the generic term Heidelbergs when discussing all
Middle Pleistocene archaic humans; here I use the term to
indicate only European Heidelbergs because of their
essential connection with Neanderthals. In order to
acknowledge the extent of variation in the Middle
Pleistocene, and compare evolutionary trajectories across
the Old World, paleoanthropologists are increasingly
turning towards the concept of paleo-deme or p-deme
(Howell 1999) which allows us to distinguish between
local populations and discuss their possible phyletic
relationships without implying (or rejecting) speciation
events. Against this background, any Pleistocene hominin
fossils from the Balkans could represent important
contributions to our understanding of hominin evolution
in Europe.

For all their importance in allowing the movement of

animals and people into Europe, the Balkans should not
be conceptualized exclusively as a transit zone. More
than just a migratory route, together with the Iberian and
Apennine Peninsulas (Carrin et al. 2011) the Balkans
played the role of a refugium (Hewitt 2011; Griffiths et
al. 2004) for temperate deciduous forests and associated
biota (Eastwood 2004; Tzedakis 2004). The Balkans
acted as a southern refugium for plant and animal species
during Pleistocene glaciations when ice cover made most
of Northern Europe inhospitable (Ehlers and Gibbard eds.
2004). Unlike the more western peninsulas, this region
maintained open contact with the rest of the inhabited
world. The lack of geographic isolation of the Balkans
and their position between the continents links this area to
SWA to form what I would like to refer to as the eastern
Mediterranean geographic entity, a region at the
crossroads of the continents that should be conceptualized
as the fertilization zone between different populations and
their technological traditions.

WHAT IS SO SPECIAL ABOUT THE BALKANS?

At the gates to the continent, the Balkan Peninsula,
already identified as the confirmed route of animal
migrations in the Early Pleistocene (ORegan et al. 2011)
represents the most logical route of migration into
Europe. This is supported by the 1.4 Mya old Kozarnika
cavein Bulgaria (Sirakov et al. 2010), which is

We still do not have answers to some of the key questions

about human evolution in Europe: who the first
63

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RECENT DISCOVERIES AND PERSPECTIVES IN HUMAN EVOLUTION

Fig. 6.1. a. The mandible from the site of Mala Balanica in Serbia (BH-1);
b. the excavations at the cave of Mala Balanica in 2013
inhabitants were where they came from, how they relate
to earlier African/Asian and later European populations.
We are only starting to recognize the possibility of more
than one migration and more than one direction for it.
Many of these questions will remain unanswered for as
long as the Balkans represent this terra incognita of
Pleistocene research. Fortunately there is new research
coming out of Balkan countries that promises to address
these questions (Havarti and Tourlakis, 2013).

dated individuals in the Eastern Mediterranean, close in

age to Quessem cave (Barkai et al. 2003). In comparison
with specimens from Western Europe, the Balanica
hominin is somewhat younger than Sima de los Huesos
(600 60 Kya) and Mauer (609 40 Kya), similar in age
to Arago (435 85 Kya), Sima de los Huesos (450) and
Visogliano (350-500 Kya), and somewhat older than
Ceprano (353 4 Kya) (Bischoff et al. 2007; Wagner et
al. 2010; Falgures et al. 2004; Falgures et al. 1999;
Falgures et al. 2008). With the detailed publication of
the Sima de los Huesos material (Pablos et al. 2012;
Gomez-Robles et al. 2012; Martinon-Torres et al. 2012;
Bonmati et al. 2010) we see a model of population
interaction in Europe different from the inherited wisdom
of a gradual and mosaic evolution of acquired
Neanderthal traits (Dean et al. 1998).

FOSSIL EVIDENCE FROM THE BALKANS

Despite the areas incontestable importance and the
strong tradition of archaeological research in the region,
the Balkan Palaeolithic record is sparse. In addition to the
securely dated BH-1 mandible from Balanica, Serbia, the
only other Middle Pleistocene hominins come from
Greece (Fig. 6.1 & 6.2). Both Apidima and Petralona
demonstrate Neanderthal traits in varying combinations
with archaic and more modern traits, in contrast to the
Balanica mandible which does not exhibit any
Neanderthal traits. The mandible was excavated at Mala
Balanica cave, which, together with Velika Balanica,
forms the Balanica cave complex in the Sievo Gorge
(4320.211N: 2205.115E). This complex has been the
focus of systematic archaeological excavations since
2004 (Mihailovic 2009); the excavations are ongoing and
the bedrock has not been reached in either of the caves.
Middle Palaeolithic artefacts have been uncovered in the
upper levels of both caves, while the mandible was recovered from the lower stratigraphic levels of Mala Balanica, 1.5 m below the artefact bearing levels. Inferences
drawn from the morphology of the BH-1 mandible
(Roksandic et al. 2011) places it outside currently
observed variation of European Homo heidelbergensis.

The presence of Neanderthals in Western Europe has

substantially biased our views on human evolution in
Europe. With their recognizable derived morphology,
long duration in the continent and remarkable fossil
record, Neanderthals dominate both popular imagination
and scientific research, and our quest to understand these
remarkable fossil humans has produced innumerable
treatises, not all of which are to the credit of the science
we practice. The large number of Neanderthals, in
comparison to other fossil humans, has resulted in two
uncompromising approaches: perceiving the difference
between us (modern humans) and those (Neanderthals) as
either non-existent or essentialised by those who support
either their inclusion or exclusion (respectively) into our
common ancestry.
Recent advances in aDNA studies and the sequencing of
the whole Neanderthal and Denisovan genomes (Green et
al. 2010; Meyer et al. 2012) have demonstrated
interbreeding between different geographic populations,
further emphasizing the need to leave speciation aside
when examining the last two million years of human
evolution (Holliday 2006). Neanderthals, for all the
fascination that they hold, should be regarded as a
European group that developed n glacial isolation with
some intermixing with more eastern populations during

Radiometric ages based on electron spin resonance

(ESR)/uranium series dating of associated faunal
dentition, and infrared stimulated luminescence (IRSL)
dates obtained on superimposed sediments, date the BH-1
mandible to older than 395 to 525 Kya (Rink et al. 2013).
This age makes BH-1 the earliest dated hominin
specimen in this part of Europe and among the oldest
64

Copyright material: no unauthorized reproduction in any medium

M. ROKSANDIC: THE ROLE OF BALKANS IN PEOPLING OF EUROPE: NEW EVIDENCE FROM SERBIA

Fig. 6.2. A new look at an old map: a changed perspective on the Eastern Mediterranean zone
connecting the Balkan Peninsula and the Southwest Asia

interglacial times, when migrations, contact and genetic

exchange could have taken place in different degrees and
modalities. The exchange of genes and tool kits need not
always have taken the same direction and degree. It is
enough to evoke the spread of Neanderthals in MIS 5
from Europe into the Near East (Condemi 1985, 1991)
resulting in less prominent Neanderthal morphology in
Krapina, Saccopastore, Amud and Tabun than in the
classical Neanderthals of the MIS 4 and 3 in the
Western Europe.

associated with encephalization and tooth reduction

observed in Middle Pleistocene populations on all three
continents. The BH-1 mandible would fit well with this
explanation. Considering the Balkans as part of the larger
area open to communication throughout the Pleistocene is
not only warranted, but necessary. It will, however,
require a shift in our communal perception of the
geography of the region. We might need to do away with
the perception of the Aegean and the Black seas as
barriers for movement of populations and view them as a
geographic centre of the Eastern Mediterranean
geographic entity that includes Southeast Europe and
Southwest Asia (SEE/SWA), which could have
maintained population contact and gene exchange
throughout human evolution.

If the Middle Pleistocene variability in Europe is

examined in the context of geographically and
chronologically defined p-demes as suggested by Howell
(1996), and we accept several successive migrations into
Europe on the basis of lithic (Lycett 2009) and
palaeontological evidence (Carrin et al. 2011), one could
postulate a core demographic area in SWA (Dennell et al.
2011; Bermdez de Castro and Martinn-Torres in press).
With western source populations as bearers of derived
Neanderthal morphology, attenuation of Neanderthal
traits in the more easterly or later populations could be
explained by admixture with a group from outside of the
isolated glacial refugium, i.e. a population from SWA.
Under this model, we would expect that Southeast Europe
(SEE) the Balkan Penninusla which would have
remained in contact with SWA during glacial times
belonged to this core demographic area. While isolation
represented the major mechanism of evolutionary change
in the west of the continent (Rightmire 1998), causing a
bottleneck and fixation of derived traits, the Balkan
Peninsula did not experience the effects of isolation. As
already suggested (Roksandic et al. 2011) the population
that inhabited the Balkan Peninsula and maintained
contact with SWA throughout glaciations could have
retained a number of primitive (i.e., non-Neanderthal)
traits, without precluding morphological changes

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