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Article history:
Received 16 June 2014
Accepted 24 December 2014
Available online 3 January 2015
Keywords:
Santa Maria Island
KAr geochronology
Dikes
Flank collapse
Azores Triple Junction
Eurasia/Nubia plate boundary
a b s t r a c t
The growth and decay of oceanic volcanoes developed close to plate boundaries are intrinsically related to a
competition between construction and destruction processes, partly controlled by tectonic strain and stresses.
From morphologic, stratigraphic, tectonic and new high-precision KAr data, we present a comprehensive picture of the volcano-tectonic evolution of Santa Maria, and discuss its signicance regarding the stress evolution
and regional deformation in the Azores. Our new data show that: (1) the western at portion of the island is
mostly composed of west-dipping volcanic rocks here dated between 5.70 0.08 and 5.33 0.08 Ma, which
we consider the remnants of an Older Shield Volcano; (2) more than half of this early volcanic complex has
been removed by an east-directed large-scale sector collapse; (3) a second volcano, here coined the Younger
Shield Volcano, grew rapidly on the collapse scar between at least 4.32 0.06 and 3.94 0.06 Ma; (4) more
than half of this new volcano was removed by a second large-scale sector collapse most probably around
3.6 Ma, based on the ages of Parasitic Scoria Cones sitting unconformably on the Younger Shield Volcano;
(5) the latest parasitic volcanic activity is here dated at 2.84 0.04 Ma, extending signicantly the known eruptive history of Santa Maria. Morpho-structural data (shape of the island, faults, dikes, and distribution of volcanic
cones) show a signicant control of construction and destruction along the N045 and N150 directions. The age
of the lavas intruded by dikes suggests that the N045 and the N150 trends are ca. 5.3 Ma old and younger than
ca. 4.3 Ma, respectively. Based on the new data, we conclude that a change in the regional stress eld occurred
between 5.3 and 4.3 Ma, most likely associated with a major reconguration of the Eurasia/Nubia plate boundary
in the Azores.
2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
The evolution of volcanic ocean islands generally occurs in a complex way, as a result of a competition between volcanic construction
and destruction processes. The growth of large intra-plate volcanoes, especially, is often punctuated by episodes of gravitational destabilization
in the form of catastrophic ank collapses, as extensively recognized
worldwide: Hawaii (e.g., Moore et al., 1989, 1995), the Canary Islands
(e.g., Carracedo, 1994; Carracedo et al., 1999; Bouleisteix et al., 2012,
2013), or in Cape Verde (e.g., Masson et al., 2008; Ancochea et al.,
2010). Closer to the major plate boundaries, the evolution of oceanic
volcanoes may additionally be signicantly inuenced by regional
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2014.12.017
0377-0273/ 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
deformation. This seems to be the case in the Azores volcanic archipelago near the present Triple Junction between the North American
(NA), the Eurasian (EU) and the Nubian (NU) lithospheric plates. Recent
studies on the most recent islands of the archipelago have shown that
recent volcanic construction and destruction episodes have been significantly focused along major active regional structures (e.g., Loureno
et al., 1998; Haase and Beier, 2003; Hildenbrand et al., 2008a, 2012a,b,
2013a,b; Navarro et al., 2009; Quartau et al., 2012; Marques et al.,
2013a, 2014a,b; Costa et al., 2014; Trippanera et al., 2014).
Reconstructing the long-term evolution of such islands thus provides a
unique opportunity to track the inuence of deformation on the various
stages of growth and destruction, especially through the analysis of
strain and stresses recorded by the distribution of volcanic outputs
and/or the faults and dikes cutting the various edices. Ultimately,
such markers can give valuable information on the potential changes
in regional strain and stress, e.g., associated with a rapid plate reconguration (e.g., Hildenbrand et al., in press).
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A.L.R. Sibrant et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 291 (2015) 4962
Santa Maria is the oldest island in the Azores and is situated at the
intersection between the older and the current EU/NU plate boundaries.
Given this key position close to a plate boundary, the island is a suitable
target to investigate the successive stages of construction and destruction, their possible relationships with regional tectonics, and possible
changes of the stress eld with time. Despite this key position and the
importance of the age constraint, the geological evolution of the island
remains not well constrained. From new morphological analyses, eldwork, structural data, and KAr dating, we here constrain the volcanotectonic evolution of Santa Maria and discuss its signicance regarding
regional tectonics and paleostress evolution at the western Eurasia
Nubia plate boundary.
2. Geological background
2.1. Geodynamic setting
The Azores archipelago comprises nine volcanic islands located on
both sides of the Mid-Atlantic Rift (MAR). The islands sit on top of a
large portion of elevated seaoor generally referred to as the Azores
Plateau, which roughly coincides with the 2000 m isobath. The
genesis of the plateau, the excess of magmatism and the development
of the islands have been generally attributed to the presence of an
anomalous mantle under the plateau. Global and regional S-wave
tomographic studies show the presence of a low seismic velocity zone
between ~80 and 250 km depth under the whole region (for a review,
see Silveira et al., 2006). This suggests that the mantle under the Azores
is presently anomalously hot and/or wet. This seems consistent with the
anomalous high topography of the MAR (e.g., Schilling, 1985; Escartin
et al., 2001), a thicker than average crust (Searle, 1980; Detrick et al.,
1995; Luis et al., 1998; Cannat et al., 1999; Gente et al., 2003; Maia
et al., 2007; Silveira et al., 2010), and the geochemistry of the lavas
from the islands, which overall show a strong enrichment in incompatible elements and radiogenic isotopes (e.g., Bourdon et al., 2005). MORB
from the MAR close to the Azores also has relatively high Sr, Pb, and He
isotope ratios compared to normal depleted MORB (Kurz, 1982;
Schilling et al., 1983; Bourdon et al., 1996; Dosso et al., 1999; Moreira
and Allegre, 2002; Jean Baptiste et al., 2009). However, according to
other authors, the volcanism is not due to an active hot-spot, but may
rather reect the existence of volatile-enriched upper mantle domains
(Schilling et al., 1975; Bonatti et al., 1990) or a wet-spot (Mtrich
et al., 2014).
To the east of the MAR axis, the plateau shows a triangular shape and
encompasses portions of the North American (NA), the Eurasian (EU),
and the Nubian (NU) plates (Fig. 1). The NA/EU and NA/NU plate boundaries coincide with the conspicuous MAR axis, whose morphology has
been relatively stable over the last few Myrs (Laughton et al., 1972). In
contrast, the morphology and the history of the EU/NU boundary in
the Azores are more complex. Immediately to the east of the Azores
region, the EU/NU boundary presently comprises a dextral transcurrent
fault called the Gloria Fault (GF). Sometime in the past, the GF was connected to the MAR by an active fault called the East Azores Fracture Zone
(EAFZ), bounding, in the south, the eastern Azores Plateau. However,
the EAFZ seems presently seismically inactive, and thus not anymore
part of the EU/NU boundary (e.g., Krause and Watkins, 1970; Searle,
1980). It is now consensual that this part of the EU/NU plate boundary
has migrated to the North and is now following in part the hyperslow oceanic Terceira Rift (TR), which bounds, in the north, the eastern
Azores Plateau (e.g., Machado, 1959; Krause and Watkins, 1970;
McKenzie, 1972; Searle, 1980; Vogt and Jung, 2004). A combined
study of GPS, seismic and tectonic data (Marques et al., 2013a, 2014a)
indicates that the EU/NU boundary presently coincides with the TR in
Fig. 1. Bathymetric map of the Azores (data from Loureno et al., 1998). The thick black lines indicate the location of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (MAR) axis, which separates the North
American and Eurasian plates, and the North American and Nubian plates. The white lines mark the current Eurasia/Nubia diffuse plate boundary (after Marques et al., 2013a, 2014a).
The black dashed line indicates the location of the Terceira Rift (TR), and the white dashed line the East Azores Fracture Zone (EAFZ). The black numbers show previous geochronological
data on volcanic rocks from the eastern and central islands (Fraud et al., 1980; Chovelon, 1982; Johnson et al., 1998; Calvert et al., 2006; Hildenbrand et al., 2008a, 2012a; Sibrant et al.,
2014). The inset shows the location of the Azores archipelago in the Atlantic Ocean. Bathymetric GF: Gloria Fault (on the inset); Cor: Corvo; Flo: Flores; Fai: Faial; Pic: Pico; SJo: S. Jorge; Gra:
Graciosa; Ter: Terceira; SMi: S. Miguel; SMa: Santa Maria.
A.L.R. Sibrant et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 291 (2015) 4962
the east but is diffuse in the west (Fig. 1). Recent morpho-structural,
geodetic, geochemical and geochronological studies have shown that
the volcanic construction and large-scale catastrophic destruction of
the Graciosa, Terceira, S. Jorge, Faial, Pico and S. Miguel islands have resulted in the development of linear volcanic ridges elongated along two
main directions: N110 (mostly) and N130N150 (e.g., Hildenbrand
et al., 2008a, 2012a, 2012b, 2013a, 2013b; Costa et al., 2014; Sibrant
et al., 2014; Trippanera et al., 2014). Such characteristics have been
attributed to a signicant control of volcanic outputs by regional
lithospheric deformation along the current EU/NU plate boundary
(e.g., Loureno et al., 1998; Haase and Beier, 2003; Hildenbrand et al.,
2008a, 2012a, 2012b, 2013a, 2013b; Navarro et al., 2009; Quartau
et al., 2012; Marques et al., 2013a, 2014a; Costa et al., 2014;
Trippanera et al., 2014).
Santa Maria Island sits on the eastern edge of the Azores Plateau,
close to the junction between the EAFZ, the Gloria Fault and the TR.
It is located in an area without current seismicity, and therefore has
developed independently from the present EU/NU plate boundary. In
contrast to the other Azores islands, which have all been active during
the last 1.5 Myr, S. Maria has been extinct for the last few Myrs, and
thus may record a story that no other island in the Azores can tell.
2.2. Previous data on the Santa Maria Island
From early stratigraphic studies, two main volcanic systems, separated by a volcanosedimentary complex, have been rst distinguished
(Agostinho, 1937). Based on fossils, Zbyszewski and Ferreira (1960) further assigned a Vindobonian age (ca. 16.4 to 7.12 Ma) to the volcano
sedimentary complex. However, the evolution of Santa Maria remains
poorly constrained in time.
Later, Serralheiro et al. (1987) proposed a new volcanic stratigraphy,
in which Santa Maria is divided into six units (Fig. 2), instead of the previous three. Two of the new units are locally known as the Porto and
Cabrestantes formations. These units comprise red-altered lava ows,
which are intruded by numerous dikes, up to 5 m thick. These two
units have very minor representation (barely visible on the geological
map), and their relationships with the surrounding older volcanic
complex remain unclear. The third and youngest new unit (Feteiras
51
Fig. 2. Geological map of Santa Maria adapted from Serralheiro et al. (1987). The white circle indicates the location of the airport, the higher point of Pico Alto and the city of Anjos,
San Loureno, and Vila do Porto.
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Fig. 3. Shaded relief map of Santa Maria Island generated from a high-resolution DEM (10 m). Dikes measured in this study are shown in purple and red for the western and eastern parts of
the island, respectively and the black dashed lines indicates the previous reported measurements (and localized) by Zbyszewski and Ferreira (1960) on their geological map. The thick
dashed black lines show interpreted scarps, and dashed triangles show scoria cones. The thin dashed line indicates the location of the inferred faults reported by Madeira and Ribeiro
(1990). The thicker line indicates our fault measurements. Stereoplots show orientation of dikes for the western and the eastern parts of the island, from our measurements and previous
measurements (Madeira, 1986). The black squares indicate the location of Figs. 7, 8, 9 and A1.
1990). From these data, Madeira and Ribeiro (1990) infer a current
horizontal NS maximum compressive stress, and an EW least compressive stress in Santa Maria.
Numerous dikes have been observed on the island and reported on
geological maps (Zbyszewski and Ferreira, 1960; Serralheiro et al.,
1987). They strike N045 and N150 on average. Similar directions
have been also reported by Madeira (1986), but unfortunately the
location of the dikes is given, neither on a map, nor as geographic
coordinates. Moreover, the signicance of these dike trends and their
geodynamic implications regarding regional tectonics remain yet
enigmatic.
3. Methods and results
3.1. Geomorphological analysis, eldwork and sampling
Our strategy was devised to constrain, in time, the main complexes
of Santa Maria and their interrelationships. First, a morphological analysis of the island was performed on a DEM with a 10 m spatial resolution, in order to identify the main morpho-structural units and better
dene areas of particular importance for the subsequent eldwork
(Fig. 3). The DEM was produced from a digital topographic map of
Santa Maria Island (Portuguese Army Geographic Institute, IGeoE).
The full process of construction of the DEM is the same as the one
used and explained in Costa et al. (2014). Then, we went around the
island by boat to get a full picture of the main volcanic sequences and
their rst-order relationships, mostly major unconformities, faults and
dikes. Fieldwork was then carried out over the whole island, through
available road cuts, quarries, and accessible sea cliff exposures. We
especially took advantage of the high coastal cliffs to investigate and
sample the base and the top of the accessible volcanic successions. We
A.L.R. Sibrant et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 291 (2015) 4962
53
Fig. 4. (A) Slope map of Santa Maria Island. The black and white lines which indicate the location of the cross-section are shown in (B), (C) and (D). (B) NS cross-section across the Older
Shield Volcano. (C) NS cross-section across the Younger Shield Volcano. (D) WE cross-section across the two recognized volcanic complexes, which constitute Santa Maria Island.
Fig. 5. Stratigraphic relationships between the three main units of Santa Maria and the Facho complex.
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Fig. 6. (A) Preferred geological map of Santa Maria, simplied after Zbyszewski and Ferreira (1960) and Serralheiro et al. (1987). Circles show the location of our samples and our new KAr
ages. Note the distribution of volcanic and volcanosedimentary units and their dip. (B) EW cross-section summarizing our eld observations and interpretation. Vertical exaggeration = 20.
Fig. 7. Sea cliff along the SW tip of Santa Maria, close to Vila do Porto (see Fig. 3 for location). The picture shows lava ows of the Old Shield Volcano intruded by dikes. Note that the dikes
are sealed at the top by younger lava ows.
A.L.R. Sibrant et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 291 (2015) 4962
lava ows, and conglomerates. The lava ows gently dip to the
WSW (b10), similarly to the ows in the old volcanic units
exposed in the west (Figs. 4, 6). The eastern part of the island is
incised by 2 main deep canyons (Fig. 3), roughly elongated
N150 and N045. In the east, coastal cliffs cutting the Pico Alto
volcanic succession show a curved shape in plan view. Along
the SE coast of the island, the base of the sea cliff comprises alternating marine sediments (with internal cross-bedding) and
basaltic lava ows with well-preserved internal pillow structures
(Fig. 8). The sediments are mostly calcarenites and include numerous marine fossils such as bivalves and some invertebrates.
They are intercalated with lava ows and few hyaloclastites,
which altogether have been mapped as the Touril Complex in
earlier works (Fig. 2). The marine sediments are sometimes
lenticular and discontinuous, as they partly lled the irregular
topography constituted locally by pillow lava structures. Just
above the base of the sea cliff, a sub-horizontal thick sedimentary
layer especially covers in apparent unconformity two lava ows,
which have a local gentle dip toward the E despite the overall dip
of the succession toward the west (Fig. 8). Three hypotheses can
be considered regarding these basal ows. They may either
represent the remnants of the old volcanic units, or alternatively
belong to the Touril Complex, as reported on the geological map,
or ultimately belong to the younger volcanic units. As most
lava ows in Santa Maria are basaltic, petrographic arguments
are not discriminant to unambiguously conclude between the
three hypotheses. The sediments themselves are covered in
Fig. 8. Base of the sea cliff along the SE part of Santa Maria (see Fig. 3 for location). The
picture shows alternating sedimentary deposits (SD) and lava ows, including
pillow-lavas (PL). Red circles show the position of our SA12L and SA12M samples, from
lava ows below and above sedimentary deposits, respectively. Notice the local E dip of
the ows.
55
Fig. 9. Normal fault dipping to the east (right) cutting the eastern volcanic succession,
which we dated in this study to be between 4.32 Ma and 3.94 Ma (see Fig. 3 for location).
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A.L.R. Sibrant et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 291 (2015) 4962
cliff sections. Moreover, we could not observe the faults interpreted and
reported in Madeira and Ribeiro (1990), except the one close to the
airport. However, we newly recognized four main faults (Fig. 3). One
of them was identied from the sea, in the SE part of Santa Maria; it
shows an apparent major normal offset (Fig. 9). Unfortunately, the measurement is imprecise and without observation of striations due to the
inaccessibility of the outcrop. The locations of the faults are shown
in Fig. 3. Two of the faults observed in land are close to S. Loureno
(see Fig. 2 for location). The faults are oriented N140 and N150, with
a dip of ca. 80 toward the SW and subvertical, respectively. These faults
show striations close to dip slip, and a normal offset of 9 and 1.5 m,
respectively. Such kinematics is signicantly different from the dominant dextral strike-slip behavior proposed by Madeira and Ribeiro
(1990) for the N150 faults.
We also observed a major fault close to the airport, with a N045
trend and a minimum offset of 10 m. Striations could be measured
plunging 75 to the SW, which together with displaced markers indicate
a dominant normal component with minor dextral strike-slip component. We note that (seemingly) the same fault is reported in Madeira
and Ribeiro (1990) and marked by a dashed line, however with a
sinistral component of strike-slip.
We observed and measured about 30 dikes across the island
(Table 1). They are reported in Fig. 3, along with those mapped by
Zbyszewski and Ferreira (1960). Stereo-plots additionally combine our
dike measurements with the data from Madeira (1986). Although the
location of his measurements is not given, Madeira (1986) distinguished dikes from the western and eastern sectors of the island. We
followed the same distinction, and show them with distinct colors.
Two major populations of dikes are recognized, as schematically
represented on the simplied structural map shown in Fig. 3:
A ca. NESW (N045) trend is localized mainly in the western part of
Santa Maria, and much more on the southern than on the northern
part of the island. The dikes are truncated by a regular erosional
Table 1
New dike measurements realized in the present study and their location in UTM units.
UTM 26E
UTM N
Strike (N)
Dip ()
Thickness (m)
664644
664628
664633
664609
664593
664593
664594
664592
664628
664628
664964
662605
662605
666984
666984
666984
669010
669028
669028
669037
669038
669041
669048
669062
669084
669925
670243
670510
670519
670088
670092
670090
4090347
4090302
4090327
4090243
4090220
4090220
4090200
4090190
4090302
4090302
4090498
4092350
4092350
4091091
4091091
4091091
4091670
4091652
4091652
4091649
4091648
4091647
4091643
4091637
4091643
4094615
4094044
4096473
4096466
4097478
4097465
4097456
50
50
70
65
80
75
50
60
60
70
90
80
100
100
130
130
75
60
40
45
50
70
80
90
60
130
80
65
20
80
105
75
90
80SE
90
90
65S
90
90
90
90
90
90
90
90
90
90
90
90
83SE
85SE
90
83SE
80SE
90
90
90
80NE
85N
82SW
85W
85NW
50N
85S
3
4.5
0.5
4
0.25
3
3
2
0.5
0.5
1.5
1
1
2
1
1
1.5
0.5
1
0.3
1
0.8
2
3
2.5
0.7
1
0.5
1
0.5
0.3
2.5
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Table 2
New KAr determinations obtained with the unspiked CassignolGillot technique on
fresh-separated groundmass.
40Ar* (%) 40Ar* (1012at/g) Age (Ma) Unc. (Ma)
Sample
UTM 26 E
UTM N
K%
SA12B
664691
4090402
0.971
26.8%
33.0%
5.853
5.741
5.76
5.65
5.70
0.08
0.08
0.08
SA12E
664691
4090402
1.382
49.5%
43.9%
7.966
8.010
5.51
5.54
5.52
0.08
0.08
0.08
SA12G
662605
4092350
0.729
36.8%
57.8%
4.123
4.021
5.41
5.27
5.33
0.08
0.08
0.08
SA12L
672509
4088860
1.025
40.5%
40.7%
4.648
4.617
4.34
4.31
4.32
0.06
0.06
0.06
SA12M
672509
4088860
1.067
24.3%
28.5%
4.529
4.445
4.06
3.98
4.02
0.06
0.06
0.06
SA12N
676542
4088923
1.110
8.9%
18.4%
4.544
4.622
3.92
3.98
3.96
0.07
0.06
0.06
SA12P
673336
4094610
0.756
16.1%
38.8%
3.182
3.081
4.03
3.90
3.94
0.06
0.06
0.06
SA12Q
670441
4091421
0.693
35.2%
29.5%
2.609
2.615
3.60
3.61
3.60
0.05
0.05
0.05
SA12S
672714
4089409
0.610
14.8%
31.0%
2.308
2.279
3.62
3.57
3.59
0.06
0.05
0.05
SA12O
668132
4094528
0.803
41.1%
43.3%
2.950
2.960
3.51
3.52
3.52
0.05
0.05
0.05
SA12H
667044
4091159
0.466
13.3%
16.0%
1.376
1.392
2.82
2.86
2.84
0.05
0.04
0.04
For each sample, the mean age is obtained by weighing by the amount of radiogenic argon.
Uncertainties are quoted at the 1 level.
4. Discussion
4.1. Calibration of the island stratigraphy
Our data are consistent with our eld observations, mostly based on
major unconformities, and overall consistent with the main geological
units previously described by others, especially Zbyszewski and
Ferreira (1960) (Fig. 6). However, we here provide new important temporal constraints, which allow us to revise signicantly the age of the
main units. For the sake of simplicity, we will use stratigraphy-related
names, and recognize, from older to younger (Figs. 5, 6): (1) the Older
Shield Volcano (locally known as the Anjos Complex), which consists
of successions of thin lava ows of basalts and some intermediate
rocks, with a gentle dip to the W of 10 or less (like in a shield volcano).
From our data, it was active until at least 5.3 Ma. (2) The Intermediate
57
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From the gentle westward dip of lava ows in both Older and
Younger Shield Volcanoes, we infer that they were originally shield volcanoes, whose summits, eastern anks, and part of the western anks
do not exist anymore. The distribution and geometry of the three
main Santa Maria units show that only a part of them is presently preserved. The western ank of the Younger Shield Volcano, especially, is
nested within a topography cutting the eastern ank of the Old Shield
Volcano. This topography can be the result of (1) marine and/or stream
erosion, (2) pure tectonic displacements, or (3) lateral ank collapses:
(1) Erosion can be relatively efcient and destroy a signicant part of
oceanic islands over rather short geological periods, especially
under tropical climate (e.g., Hildenbrand et al., 2008b; Samper
et al., 2009; Germa et al., 2010, 2011; Lahitte et al., 2012;
Salvany et al., 2012; Ricci et al., 2014). However, regular stream
erosion generally produces the development of canyons and
valleys, but alone does not remove in an asymmetric way the
whole ank of a volcano and its summit.
(2) The existence of a major fault between the two main volcanoes
cannot be excluded, although not observed in the eld. Several
faults have been measured in this study, but the vertical offset
generally does not exceed a few meters or at most a few tens of
meters, which does not seem sufcient to account for the present
lateral contact between the two volcanoes, and for the gradual
displacement of the eastern ank of the Younger Shield Volcano.
Furthermore, the Intermediate Complex apparently lies on a
surface with a gentle dip to the East, rather than on a surface
with a steep geometry, such as a normal fault scarp.
(3) Therefore, the alternative is that the eastern ank of both
volcanoes has been removed by a large-scale catastrophic
event, in the form of a giant sector collapse as suggested by
Marques et al. (2013b). The rst sector collapse toward the east
(Fig. 10B) left a scar that comprises the east dipping unconformity on top of which the Intermediate VolcanoSedimentary
Complex was deposited. Unfortunately, the scar could not be
observed despite the boat trip around the island, but a steeper
scar could well be present under the sea level.
Fig. 10. Cartoon illustrating the evolution of Santa Maria. The blue line represents sea level.
distribution of later (ca. 3.56 Ma) parasitic cones and a part of the
dikes along an arc concave to the east in the easternmost part of Santa
Maria could have been triggered by the sector collapse through depressurization of the main feeding system (e.g., Manconi et al., 2009; Pinel
and Albino, 2013). Therefore, at least two major faults should exist:
one that affected the Older Shield Volcano and occurred before the
construction of the Younger Shield Volcano (i.e., between ca. 5.33 and
4.32 Ma, and probably soon before 4.3 Ma), and another that affected
the Younger Shield Volcano, and thus occurred after 3.94 Ma and before
ca. 3.6 Ma. The one most to the west could not be found yet, because the
fault has been most likely covered by the Younger Shield Volcano, and is
below sea level. In contrast, a fault displacing the Younger Shield
Volcano succession can be observed most to the east on the sea cliff
(Fig. 9). It may represent one of the faults branching under the sea on
A.L.R. Sibrant et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 291 (2015) 4962
the main fault of the second sector collapse. Two other faults have been
observed close to S. Loureno (see Fig. 2 for location). Oriented along a
N160 and N140 trend, they indicate a normal fault displacement
(Fig. 3). These orientations and kinematics are coherent with the direction of a probable ank collapse toward the E. Unloading of the volcanic
edice and associated decompression of the magma feeding system
were likely responsible for the emplacement of part of the dikes and
volcanic cones along the arcuate scar, concave to the east, between
3.60 0.05 and 3.52 0.05 Ma, which suggests that the second ank
collapse may have occurred between 3.94 and 3.6 Ma. From the new
ages here reported, the volcanic activity in Santa Maria lasted until at
least 2.84 0.04 Ma ago (Figs. 6, 10).
4.3. Lithospheric control of volcanism
The construction of Santa Maria at the SE edge of the Azores Plateau
has been interpreted by some authors as reecting the older activity of
the Azores plume (e.g., Beier et al., 2013). However, our new ages indicate that the sub-aerial volcanic activity in Santa Maria occurred at the
same location during a period of ca. 3 Myr. The half-spreading rate at the
MAR is presently ca. 11 mm/yr (DeMets et al., 2010), so relative plate
movement over an eventual stationary plume would have resulted in
a drift of the volcanism by ca. 33 km toward the west, which is the opposite of what we measured in Santa Maria: older volcanics in the west
(N ca. 5.3 Ma), and younger volcanics in the east (b ca. 4.3 Ma). On the
other hand, the absolute motion of both the Nubia and Eurasia plates toward the SW at a mean rate of 2 cm/yr (Gripp and Gordon, 2002), over a
plume xed in the absolute reference frame, would have resulted in a
migration of volcanism of ca. 70 km toward the NE. However, this magnitude of displacement is not observed in Santa Maria. Moreover, both
33 km and 70 km migrations are smaller than the lithospheric thickness
(Silveira et al., 2010), and might therefore be ltered by lithospheric
processes rather than by asthenospheric processes. Such effect of the
lithosphere structure on the melt extraction can be partly controlled
by the rate of extension, the internal kinematics of the thick lithosphere
(e.g., England, 1983; Perez-Gussinye et al., 2006), the rheology of the
lithosphere (e.g., Huismans and Beaumont, 2011; Martinod and Davy,
1992), the thickness ratio between the crust and the lithospheric mantle
(e.g., Hopper and Buck, 1996) and the existence of previous discontinuities and lithospheric heterogeneities (e.g., Petit and Deverchre, 2006).
This suggests that the magma upwelling under Santa Maria has been
persistently focused along the main lithospheric fractures, and therefore
that Santa Maria's evolution and dike emplacement has been greatly
inuenced by regional deformation.
Dikes are good indicators of the paleo-stress eld, and there are
several previously conducted studies on the reconstruction of stress
elds in volcanic regions using the distribution and geometry of intrusions (O'de, 1957; Muller and Pollard, 1977; Nakamura, 1977). The
local stress eld around a magma reservoir show radial dike conguration and is controlled by the depth, shape, and internal excess pressure
of the reservoir (Chadwick and Dieterich, 1995; Gudmundsson, 1998;
Roman and Jaupart, 2014). The dikes can also show a cone sheet or
ring circumferential geometry, which indicate ination or deation of
a magma chamber (Nakamura, 1977). The propagation pattern of the
intrusions in the vicinity of the reservoir reects the local stress eld
formed by the magma reservoir, while the structural development of
intrusions during volcanic activity records the tectonic evolution of
the magma system beneath or inside the volcano (Geshi et al., 2012).
Nevertheless, when the distribution of dikes in an individual volcano
is linear (or rectilinear) instead of radial, and hence despite the
geometry of the volcano, they can be considered as a marker of tectonic
stress and/or re-activation of inherited geological structures in the
regional stress eld (Nakamura, 1977; Tibaldi et al., 2014 and references
therein).
The distribution of the two dike swarms in the Older and Younger
Shield Volcanoes of Santa Maria is not radial to the volcanic edice. As
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