Kronfli Rosanna K 201406 MASc Thesis PDF

A Novel Design for Fully Printed Flexible AC-Driven
Powder Electroluminescent Devices on Paper
by
Rosanna Kronfli
A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements

for the degree of Masters of Applied Science
Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry
University of Toronto
Copyright by Rosanna Kronfli 2014
A Novel Design for Fully Printed Flexible AC-Driven Powder

Electroluminescent Devices on Paper
Rosanna Kronfli
Masters of Applied
Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry
University of Toronto
2014
Abstract
ACPEL devices were fabricated onto various paper substrates. The dielectric and phosphor
layers were mask printed, a PEDOT:PSS/SWCNT ink was inkjet-printed for the cathode and a
translucent conductor was applied with a paintbrush for the anode resulting in a maximum
luminance of 8.05 cd/m2 at 300 VAC and 60 Hz. It was found that the conductivity of the
PEDOT:PSS/SWCNT ink on the various paper types was affected by the coating and paper
thickness. Novel ACPEL devices were also fabricated by incorporating paper as the dielectric
layer of the device. The maximum luminance achieved was 7.24 cd/m2 at 300 VAC and 60 Hz. It
is shown that the dielectric constant of the paper and hence the performance of the resulting EL
device may be enhanced by filling the sheet with BaTiO3 and by the surface treatment of the
sheet.
ii
Acknowledgments
I would like to thank my supervisor, Professor Ramin Farnood for his guidance and support
during my project.
Thank you to Peter Angelo for all the training, Jeffrey Castrucci for his help with the luminance
measurements and Alexandra Tavasoli for the work on the filled paper and the SEM.
My time at UofT has been both challenging and rewarding. I would like to thank my labmates
for always lending an ear and the Chem Eng Community for making Wallberg feel like home.
Most importantly, thank you to my parents and sister for their constant and endless love.
iii
Table of Contents
Acknowledgments.......................................................................................................................... iii
Table of Contents ........................................................................................................................... iv
Nomenclature ............................................................................................................................... viii
List of Tables .................................................................................................................................. x
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................ xi
Chapter 1 ......................................................................................................................................... 1
1
Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 1
1.1
Project motivation and significance ................................................................................. 1
1.2
Hypothesis and objectives ................................................................................................ 3
Chapter 2 ......................................................................................................................................... 4
2
Literature review ..................................................................................................................... 4

2.1
Background on electroluminescence ................................................................................ 4
2.2
ACPEL vs. ACTEL .......................................................................................................... 4
2.2.1
Device structures ....................................................................................................... 4
2.2.2
Comparing performance ........................................................................................... 5
2.3
ACPEL light emission mechanism .................................................................................. 5
2.4
ACPEL device operation and features ............................................................................. 6
iv
2.5
Materials in ACPEL devices ............................................................................................ 8
2.5.1
ZnS-based phosphors ................................................................................................ 8
2.5.2
Dielectric materials ................................................................................................... 9
2.5.3
Electrode materials.................................................................................................. 10
2.5.4
Substrates ................................................................................................................ 10
2.6
ACPEL developments .................................................................................................... 11
2.7
Solution deposition techniques....................................................................................... 11
2.8
Commercial products ..................................................................................................... 13
Chapter 3 ....................................................................................................................................... 14
3
ACPEL devices on paper ...................................................................................................... 14

3.1
Experimental methods .................................................................................................... 14
3.1.1
Device preparation .................................................................................................. 14
3.1.2
Conductivity of PEDOT:PSS/SWCNT ink ............................................................ 16
3.1.3
Device characterization ........................................................................................... 17
3.2
Results ............................................................................................................................ 18
3.2.1
Substrate effects on conductivity ............................................................................ 18
3.2.2
Substrate effects on luminance ............................................................................... 20
3.3
Conclusions .................................................................................................................... 22
Chapter 4 ....................................................................................................................................... 23
Novel design for ACPEL devices on paper .......................................................................... 23

4.1
4.1.1
4.2
Results ............................................................................................................................ 24
4.2.1
4.3
Device preparation and characterization ................................................................. 24
Effect of structure on luminance ............................................................................. 24
Conclusions .................................................................................................................... 28
Chapter 5 ....................................................................................................................................... 29
5
Novel design for ACPEL devices on BaTiO3-filled paper ................................................... 29

5.1
5.1.1
Substrate preparation .............................................................................................. 29
5.1.2
Substrate characterization ....................................................................................... 31
5.1.3
Conductivity of PEDOT:PSS/SWCNT ink ............................................................ 31
5.1.4
Device preparation .................................................................................................. 32
5.1.5
5.2
Results ............................................................................................................................ 32
5.2.1
Substrate characterization ....................................................................................... 32
5.2.2
Effect of substrate on conductivity ......................................................................... 38
5.2.3
5.3
Conclusions .................................................................................................................... 41
vi
Chapter 6 ....................................................................................................................................... 42
6
Summary ............................................................................................................................... 42
6.1
Future work .................................................................................................................... 43
References ............................................................................................................................. 44
Appendices ............................................................................................................................ 52
8.1
Appendix A: Composite structure .................................................................................. 52
8.2
Appendix B: BaTiO3 vs. dielectric constant .................................................................. 56
8.3
Appendix C: Screen printed devices .............................................................................. 57
8.4
Appendix D: SEM cross-sections of A devices ............................................................. 59
8.5
Appendix E: SEM cross-sections of B, C, D devices .................................................... 61
8.6
Appendix F: SEM cross-sections of filter paper devices ............................................... 66
vii
Nomenclature
AC
Alternating current
ACPEL
Alternating current driven powder electroluminescent
ACTEL
Alternating current driven thin-film electroluminescent
CIE
International Commission on Illumination
DC
Direct current
EDX
Energy dispersive spectrometry
EL
Electroluminescence
LEC
Light-emitting capacitor
LED
Light-emitting diode
L-V
Characteristic luminance-voltage
Mw
Molecular weight
NC
Nanocrystal
PL
Photoluminescence
SEM
Scanning electron microscopy
TAPPI
Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry
VAC
Voltage in alternating current
Permittivity
Vacuum permittivity
Permittivity of dielectric
Permittivity of phosphor
Dielectric constant
Length
Electrical resistivity
Conductivity
Sample area
Luminance equation constant
Capacitance
viii
Thickness between electrodes
dD
Thickness of dielectric layer
dP
Thickness of phosphor layer
Ep
Applied electric field
L0
Luminance equation constant
L30
Luminance at 30 V above Vth
Resistance
Voltage
Vth
Threshold voltage
Vtot
Total applied voltage
ix
List of Tables
Table 1: Substrate characteristics.................................................................................................. 14
Table 2: PEDOT:PSS/SWCNT based ink formulations [41] ....................................................... 15
Table 3: Formulation for dielectric and phosphor resins .............................................................. 16
Table 4: A Devices off and on (~190 VAC) ................................................................................. 21
Table 5: Summary of device A performance ............................................................................. 22
Table 6: Devices B, C, and D off and on (~190 VAC) ................................................................. 24
Table 7: Summary of devices B, C, and D performance .............................................................. 28
Table 8: Dip-coating formulation ................................................................................................. 29
Table 9: Ratio of BaTiO3 nanopowder to micron-sized powder .................................................. 30
Table 10: Filtration solution composition ..................................................................................... 30
Table 11: Coating composition ..................................................................................................... 31
Table 12: Devices off and on (~190 VAC) ................................................................................... 39
Table 13: Summary of filled paper device performance .............................................................. 41
List of Figures
Figure 1: ACPEL schematic cross-section (a) bottom-emission structure, (b) top-emission
structure........................................................................................................................................... 1
Figure 2: AC-driven EL device structure (a) ACPEL, (b) ACTEL ................................................ 5
Figure 3: Device structure A ......................................................................................................... 14
Figure 4: Conductor with uniform cross-sectional area A ............................................................ 17
Figure 5: SEM micrographs of paper surfaces at x500. (a) Xerox Supergloss; (b) Multicoat; (c)
34 lb Catalyst Electracote Gloss; (d) Xerox Copy paper; (e) 24.6 Catalyst TD Directory; (f)
18.0 Catalyst TD Directory ....................................................................................................... 18
Figure 6: Layer thickness of PEDOT:PSS/SWCNT inkjet-printed onto substrates ..................... 19
Figure 7: Resistance of PEDOT:PSS/SWCNT inkjet-printed onto substrates ............................. 19
Figure 8: Conductivity of PEDOT:PSS/SWCNT inkjet-printed onto substrates ......................... 20
Figure 9: Luminance of device A on various substrates. Note Multicoat has 2 replicates ........... 22
Figure 10: Device structure B ....................................................................................................... 23
Figure 11: Device structure C ....................................................................................................... 23
Figure 12: Device structure D ....................................................................................................... 24
Figure 13: Luminance of B devices on various substrates (note Multicoat B has 2 replicates) ... 26
Figure 14: Luminance of C devices on various substrates ........................................................... 27
Figure 15: Luminance of D devices .............................................................................................. 27
Figure 16: Device structure D1 ..................................................................................................... 32
xi
Figure 17: Device structure D2 ..................................................................................................... 32

Figure 18: Mass increase of filled paper samples. Dip coated samples at various dipping times;
and filtration samples with BaTiO3 at various % of nanopowder, the balance being micron-sized
powder and with and without sonication for 1 hour. .................................................................... 33
Figure 19: Total ash content of filled paper samples. Dip coated samples at various dipping
times; and filtration samples with BaTiO3 at various % of nanopowder, the balance being
micron-sized powder and with and without sonication for 1 hour. .............................................. 33
Figure 20: Thickness after calendaring. Dip coated samples at various dipping times; and
filtration samples with BaTiO3 at various % of nanopowder, the balance being BaTiO3 micronsized powder and with and without sonication for 1 hour. ........................................................... 34
Figure 21: SEM micrograph of Ahlstrom Grade 992 Filter paper before filling, x100 ................ 34
Figure 22: Filtration, unsonicated solution, 80% BaTiO3 nanopowder, at x100 .......................... 35
Figure 23: Filtration, sonicated solution, 80% BaTiO3 nanopowder, at x100 .............................. 35
Figure 24: Filtration, sonicated solution, 20% BaTiO3 nanopowder, at x100 .............................. 35
Figure 25: Back, filtration, sonicated, 80% BaTiO3 nanopowder at x100 ................................... 36
Figure 26: Filtration, sonicated solution, 20% BaTiO3 nanopowder, coated at x100 .................. 36
Figure 27: Filtration, sonication solution, 80% BaTiO3 nanopowder, coated at x100 ................. 36
Figure 28: Dielectric constant of filled paper samples. Dip coated samples at various dipping
micron-sized powder and with and without sonication for 1 hour. .............................................. 37
Figure 29: Thickness and dielectric constant for filtration method samples with and without
coating at various % of nanopowder, the balance being micron-sized powder ............................ 37
xii
Figure 30: Thickness and conductivity of 10 printed layers of PEDOT:PSS/SWCNT ink.......... 38

Figure 31: Luminance of coated 20% BaTiO3 nanopowder filter paper device. Note that the first
number refers to the structure type while the second refers to the sample replicate. ................... 40
Figure 32: Luminance of coated 80% BaTiO3 nanopowder filter paper device. Note that the first
number refers to the structure type while the second refers to the sample replicate. ................... 40
Figure 33: Composite structure ..................................................................................................... 52
Figure 34: Composite thickness and dielectric constant ............................................................... 52
Figure 35: 50% phosphor composite device luminance ............................................................... 53
Figure 36: 50% phosphor composite device patterned by inkjet printing cathode ....................... 53
Figure 37: SEM cross section of 50% phosphor composite device on Xerox Supergloss, x130 . 54
Figure 38: SEM cross section of 75% phosphor composite device on Xerox Supergloss, x100 . 54
Figure 39: SEM cross section of 25% phosphor composite device on Xerox Supergloss, x100
(note, composite layer not adhered to paper) ................................................................................ 55
Figure 40: Effect of polydispersion on dielectric constant ........................................................... 56
Figure 41: Luminance of Supergloss A screen printed devices. Note 4 replicates are reported. . 57
Figure 42: SEM cross section of Supergloss A, x100 (screen printed) ........................................ 58
Figure 43: SEM cross section of Xerox Supergloss A, x130 ....................................................... 59
Figure 44: SEM cross section of Multicoat A, x100 .................................................................... 59
Figure 45: SEM cross section of Catalyst Electracote A, x130 .................................................... 60
Figure 46: SEM cross section of Xerox Copy paper A, x100 ...................................................... 60
xiii
Figure 47: SEM cross section of 18.0 Catalyst Directory A, x100 ............................................... 60
Figure 48: SEM cross section of Xerox Supergloss D, x100 ....................................................... 61
Figure 49: SEM cross section of Multicoat B, x100 ..................................................................... 61
Figure 50: SEM cross section of Multicoat C, x100 ..................................................................... 62
Figure 51: SEM cross section of Multicoat D, x140 .................................................................... 62
Figure 52: SEM cross section of Catalyst Electracote B, x120 .................................................... 62
Figure 53: SEM cross section of Catalyst Electracote D, x100 .................................................... 63
Figure 54: SEM cross section of Xerox Copy paper C, x100 ....................................................... 63
Figure 55: SEM cross section of Xerox Copy paper D, x100 ...................................................... 63
Figure 56: SEM cross section of 24.6 Catalyst Directory C, x100 ............................................... 64
Figure 57: SEM cross section of 24.6 Catalyst Directory D, x100............................................... 64
Figure 58: SEM cross section of 18.0 Catalyst Directory B, x100 ............................................... 64
Figure 59: SEM cross section of 18.0 Catalyst Directory C, x100 ............................................... 65
Figure 60: SEM cross section of 18.0 Catalyst Directory D, x200............................................... 65
Figure 61: SEM cross section of 20% BaTiO3 nanopowder, coated, structure D1, x200 ............ 66
Figure 62: SEM cross section 20% BaTiO3 nanopowder, coated, structure D2, x100................. 66
Figure 63: SEM cross section of 80% BaTiO3 nanopowder, coated, structure D1, x100 ............ 67
xiv
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Project motivation and significance

In the information age, electronic displays and lighting play an important role. There are many
applications for these devices which results in a large market for their use. Therefore, the
continued research for efficient, low power, low cost, long life, high luminance devices is
inevitable and vital for consumers and the industry [1].
In 1936, zinc sulfide (ZnS) electroluminescence was discovered by Destriau [1]. From this
discovery, AC-driven powder electroluminescent (ACPEL) devices were developed. ACPEL
devices are typically operated between 50 and 1000 Hz under a sine wave [2]. APCEL device
structure consists of a phosphor and dielectric layer sandwiched between two electrodes. Most
commonly, the bottom-emission structure (Figure 1a), consists of a transparent substrate (glass
or polymer) sputtered with indium tin oxide (ITO) [1]. Then a phosphor layer is solution
processed. The phosphor layer usually consists of phosphor particles (20-25 m [3]) dispersed in
an organic binder with a permittivity () typically between 8 to 15 at 1 kHz, such as
polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) with = 8 [4]. The dielectric layer consists of a large dielectric
constant material such as cyanoethyl cellulose or glass [1]. Alternatively, a high permittivity
ceramic can either be dispersed as a powder in an organic binder or sputtered as a thin-film. The
cathode, usually aluminium or silver [1], is typically also sputtered. To protect the device, it is
occasionally encapsulated in a resin [4].
(a)
(b)
Figure 1: ACPEL schematic cross-section (a) bottom-emission structure, (b) top-emission

structure
The top-emission structure (Figure 1b) uses the same processes, except starting with the cathode
being deposited onto the substrate. This construct allows the use of opaque substrates, which
opens up the opportunity for paper-based ACPEL devices. It was expected that top-emission
devices would outperform bottom-emission devices because of the lower optical loss and lower
average thickness due to the difference in deposition sequences [5]. It was found that the topemission device did in fact have a higher luminance of 210 cd/m2, as opposed to the bottomemission device which has a of 150 cd/m2, at 150 VAC, 400 Hz [5]. However, these two devices
were not exactly analogous because the bottom-emission device was deposited onto glass
whereas the top-emission device was deposited on paper by passivating the surface with spin-onglass (SOG). In [6], (SOG) again was used to eliminate the porosity of the paper, but retain
flexibility. Screen printing was used to deposit the dielectric and phosphor layers of an ACPEL
device on the paper. The cathode and anode (aluminium and ITO) were deposited using DC
sputtering. The maximum luminance achieved was 210 cd/m2 at 150 VAC and 400 Hz. In [7],
inkjet printing and Meyer rod coating have been used in a fully solution processed ACPEL
device onto various paper substrates resulting in a luminance of 40 cd/m2 at 200 VAC and 60
Hz.
Paper is a low cost biodegradable and flexible porous material that is widely used in roll-to-roll
printing [8]. Paper can be customized to achieve the desirable performance by the addition of
fillers and other additives during the paper-making stage or by surface treatment (e.g. coating) in
the post-formed stage [9]. Conversely, paper can only be used in low temperature conditions,
which limits its use in conjunction with high sintering materials. Furthermore, paper is a porous
substrate, so its interaction with other materials that are deposited on it needs to be taken into
consideration. Also, uncoated paper has a rough surface, but this can be circumvented by coating
the surface of paper typically with a blend of pigments and polymeric binders [9]. Lastly,
although paper is flexible and resilient to mechanical shock, it is also adsorptive and susceptible
to tearing, and wrinkling [10]. Finally, paper has been used as a substrate or mechanical
separation in paper batteries [11] or capacitors [12] and as a functional element in transistors and
batteries [8].
1.2 Hypothesis and objectives

It is our hypothesis that:
1. Paper itself can act as an effective dielectric material in ACPEL devices.
2. Device performance can be improved by reducing ink penetration into paper.
The objectives are to:
Solution deposit functional ACPEL devices on paper

Increase the dielectric constant of paper
Characterize the devices in terms of luminance, dielectric constant and layer thickness
Chapter 2
Literature review
2.1 Background on electroluminescence

Electroluminescence (EL) describes the emission of light upon the application of an electric field
[1]. Electroluminescence can be classified as either charge injection EL or high-field EL (or
true electroluminescence [4]). Charge injection electroluminescence explains the mechanism
for light-emitting diodes (LEDs) where light emission occurs upon the application of a low
electric field to a p-n junction in a semiconductor causing radiative recombination of electron
holes and electrons. The colour of the light emitted is dependent on the bandgap of the
semiconductor. High-field electroluminescence in EL devices instead involves a high electric
field being applied to a phosphor material to cause radiative recombination of holes and
electrons. Phosphors have crystalline structures of the host material, which is doped with one or
more metals or halogens (also called activating agents or luminescent centres [1]) [13]. The
choice of dopant(s) and concentration(s) is what controls the characteristic wavelength of the
colour emission. For example ZnS:Cu,Cl emits blue (~460 nm) or green (~520 nm) depending
on the amount of chlorine [1]. These devices can be driven by AC or DC current. DC driven
devices will not be covered. Furthermore, AC-driven EL devices can be constructed as AC thinfilms electroluminescent (ACTEL) devices or AC powder electroluminescent (ACPEL) devices.
These devices are active displays.
2.2 ACPEL vs. ACTEL

2.2.1 Device structures
In an ACTEL device, the phosphor film is sandwiched between two dielectric films to protect
against dielectric breakdown, whereas in ACPEL devices there is only one dielectric layer
(Figure 2). Although both devices are classified as high-field, ACTEL device electric fields
tend to be on the order of 106 V/cm, whereas ACPEL device electric fields tend to be on the
order of 104 V/cm. Therefore, any imperfections in the phosphor film would result in a short-
circuit in the device and catastrophic breakdown would occur. Because of this construction, EL
devices are sometimes referred to as light-emitting capacitors (LECs).
a) ACPEL
b) ACTEL
Figure 2: AC-driven EL device structure (a) ACPEL, (b) ACTEL
2.2.2 Comparing performance

ACTEL and ACPEL devices exhibit a highly non-linear luminance-voltage (L-V) characteristic.
In both cases, below the threshold voltage Vth little light is emitted (< 1 cd/m2). Above Vth,
luminance increases sharply with increasing voltage until saturation. Devices are generally
operated at 30 V above Vth (L30). ACTEL devices tend to have a higher luminance and have a
higher turn-on voltage than ACPEL devices. Furthermore, ACTEL devices operate at higher
voltages compared to APTEL devices at the same frequency [1]. Although ACTEL devices are
generally brighter, they are processed in the solid state, which is more energy intensive than
solution processed ACPEL devices. Solution processing methods that are of particular interest
include printing. Printing, unlike conventional etching methods for patterning, reduces material
waste, and is high throughput. Although various types of electrical components are printed [14],
the printed electronics industry is still at the very early stages of its development.
2.3 ACPEL light emission mechanism

The light emission mechanism for ACPEL devices is not widely agreed upon. In 1963, Fischer
proposed ( [15], [16]) that in a ZnS:Cu phosphor particle, the hexagonal structure of the ZnS
phosphor during sintering is transformed to the cubic structure during cooling. In this process,
copper precipitates on the defects in the ZnS particles causing internal CuxS conducting needles.
As a result, hetero-junctions are formed between CuxS precipitates and the ZnS host that
concentrate the electric field tunnelling holes and electrons. When the electric field is reversed,
5
the electrons and holes recombine causing EL emission. Therefore, upon application of electric
field above a threshold value, pairs of small bright points form. When the electric field is
increased, these bright points extend to each other to form comet-shaped emissive regions.
In 2007, Grzeskowiak et al. [17], observed small 1-2 m aligned bright points in ZnS:Cu
particles near the surface. With increasing voltage, the number of bright points increased and the
EL emission was observed on the surface of the particle adjacent to the positive polarity of the
applied field. This means that the electrons accelerate to the surface and radiatively recombine
upon reversal of the electric field at Cu+ sites. Therefore, the near-surface EL emission does not
support Fischers model.
2.4 ACPEL device operation and features

Although ACPEL devices operate in excess of 150 VAC, the current drawn typically is less than
1 mA/cm2 (at < 1 kHz). Therefore ACPEL devices are considered low power devices [18]. It is
understood that changes in operating frequency affects emission wavelength and emission
intensity, whereas changes in operating voltage affects emission intensity, only [19].
Furthermore, increasing frequency results in a proportional increase in luminance and a
proportional decrease in lifetime. Therefore, luminance and lifetime are trade-off characteristics
[1]. The following equation shows the relationship between luminance, L, and applied voltage,
V, where L0 and b are constants determined by the material:
Equation 1
Below the threshold voltage, ACPEL devices can be approximated as two capacitors in series
[20] where, ED is the electric field applied in the dielectric layer; EP is the electric field applied in
the phosphor layer; D is permittivity of the dielectric; and P is the permittivity of the phosphor,
Equation 2
The total applied voltage (Vtot) is divided between each layer [20], where dD is the thickness of
the dielectric layer; and dP is the thickness of the phosphor layer,
Equation 3
By rearranging the above equations, the efficiency of the device can be described as [20],
Equation 4
Therefore, to maximize the applied electric field, the thickness of the dielectric layer must be
minimized and the permittivity maximized.
Generally speaking, ACPEL devices are robust, low cost, and can be operated over a wide
temperature and altitude range [21]. Furthermore, they can be fabricated in atmospheric
environmental conditions due to their relative insensitivity to oxygen and humidity [14]. Doped
ZnS is the most common phosphor used in these devices and phosphors can be mixed to tune
colour emission [21].
Since, ACPEL devices are low luminance devices, various improvements have been attempted in
order to increase their luminance. It was found that the addition of 0.1% TiO2 to the phosphor
layer increased the luminance from approximately 325 to 375 cd/m2 at 50 VAC and 26 kHz. It
was hypothesized that TiO2 acts as an oxidizing agent and therefore provides electrons to the
phosphor layer [22]. However, TiO2 is a well-known pigment used for its brightness and high
refractive index. Therefore, the observed increase in luminance could be partly due to reflection
of light by TiO2 particles. Carbon nanotubes can also improve the performance of ACPELs. The
addition of 1% single wall carbon nanotubes (SWCNT) to the phosphor layer has been reported
to increase the luminance from 0 to 35 cd/m2 at 300 VAC and 10 kHz. It was hypothesized that
SWCNT enhanced the local electric field and allowed electron injection to the phosphor particles
[23]. Furthermore, in order to increase the electron injection into the device, SWCNTs have been
added to the dielectric layer. Adding 1.5% SWCNT to the dielectric layer increased the
luminance from approximately 350 to 400 cd/m2 at 1 kHz [24].
2.5 Materials in ACPEL devices

2.5.1 ZnS-based phosphors
ZnS is a semiconductor material with a bulk bandgap of 3.58 eV [25]. Phosphor materials are
usually encapsulated in order to prevent decomposition from the application of an electric field
in the presence of moisture [21].
Phosphors with a characteristic emission peaks are usually mixed in order to achieve a white
emitting device. In [26], a single synthesis involving a two-step firing and subsequent milling
process produced 20 m white-emitting ZnS:Mn, Cu, Cl phosphors. An ACPEL device was
screen printed and tested. Although the emission spectra were collected at increasing
concentrations of Cu and Mn ions, voltage and frequency, CIE coordinates were not reported.
A novel precipitation and subsequent firing process was developed in order to produce ZnS:Cu,
ZnS:Cu, Al, and ZnS:Cu, Al, Au phosphors [27]. This process results in phosphors with
improved luminescent properties than commercial materials.
2.5.1.1 Doped ZnS nanoparticles

Quantum dots are inorganic semiconductor nanocrystals (NCs) with a diameter less than 10 nm
which is less than the diameter of a Bohr exciton. Quantum confinement effects result from
spatial confinement of electrons and holes to the dimensions of the material [28].
ZnS quantum dots doped with Cu2+ and Mn2+ were synthesized by chemical precipitation and
inkjet-printed onto photographic quality inkjet paper, photocopy paper, cotton fabric,
polyethylene terephthalate (PET), ITO-coated PET, silicon wafer, and wool. The particle
diameter was 40-80 nm. It was found that photoluminescence (PL) was only preserved when
printing on photo-quality inkjet paper and cotton fabric because the nanoparticles did not absorb
into the substrate [29].
ZnS:Mn NCs have been reported to exhibit high PL efficiencies when smaller than 5 nm, which
makes them suitable for EL devices. A single layer DC-driven EL device using these NCs was
constructed in [30]. The maximum luminance from the device was reported 0.45 cd/m2 at 42 V.
Above 42 V, dielectric breakdown occurred resulting in decreased luminance and current

density.
In [31], nearly monodisperse ZnS:Mn NCs were synthesized in an aqueous co-precipitation
method, characterized, dispersed into an organic solvent, and fabricated into an AC driven EL
device. The size of the NCs was controlled by varying the concentration of Zn2+. The NCs were
estimated to have a diameter of 3-4 nm. This phosphor material was subsequently incorporated
in a ACPEL device. The device was fabricated by depositing ZnO:Al, as a transparent electrode
and Si3N4, as the insulating layer using radio-frequency magnetron sputtering onto glass. The
NCs were incorporated into an organic resin with a solvent to screen print the layer. Finally,
thermal evaporation was used for the Al electrode. The resulting device had a luminance of
approximately 1 cd/m2 at 160 VAC and 5 kHz
2.5.2 Dielectric materials

As mentioned previously, the dielectric layer can either be solution or solid-state processed. SOG
materials and tetraethylorthosilicate (TEOS) were deposited using spin-coating in a double
dielectric ACPEL device [32]. Although this is not the conventional structure for ACPEL
devices, it was found the resulting luminance was 48.9 and 74.5 cd/m2, respectively at 150 VAC
and 400 Hz.
In order to increase the dielectric constant of the dielectric layer, high dielectric ceramics can be
incorporated into the organic binder. Commonly used ceramics include barium titanate (BaTiO3)
( [5], [7], [6]) and silicone dioxide (SiO2) ( [22], [23]). It has been found that nanopowder
BaTiO3 increased the performance of ACPEL devices as opposed to micron-sized powder likely
because of the increased packing density. Dielectric constant increased from 55 for 2 m
particles to 99 for 300 nm particles. Consequently, the luminance of the device fabricated from
the above materials increased from 150 to 182 cd/m2 at 150 VAC and 400 Hz [33]. Another
advantage of using nanoparticle ceramics is the ability to employ inkjet printing as a solution
deposition method ( [34], [35], [36]).
2.5.3 Electrode materials

Conventionally, the electrodes are deposited via sputtering with aluminium, silver, or ITO [1].
However these materials require high sintering temperatures (>200C) [37] which is not practical
for some substrates such as paper. Furthermore, although ITO is favourable because of its
conductivity and transparency, it has a brittle nature [38] and has limited processability which
does not make it a suitable electrode for flexible electronics.
Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):poly(styrene sulfonate) (or PEDOT:PSS) can also be used as
both a transparent ( [39], [7]) and back electrode [7]. Although it has a low conductivity
compared to metals, the conductivity can be enhanced with the addition of SWCNTs and it can
be easily dispersed in aqueous inks for inkjet printing ( [40], [41]). Furthermore, it can be
integrated in flexible electronics.
Another common electrode material is silver and silver nanoparticles. Silver nanoparticles have
been inkjet-printed onto a flexible opaque substrate to create a back electrode for composite
ACPEL devices [42]. Due to the high conductivity of silver, the resulting device had a relatively
high luminance value of 250 cd/m2 Furthermore, line spacing in the inkjet printing process was
investigated as a means to create half-tone, or grey scale, images [14].
2.5.4 Substrates
As mentioned above, common transparent substrates are ITO-coated glass and polymers. Some
common polymers include PET [43] and polyethylene naphthalate [44]. An ACPEL device was
printed onto a PET open-mesh fabric and PEDOT:PSS was inkjet-printed as the transparent
electrode. The resulting device had a luminance of 44 cd/m2 at 400 VAC and 400 Hz which is
lower than the luminance of an analogous device using ITO-glass (96 cd/m2) due to the lower
transmittance (23% vs. 80 % at 550 nm) and higher electrical resistance of PEDOT:PSS
compared to ITO (approx. 550 /sq vs. 15 /sq) [39]. In [45], paper and textiles were used as a
substrate for screen-printed ACPEL devices. Although luminance was not reported, the devices
were functional at 1000 VAC and 1 kHz.
10
2.6 ACPEL developments

A simplified approach to ACPEL devices is to combine the phosphor and dielectric layers into a
composite layer. This composite layer consists of an organic binder, phosphor powder, and
dielectric powder. This composite is sandwiched between two electrodes. The advantages being
that the fabrication steps and costs are reduced. In [46], a rhodamine dye was incorporated into
the composite layer. The blue-green emitting ZnS:Cu phosphor was used to excite red-orange
emitting rhodamine dye resulting in a luminance of 200 cd/m2 at 100 VAC and 400 Hz with this
architecture. The combination of the blue-green and red-orange emissions resulted in a white
emission with CIE coordinates of (0.336, 0.380).
A composite ACPEL device, having a BaTiO3, ZnS-based phosphor and transparent conductive
oxide (In2O3 or SnO2) was compared to a conventional a two-layered ACPEL device, having a
BaTiO3 dielectric and a ZnS phosphor/transparent conductive oxide layer. It was found that the
addition of 1% In2O3 increased the EL intensity by approximately 1.2 times in the composite
device at 220 VAC and 60 Hz, but no additional benefits were observed in the 2-layer device.
The 2-layer device had an EL intensity of approximately 1.4 times that of the composite device
at 220 VAC and 60 Hz [47].
A tandem structure containing two alternating dielectric and phosphor layers was also
investigated. Three different phosphor materials were studied, including phosphor, nanophosphor, and nano-phosphor/SWCNT. The resulting ACPEL devices had a luminance of 440,
3370 and 4358 cd/m2, respectively at 230 VAC and 1 kHz [48].
2.7 Solution deposition techniques

Screen printing is a method whereby a mesh is used to meter and distribute the coating material.
This is typically done by using a squeegee to spread the ink over the screen [49], while the
patterned area is defined by a mask. Screen printing is a common method for ACPEL device
deposition ( [26], [6], [45], [47]).
11
In lithography, an intermediate roller called an impression cylinder is used to transfer the ink
from a printing plate cylinder to the substrate. Lithography is a high speed and low-cost per sheet
printing process. Off-set lithography was used to deposit silver nanoparticles in an interdigitated
electrode structure ( [50], [51]). Lithographic printing was also used for the phosphor layer and
in an ACPEL device, and the resulting construct had a luminance of 10 cd/m2 at 270 VAC and
400 Hz [52].
Pad printing is an alternative method for patterning on flat and curved surfaces. In pad printing,
an engraved plate is coated with ink, a silicon pad contacts the plate and transfers the pattern.
The pad then makes contact with the substrate to transfer the pattern. An ACPEL device was
printed onto a ceramic dish with 80 mm radius of curvature [44]. The fabricated ACPEL device
had a luminance of 180 cd/m2 at 200 VAC and 1 kHz.
Inkjet printing is a versatile patterning tool for dispersed inorganic particles ( [53], [54], [55],
[56],) dissolved or dispersed polymers, metal nanoparticles and dissolved organics [57]. Inkjet
printing is considered as a drop-on-demand (DoD) process that allows for the accurate
patternation of controlled amounts (in the order of picolitres) of ink on the substrate. Due to its
flexibility and high throughput nature, inkjet printing promises to be a cost effective technology
for printed electronics.
Doctor blading is a common coating technique where a blade is used to spread a thin layer of
coating material on a substrate. In [58], an ACPEL device was deposited using doctor blading
and operated at 250 VAC and 2 kHz. However, the resulted luminance was not reported by the
authors.
Spin coating is a widely used technique that relies on centrifugal force to spread a coating
material into a thin film [49]. Spin coating has been reported for the fabrication of a composite
ACPEL device with a maximum luminance of 111 cd/m2 at 150 VAC and 400 Hz [43].
12
2.8 Commercial products

Several companies in the past and present have worked on the commercialization of ACPEL and
ACTEL devices. They include Elumin8 Systems and Luminous Media [46], iFire Technology
Corp [59], CeeLite Technologies, E-Lite Technologies, Dante Technologies, LimeLite
Technologies and Planar Systems.
Despite significant progress in recent years, to date there is no paper based fully printed flexible
ACPEL device commercially available in the market. Such a device could find wide applications
in smart packaging, sensors, smart textiles, etc. In this thesis, we present novel fully printed
flexible ACPEL designs and examine their performance.
13
Chapter 3
ACPEL devices on paper
3.1 Experimental methods

3.1.1 Device preparation
In this chapter, a paper-based fully printed ACPEL is investigated using the top-emission
structure as shown in Figure 3. This structure will hereafter be referred to device structure A. A
composite structure, where the phosphor (GG65/PVDF) and dielectric (BaTiO3/PVDF) are
combined into one resin layer, was also considered (Appendix A).
Figure 3: Device structure A
Table 1 shows the six substrates that have been chosen. Xerox Supergloss is a coated paper that
retains ink on the surface instead of absorbing into the paper fibres unlike Xerox Copy paper
which is uncoated. Therefore, it logically follows that device A on Xerox Supergloss should
perform better than the Xerox Copy paper. The Multicoat paper [60], is a non-commercial coated
paper that has superior ink retention. Coated and uncoated paper from Catalyst Paper
Corporation were used because of their thinness (<100m). Catalyst Electracote and
Catalyst TD Directory sheets are made from the mechanical pulp process, whereas the Xerox
sheets are made from Kraft pulp process. Papers were stored at 25C and 50% R.H before use.
Table 1: Substrate characteristics
Type
Xerox Supergloss
Grammage (g/m2)
160
Description
Coated
14
Average Thickness (m)

180
Multicoat [60]
34 lb Catalyst Electracote
Gloss
Xerox Copy paper
24.6 Catalyst TD Directory
18.0 Catalyst TD Directory
Coated
Coated
125
50
88
55
Uncoated
Uncoated
Uncoated
72
40
29
100
71
53
Ten 1.2 cm x 1.2 cm pixels were patterned by using a piezoelectric inkjet printer (DimatixFujifilm DMP2831) to deposit the cathode with a PEDOT:PSS/SWCNT ink [41] [40] [61].
During printing the platen was heated to 60 C. The PEDOT:PSS/SWCNT ink formulation that
was used [41] contained 1.3 w/w% PEDOT:PSS and 0.04 w/w% single walled carbon nanotubes
dispersed in water, as well as other additives for optimized jetting (Table 2). All reagents were
used as received and supplied by Sigma-Aldrich Canada, except where specified. Since the
PEDOT:PSS/SWCNT ink has a relatively low conductivity [62], 10 layers of the conductive ink
were printed at a drop spacing of 25 m for the cathode. Immediately after inkjet printing, the
electrodes were dried on a hotplate in air at 120C. The anode was applied with a paint brush
using DuPont LuxPrint 7164 translucent conductor (10 k/sq/25m). DuPont 7102 carbon
conductor was applied as contact points.
Table 2: PEDOT:PSS/SWCNT based ink formulations [41]
w/w %
34
10
17
0.5
0.5
10
28
Component
PEDOT:PSS dispersion (1.3% in water)
DMSO
Glycerol
Sodium lauryl sulfate
Surfynol DF-110D Defoamer (Air Products)
SWCNT suspension
Water
The dielectric layer was deposited by mask-printing. A 20 cm x 2 cm rectangle was cut out of an
acetate sheet and used as a stencil. A polymer blend dissolved in dimethyl acetamide (DMAc)
was used as a binder in the dielectric resin (Table 3). Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) was
chosen for its dielectric properties [4]. It is important to note that PVDF and BaTiO3
nanocomposites exhibit dielectric relaxation where the dielectric constant decreases at high
frequencies [63]. Polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) and poly(methyl methacrylate-co-ethyl acrylate)
15
(PMMAEA) were added to decrease the hydrophobicity of PVDF [64]. BaTiO3 nanopowder was
added to increase the dielectric properties [1]. The use of <3 m BaTiO3 powder was also
considered, but no significant advantages were found (Appendix B). Disperbyk-111, a
dispersing additive, was used to prevent agglomeration. After printing, the layer was dried on a
hotplate in air at 120C.
Table 3: Formulation for dielectric and phosphor resins
w/w%
26.7
2.7
48
13.4
1.4
7.7
Dielectric Component
BaTiO3 nanopowder (<100
nm)
Disperbyk-111 (Byk
Chemie)
DMAc
PVDF (Mw=530,000)
PMMAEA (Mw ~101,000)
PVP (Mw =10,000)
Phosphor Component
GG65 GlacierGLOTM High Brite Blue (50% size
22.89 m) (Global Tungsten & Powders)
Modaflow (Cytec Surface Specialties )
The phosphor layer was similarly deposited by mask printing. Screen printing was also
considered, but resulted in very thin resin layers and therefore device shorting (Appendix C). An
identical polymer blend was used as a binder (Table 3). A GG65 GlacierGLOTM High Brite Blue
phosphor was added with a flow and leveling additive, Modaflow. The phosphor has CIE
coordinates (0.159, 0.188). After printing, the layer was dried on a hotplate in air at 120 C.
3.1.2 Conductivity of PEDOT:PSS/SWCNT ink

Even though some of the paper types used in this study were coated, printed ink penetrated into
the paper causing the conductivity of the PEDOT:PSS/SWCNT cathode layer to be affected by
the substrate. Therefore, the surface of the substrates was examined using a JEOL JSM6610-Lv
scanning electron microscope (SEM).
The effect of ink retention was even more pronounced in uncoated sheets because penetration of
the ink was not impeded. Since the PEDOT:PSS/SWCNT electrode does not form a film, but
instead a composite structure of ink, paper fibres, coating material and void space, the
conductivity can be approximated as a conductor with a uniform cross-sectional area A, and
length , as in Figure 4.
16
Figure 4: Conductor with uniform cross-sectional area A

Conductivity, (Equation 5), can be calculated as the inverse of resistivity, (Equation 6) by
measuring resistance, R, with a digital multimeter (Equus 4320).
Equation 5
Equation 6
1 to 10 layers of the PEDOT:PSS/SWCNT ink were inkjet-printed on all 6 substrates in 1 cm x 1
cm squares. DuPont 7102 carbon conductor (20-30 /sq/mil) bus bars were applied to two sides
with a silver contact point on top (Conductive silver pen, Polysciences, Inc.). A scalpel was used
to cross-section the sample perpendicular to the direction of printing. The cross-section was
placed vertically on modelling clay and examined under an OMAX MD827S30L microscope
equipped with a digital camera [40] to determine ink layer thickness. Images were stacked using
Combine Z software and analyzed using ImageJ.
3.1.3 Device characterization

The thickness of each resin layer was determined by examining the cross-section under SEM.
Energy dispersive spectrometry (EDX) was performed with the SEM to confirm the presence of
the elements in the layers. The devices were tested at 60 Hz using a Chroma 61501 AC Power
Source and luminance was measured using a Minolta LS-110 luminance meter. All devices were
considered for this measurement except for 24.6 Catalyst Directory.
17
3.2 Results
3.2.1 Substrate effects on conductivity
The six substrates vary in roughness, porosity, ink absorbency, thickness, and composition as
discussed above. Conductivity of the PEDOT:PSS/SWCNT electrode and therefore the device
performances should reflect these properties. Coated sheets will retain the PEDOT:PSS/SWCNT
ink on the surface, increasing conductivity and resulting luminance. Figure 5 shows SEM
micrographs of the six paper types. All coated sheets were smooth with some defects while the
uncoated sheets had uneven surfaces and open structures.
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
Figure 5: SEM micrographs of paper surfaces at x500. (a) Xerox Supergloss; (b) Multicoat;
(c) 34 lb Catalyst Electracote Gloss; (d) Xerox Copy paper; (e) 24.6 Catalyst TD
Directory; (f) 18.0 Catalyst TD Directory
In Figure 6, it can be seen that the coated sheets (Xerox Supergloss, Multicoat and Catalyst
Electracote) resulted in thinner electrodes. Multicoat had the lowest thickness and therefore can
be expected to result in the highest conductivity. The uncoated sheets (Xerox Copy paper, 24.6
Catalyst Directory and 18.0 Catalyst Directory) had thicker electrodes because the ink penetrated
into the paper. In particular, 24.6 Catalyst Directory had the largest thickness and can be
expected to result in the lowest conductivity. The 18.0 Catalyst Directory paper had comparable
ink thickness to the coated sheets, possibly due to its thinness which limits the ink penetration.
18
80
Thickness (m)
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
Xerox Supergloss
Xerox Copy paper
6
Layers
Multicoat
24.6 Catalyst Directory
10
12
Catalyst Electracote
Figure 6: Layer thickness of PEDOT:PSS/SWCNT inkjet-printed onto substrates

In Figure 7, the resistance of the PEDOT:PSS/SWCNT ink on the substrates is shown. As can be
seen, the Multicoat paper had the lowest resistance as expected, followed by Catalyst Electracote
and Xerox Supergloss. The uncoated Catalyst Directory sheets performed similarly in terms of
resistance and Xerox Copy paper has the highest resistance.
Resistance (K)
1000.0
100.0
10.0
1.0
0.1
0
10
Layers
Multicoat
Xerox Supergloss
Xerox Copy paper
Figure 7: Resistance of PEDOT:PSS/SWCNT inkjet-printed onto substrates
19
In Figure 8, it can be seen that the Multicoat paper results in superior conductivity. The surface
of the Multicoat paper is coated with a blend of Kaolin clay and a styrene-butadiene latex binder,
which creates a low porosity and smooth surface [60]. Aside from the Multicoat paper, Catalyst
Electracote had the highest conductivity. It is expected that Xerox Supergloss would also be a
high performing substrate but in fact it had the lowest overall conductivity. This could be due to
the coating material mixing in with the PEDOT:PSS/SWCNT ink and lowering the conductivity.
As mentioned above 18.0 Catalyst Directory paper was the thinnest sheet and therefore the ink
penetration was limited to the thickness of the paper and resulted in the highest conductivity of
the uncoated sheets followed by 24.0 Catalyst Directory and Xerox Copy paper.
Conductivity (S/m)
500
400
300
200
100
0
0
6
# of Layers
10
Xerox Supergloss
Multicoat
Xerox Copy paper
12
Figure 8: Conductivity of PEDOT:PSS/SWCNT inkjet-printed onto substrates
3.2.2 Substrate effects on luminance

Using the SEM micrographs, the thickness of the dielectric and phosphor layers were estimated
(Appendix D).
As can be seen in Table 4, the coated papers tended to luminesce more evenly than uncoated
papers. Additionally higher basis weight papers were less wrinkled and therefore had a more
even distribution of materials and subsequently a more even luminescence.
20
Table 4: A Devices off and on (~190 VAC)

Device
Supergloss A
Off
On, ambient light
On, darkened room
No image available
Multicoat A
Catalyst Electracote A
Copy paper A
26.4 Catalyst
Directory A
18.0 Catalyst
Directory A
Not considered
As seen in Figure 9, coated papers had higher luminance than uncoated papers. This is likely
because of a better retention of the ink and resin on the surface of substrates. Multicoat and
Xerox Supergloss had the highest luminance and lowest turn-on voltage. Although Catalyst
Electracote paper produced a high conductivity cathode layer, it resulted in a low luminance
device. On the other hand, 18.0 Catalyst Directory paper that had a comparable cathode
conductivity to the Catalyst Electracote, resulted in a higher luminance. This could be due to a
thicker phosphor layer, and thinner dielectric layer. Furthermore, low basis weight papers tended
to wrinkle when the PEDOT:PSS/SWCNT ink and resins were applied and dried. This uneven
surface could cause an uneven distribution of resin material and therefore a lower luminance.
21
Luminance (cd/m2)
10.0
8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
Voltage (VAC)
Supergloss A
Multicoat A1
Multicoat A2
Electracote A
Copy paper A
18.0 Catalyst Directory A
Figure 9: Luminance of device A on various substrates. Note Multicoat has 2 replicates
3.3 Conclusions
As can be seen in Table 5, in general, coated papers performed better than uncoated papers.
Although 18.0 Catalyst Directory paper is uncoated, the phosphor layer was more than twice as
thick as the phosphor layer in other A devices and explains its high luminance. Higher luminance
devices tend to have a thinner dielectric layer than low luminance devices. Furthermore, thicker
dielectric layers resulted in a higher turn-on voltage.
Table 5: Summary of device A performance
Substrate
Xerox Supergloss
Multicoat
Xerox Copy paper
Dielectric
layer thickness
(m)
31
46
100
113
Phosphor layer
thickness (m)
63
104
19
24
47
46
Turn-on voltage
(VAC)
50
50
75
100
Not considered
50
22
Maximum
luminance
(cd/m2)
5.68
8.05
3.16
0.97
7.56
Chapter 4
Novel design for ACPEL devices on paper
Paper is a weak dielectric compared to the dielectric materials that are generally used in ACPEL
devices. The novel device structures presented in this chapter not only use the paper substrate as
mechanical support, but also incorporate the paper as a functional layer of the device. The goal is
to move towards the elimination of the dielectric layer and optimize the performance of these
devices. In this chapter, three novel constructs were examined as described below. In device
structure B, a dielectric resin (BaTiO3/PVDF resin) was coated onto the paper to off-set the low
dielectric constant of paper (Figure 10). We can expect a lower device performance than in
device A because of the larger overall dielectric layer thickness (paper and BaTiO3/PVDF
resin). This dielectric layer is expected to have a lower dielectric constant than the
BaTiO3/PVDF layer alone. Furthermore, the BaTiO3/PVDF resin was applied directly to the
paper with no PEDOT: PSS/SWCNT layer to act as a barrier.
In device structure C (Figure 11), the BaTiO3/PVDF resin was applied before the PEDOT:
PSS/SWCNT electrode was printed on the substrate. This could increase the conductivity of the
cathode, because of the hydrophobic nature of the resin which would retain ink on the surface.
The phosphor layer (GG65/PVDF) was applied directly on the paper.
Figure 10: Device structure B
Figure 11: Device structure C
In structure D (Figure 12), paper was used as is. Although paper is not a strong dielectric, this
structure reduces the thickness of the dielectric layer and hence allows a higher electric field in
the phosphor layer.
23
Figure 12: Device structure D

4.1.1 Device preparation and characterization
The same six substrates as in Chapter 3 were investigated in this chapter. Devices were prepared
and characterized in the same way as in Section 3.1. For papers that are coated, the
PEDOT:PSS/SWCNT layer was printed on the coated side of the paper. All devices were
considered for detailed analysis except Xerox Supergloss for structures B and C; Catalyst
Electracote for structure C; Xerox Copy paper for structure B; and 24.6 Catalyst Directory for
structure B in order to simplify the results.
4.2 Results
4.2.1 Effect of structure on luminance
Using the SEM micrographs as provided in Appendix E, the thickness of the dielectric layer
(where applicable) and phosphor layers were estimated.
As can be seen in Table 6, thinner sheets result in a higher luminance device. The brightest
devices tend to be D devices, followed by C and then B.
Table 6: Devices B, C, and D off and on (~190 VAC)
Structure
Off, front
Off, back
Supergloss B
C
D
On, ambient light On, darkened

room
Not considered
Not considered
No luminance
24
Multicoat
Catalyst
B
Electracote
C
D
Not considered
Xerox Copy B
paper
C
Not considered
24.6
Catalyst
Directory
B
C
Not considered
18.0
Catalyst
Directory
25
Figure 13 shows the luminance results from B devices. 18.0 Catalyst Directory has the highest
performance, possibly because it is the thinnest substrate.
Luminance (cd/m2)
6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
Voltage (VAC)
Multicoat B1
Multicoat B2
Catalyst Electracote B
18.0 Catalyst Directory B
Figure 13: Luminance of B devices on various substrates (note Multicoat B has 2 replicates)
Figure 14 shows the luminance of C devices. 18.0 Catalyst Directory and Copy paper exhibit the
highest luminance. Multicoat and 24.6 Catalyst Directory resulted in the lowest luminance.
Multicoat was the thickest of these substrates and therefore it was expected to have a lower
luminance. The low luminance of the 24.6 Catalyst Directory sheet could be a result of the low
conductivity of the PEDOT:PSS/SWCNT ink on that substrate.
26
Luminance (cd/m2)
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
Voltage (VAC)
Multicoat C
Xerox Copy paper C
18.0 Catalyst Directory C
24.6 Catalyst Directory C
Figure 14: Luminance of C devices on various substrates

Figure 15 shows the luminance of D devices. The uncoated substrates (Xerox Copy paper, 18.0
and 24.6 Catalyst Directory) resulted in a higher luminance than the Multicoat sheet. Although
the conductivity of the PEDOT:PSS/SWCNT ink was less on these sheets, they were thinner
Luminance (cd/m2)
substrates compared to the Multicoat paper.

8.0
7.0
6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
Voltage (VAC)
Multicoat D
18.0 Catalyst Directory D
Electracote D
24.6 Catalyst Directory D
Xerox Copy paper D
Figure 15: Luminance of D devices
27
350
4.3 Conclusions
As can be seen in Table 7, device D generally had the highest luminance and lowest turn-on
voltage for each substrate. For B and C devices, higher luminance values were achieved when
the dielectric layer was thinner. Furthermore, in general thicker phosphor layers resulted in
higher luminance.
Table 7: Summary of devices B, C, and D performance
Substrate
Structure
Xerox
Supergloss
B
C
D
B
C
D
B
C
D
B
C
D
B
C
D
B
C
D
Multicoat
Catalyst
Electracote
Xerox Copy
paper
24.6 Catalyst
Directory
18.0 Catalyst
Directory
Dielectric
layer thickness
(m)
Phosphor layer
thickness (m)
Turn-on
voltage
(VAC)
Not considered
Not considered
n/a
100
111
n/a
40
209
80
24
30
51
n/a
Not considered
100
n/a
22
79
n/a
35
41
n/a
100
117
35
69
81
48
83
28
225
150
125
100
Not considered
75
75
50
Not considered
175
75
100
100
75
Maximum
luminance at 300
VAC (cd/m2)
No luminance
0.18
0.56
0.85
2.27
1.68
3.16
7.24
0.18
4.1
5.1
3.15
5.67
Chapter 5
Novel design for ACPEL devices on BaTiO3-filled

paper
It is common practice to add fillers to the papermaking furnish to improve paper performance. In
this study BaTiO3 powder was considered as filler to improve the dielectric properties of paper.

5.1.1 Substrate preparation
Impregnation of the substrate was carried out by two methods: dip-coating and filtration. In the
dip-coating procedure, the sheets were dipped into a suspension of BaTiO3 nanopowder and
polymer. In the filtration method, various solutions of BaTiO3 nano- and micron- sized powder
were passed through filter paper to fill the pores.
5.1.1.1 Dip-coating
24.6 Catalyst TD Directory was impregnated with a solution containing BaTiO3 nanopowder
and poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) The formulation is shown in Table 8. Dispersion was
achieved by sonicating for 1 hour. Samples were dipped into the solution for 5, 10, and 15
minutes and then heated flat on a hotplate in air at 120 C. The solution was not refreshed
between samples. The methyl methacrylate was polymerized in situ by heating after dip-coating.
Table 8: Dip-coating formulation
w/w%
5
33
33
0.5
0.5
Component
BaTiO3 nanopowder (<100 nm)
Ethanol
PEG 300
Surfynol CT-324 Dispersant (Air Products)
Disperbyk-111
29
5.1.1.2 Filtration
Filtration was used to impregnate Ahlstrom Grade 992 Filter paper (cellulose, 46 gsm, 150 m
thickness, particle retention 43 m). Samples were cut into 15 cm diameter circles and placed in
a Noram sheet former. Nanoparticle BaTiO3 (<100 nm) and BaTiO3 powder (<3 m) were used
in various ratios (Table 9) to increase packing without appreciably increasing the sheet thickness.
Table 9: Ratio of BaTiO3 nanopowder to micron-sized powder
Nanopowder (w/w %)
0
20
50
80
100
Micron-sized powder (w/w %)

100
80
50
20
0
Water was used as the carrier medium and the total BaTiO3 mass was found to drain optimally
at 50% of the substrate mass without clogging or tearing the sheet. The BaTiO3 solution was
dispersed in water with Disperbyk-111 (Table 10). The samples were replicated with and
without 1 hour of sonication of the solution before filtration. This was done to determine the
effect of sonication on surface distribution and loading of BaTiO3.
Table 10: Filtration solution composition
Amount
20 g
0.6 g
0.05 g
Component
Water
BaTiO3 (nano and micron)
Disperbyk-111
The filter papers were placed on the forming screen of a laboratory handsheet machine. The
machine was filled with BaTiO3 suspension and the valve was opened to allow for the
suspension to drain. After filtration, the sheets were left to dry at 20 C and 50 % RH overnight.
Since the filter paper is highly porous, absorbent and non-uniform, a simple coating was used to
increase ink retention on the surface of the impregnated samples. The coating formulation was a
blend of a fine ground calcium carbonate (Hydrocarb 90) and a polymeric binder (Styronal ND
656), as well as a dispersant (Dispex N40V) as seen in (Table 11). The coating suspension was
diluted to 65 w/w% solids by adding water.
30
Table 11: Coating composition

w/w %
89.5
10
0.5
Component
Hydrocarb 90 (Omya Canada)
Styronal ND 656 (BASF)
Dispex N40 V (BASF)
The coating was applied by Meyer rod (gauge 0.003 in) and left to dry at 50 C in air for 2
minutes. The coated filter paper was then calendared once at 100 kPa and 50 C.
5.1.2 Substrate characterization

The thickness of the sheets was measured using a TMI 49-61 Micrometer before and after
impregnation and after calendering. The samples were also weighed before and after
impregnation and calendaring to determine the BaTiO3 loading. To confirm that the mass
increase was due to BaTiO3 loading, the ash content of samples was also measured by
incineration at 500 C in a Barnstead Thermolyne FB1400 furnace for 1 hour. SEM micrographs
were taken before and after filtration to examine the structure of the neat papers and the
distribution of filler material on the surface of the sheets after impregnation.
Dielectric constant () was measured with an Agilent U1701B Handheld Capacitance Meter
through the sheet by applying silver electrodes with a silver conductive pen and treating the
sample as a parallel plate capacitor [65]. Then was calculated using [66]:
Equation 7
By measuring capacitance C, the thickness of the dielectric layer between the electrodes d, the
sample area A and knowing the vacuum permittivity 0, the dielectric constant can be
calculated. These samples were prepared specifically for this measurement and were separate
from the EL devices.
5.1.3 Conductivity of PEDOT:PSS/SWCNT ink

The conductivity was estimated by printing 10 layers of the PEDOT:PSS/SWCNT ink using the
same procedure as Section 3.1.2.
31
5.1.4 Device preparation

In this chapter, EL devices were prepared according to the D structure as described earlier.
Since the dip-coated sheets did not dry, they were not considered a viable option and therefore
were not used for device preparation. For the filtration method, EL devices were prepared with
coated and uncoated sheets containing two levels of BaTiO3 nanopowder, namely 20% and 80%.
Two configurations were investigated (Figure 16 and Figure 17).
Figure 16: Device structure D1
Figure 17: Device structure D2

The thickness of the phosphor layer and paper was determined by examining the cross-section
under SEM. The devices were tested using the same procedure as section 3.1.3.
5.2 Results
5.2.1 Substrate characterization
As can be seen in Figure 18, the mass increase for the dip-coated samples was 10 times higher
than that of the filtered samples, however, the higher mass was mainly due to the higher moisture
content of these samples. Furthermore, results show that in the filtration method, sonication
improves the overall retention of BaTiO3. Also, it is important to note that in the filtration
method, although the amount of BaTiO3 that was added equaled to 50% of the mass of the filter
paper, less than 30% of this material was retained in all cases.
32
160%
Mass Increase
140%
120%
100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
5 min 10 min 15 min
0%
nano
dip-coated
20%
nano
50%
nano
80%
nano
100%
nano
0%
nano
filtration, unsonicated solutions
20%
nano
50%
nano
80%
nano
100%
nano
filtration, sonicated solutions
Figure 18: Mass increase of filled paper samples. Dip coated samples at various dipping
micron-sized powder and with and without sonication for 1 hour.
When the mass increase was compared to the total ash content (Figure 19), it can see seen that
the amount of inorganic material (BaTiO3) for the dip-coated samples was less than the amount
in the filtration method. It is important to note that the paper itself had approximately 3 w/w %
ash content. The mass increase of the dip-coated sheets was an exaggerated value because the
30%
25%
20%
15%
10%
5%
dip-coated
filtration, unsonicated solution
untreated
100% nano
80% nano
50% nano
20% nano
0% nano
untreated
100% nano
80% nano
50% nano
20% nano
0% nano
untreated
15 min
10 min
0%
5 min
Ash Content (w/w %)
samples were saturated with methyl methacrylate and PEG 300.
filtration, sonicated solution
Figure 19: Total ash content of filled paper samples. Dip coated samples at various dipping
33
Figure 20 shows that the loading of BaTiO3 does not appreciably affect the thickness of the
sample after calendaring compared to the untreated case. Furthermore, dip-coating and filtration
with and without sonication result in a sheet with comparable thickness In addition, the final
thickness of impregnated sheets was comparable to that of the commercial papers used in
previous chapters.
Thickness (m)
100
80
60
40
20
dip-coated
untreated
100% nano
80% nano
50% nano
20% nano
0% nano
untreated
100% nano
80% nano
50% nano
20% nano
0% nano
untreated
15 min
10 min
5 min
Figure 20: Thickness after calendaring. Dip coated samples at various dipping times; and
filtration samples with BaTiO3 at various % of nanopowder, the balance being BaTiO3
SEM micrographs of filter paper before and after impregnation are provided in Figure 21, Figure
22, and Figure 23. As can be seen, the filter paper had an uneven surface and an open structure of
pores.
Figure 21: SEM micrograph of Ahlstrom Grade 992 Filter paper before filling, x100
34
After filtration, these pores were filled with BaTiO3. The white areas in Figure 22 and Figure 23
indicate the presence of BaTiO3 as confirmed by SEM-EDX. As predicted, sonication improved
distribution and filling of BaTiO3 into the filter paper. Even though the sonicated samples
appeared to be more uniform than the unsonicated samples, they still contained unfilled regions
which could create undesirable variations in the dielectric properties of the sheet. Furthermore,
the non-uniformities in the BaTiO3 loading will affect the uniformity of the device luminance.
Samples containing 20% nanopowder (Figure 24) had a more even distribution of BaTiO3 on the
surface compared to the 80% nanopowder case. Since the amount of BaTiO3 retained was similar
for both sheets, this result suggests BaTiO3 nanopowder more readily penetrated and filled the
pores of the filter paper.
Figure 22: Filtration, unsonicated
Figure 23: Filtration, sonicated
solution, 80% BaTiO3 nanopowder,
at x100
at x100
100 m
Figure 24: Filtration, sonicated solution, 20% BaTiO3 nanopowder, at x100

The back of the sample was also investigated (Figure 25). From this image, it can be seen that
the filter paper was not fully filled with respect to its thickness.
35
Figure 25: Back, filtration, sonicated, 80% BaTiO3 nanopowder at x100

Figure 26 and Figure 27 show the micrographs of filled samples after coating. As can be seen,
the surface was more uniform and smooth than the uncoated case.
100 m
100 m
Figure 26: Filtration, sonicated
Figure 27: Filtration, sonication
coated at x100
coated at x100
Figure 28 shows the dielectric constant of the various samples. The dip-coated method yields the
highest dielectric constant, but also has a lot of variation. Although the amount of ash was
comparable throughout all the methods, the addition of PEG 300 and methyl methacrylate could
be contributing to the increase in dielectric constant. The unsonicated filtration method yielded a
substrate with a very low dielectric constant in contrast to the sonicated filtration method. This
could be due to the uneven distribution of BaTiO3 in the paper in the unsonicated case. The
highest and most reliable value occurs for samples filled with the 20% nanopowder in the
sonicated filtration method.
36
90
80
Dielectric Constant
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
-10
5 min 10 min 15 min

dip-coated
0%
nano
20%
nano
50%
nano
80% 100%
nano nano
0%
nano
20%
nano
50%
nano
80% 100%
nano nano
Figure 28: Dielectric constant of filled paper samples. Dip coated samples at various
dipping times; and filtration samples with BaTiO3 at various % of nanopowder, the
balance being micron-sized powder and with and without sonication for 1 hour.
The dielectric constant was also investigated for the coated sheets as shown in Figure 29. The
coated filter papers were compared to the uncoated filter paper and untreated filter paper. The
dielectric constant values in Figure 29 are higher than Figure 28, the reason for this difference is
not clear and requires additional tests. As can be seen, the coating increased the thickness of the
sheets and subsequently decreases the dielectric constant of the sheet. It could be expected that
the luminance of the coated sample containing 20% BaTiO3 nanopowder will be higher than that
containing 80% BaTiO3 nanopowder because it had a higher dielectric constant and lower
thickness.
100
80
60
40
20
0
Untreated
20% nano
20% nano,
coated
Thickness (m)
80% nano
80% nano,
coated
Dielectric constant
Figure 29: Thickness and dielectric constant for filtration method samples with and
without coating at various % of nanopowder, the balance being micron-sized powder
37
5.2.2 Effect of substrate on conductivity

Figure 30 shows the thickness and conductivity of 10 printed layers of the PEDOT:PSS/SWCNT
ink. As can be seen, coating increased ink retention and decreased the thickness of the ink layer.
As a result, the coated sheets were more than 50 times more conductive than the uncoated sheets.
Furthermore, the coated sheets containing 20% BaTiO3 nanopowder was more conductive than
the one containing 80% BaTiO3 nanopowder. The conductivity of the PEDOT:PSS/SWCNT ink
on the coated sheet containing 20% BaTiO3 nanopowder was less than half of that of the
Multicoat sheet. It is also important to note that both the Multicoat and coated sheets containing
20% BaTiO3 nanopowder had comparable thicknesses (about 60 and 90 m respectively),
however the dielectric constant of the later sample was higher, because it was filled with BaTiO3.
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
-50
80% nano, uncoated 80% nano, coated

Thickness (m)
20% nano, coated
Conductivity (S/m)
Figure 30: Thickness and conductivity of 10 printed layers of PEDOT:PSS/SWCNT ink

Table 12 shows the various devices that were fabricated. The SEM device cross-sections and
thicknesses of each layer for these devices are provided in Appendix F. As can be seen, the
coated sheets had a higher ink retention indicated by the darker blue colour of the
PEDOT:PSS/SWCNT ink. Furthermore, when the PEDOT:PSS/SWCNT ink was printed
directly onto the filter paper as in the coated structure 1 case, the ink penetration can be seen
through the sheet. This is expected because filter paper is a poor substrate for ink jet printing.
38
Table 12: Devices off and on (~190 VAC)

Paper type
BaTiO3
ratios
Filled and
coated
structure 1
20:80
Phosphor
layer
thickness
(m)
50
Filled and
coated
structure 2
20:80
59
Filled
80:20
Unknown
Filled and
coated
80:20
24
Off, front
Off, back
On, ambient
light
On, darkened
room
No luminance
Figure 31 and Figure 32 show the luminance results of the filled and coated paper devices.
Figure 31 shows the luminance of the devices printed on the samples containing 20% BaTiO3
nanopowder. As can be seen, there is little variation with device structure. Although the ink
retention and therefore conductivity was higher when the PEDOT:PSS/SWCNT ink was printed
directly onto the coating layer (structure 2), both structures resulted in a comparable luminance.
Since the filter paper is highly porous, it is possible that the coating fully penetrated into the
pores, resulting in both sides of the filter paper being coated. Therefore, the ink retention would
be improved on either side of the sheet. Furthermore, the phosphor layer in both cases was
comparable (Table 12), which would explain the similar luminance.
39
Luminance (cd/m2)
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
0
50
100
1_1
150 200 250

Voltage (VAC)
1_2
2_1
300
350
2_2
Figure 31: Luminance of coated 20% BaTiO3 nanopowder filter paper device. Note that the
first number refers to the structure type while the second refers to the sample replicate.
Figure 32 shows the luminance of the devices printed on coated samples containing 80% BaTiO3
nanopowder. As can be seen, the luminance was less than half the luminance of the coated 20%
BaTiO3 nanopowder sheets. This can be attributed to the lower dielectric constant of the former
sample. Furthermore, the 20% BaTiO3 nanopowder sheet had a lower thickness.
Luminance (cd/m2)
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0
50
100
150 200 250

Voltage (VAC)
1_1
300
350
1_2
Figure 32: Luminance of coated 80% BaTiO3 nanopowder filter paper device. Note that the
first number refers to the structure type while the second refers to the sample replicate.
40
5.3 Conclusions
Table 13 shows that increasing the dielectric constant of the paper can increase the luminance of
the device. Furthermore, compared to commercial papers, the luminance of the filled paper was
higher. Therefore, the performance of EL devices prepared according to structure D can be
improved by enhancing the properties of the paper. Lastly, coating increased ink retention which
increased conductivity and therefore luminance of the device.
Table 13: Summary of filled paper device performance
Device
Dielectric layer
thickness (m)
Phosphor layer
thickness (m)
110
Dielectric
constant of
dielectric layer
31
20% nano,
coated, D1
20% nano,
coated, D2
80% nano,
coated, D1
50
Turn-on
voltage
(VAC)
100
Maximum
luminance at 300
VAC (cd/m2)
3.89
100
31
59
100
3.95
110
12
24
75
1.55
41
Chapter 6
Summary
Fully printed ACPEL devices were fabricated on paper in a top-emission structure referred to as
structure A. Six commercial papers were studied: Xerox Supergloss, Multicoat, Catalyst
Electracote, Xerox Copy paper, 24.6 Catalyst Directory and 18.0 Catalyst Directory. These
substrates were chosen for their thickness and surface properties. The phosphor layer is deposited
by mask printing a resin (phosphor dispersed in PVDF). The dielectric layer is deposited by
mask printing a resin (BaTiO3 dispersed in PVDF). Inkjet printing was used to pattern the
cathode using a PEDOT:PSS/SWCNT ink. The anode, DuPont LuxPrint 7164, was applied
using a paint brush. It was found that luminance increased with increasing conductivity of the
PEDOT:PSS/SWCNT ink, increasing phosphor layer thickness and decreasing dielectric layer
thickness. For device structure A, the Multicoat sheet was found to have the highest
performance due to its superior ink retention and conductivity of the PEDOT:PSS/SWCNT ink.
Paper was then used as both the dielectric layer and mechanical support in ACPEL devices. In
structures B and C, the BaTiO3 dielectric resin was coated onto the paper, but in structure D no
BaTiO3 resin was used. For devices with structure B and C, it was important for the dielectric
resin layer to be thin, because with the addition of the paper, the overall dielectric layer resulted
in lower performing devices. Similarly for D devices, thicker sheets resulted in lower
performance. Overall, D devices outperformed B and C devices and a thicker phosphor layer
resulted in a higher luminance.
Although paper is an acceptable dielectric layer, the dielectric constant can be increased with the
addition of BaTiO3. This was accomplished by filtering BaTiO3 nanopowder and micron-sized
powder into Ahlstrom Grade 992 Filter paper. A simple CaCO3-based coating was used to
increase ink retention. Compared to other ratios, it was found that filtration of a 20%
nanopowder and 80% micron-sized BaTiO3 had the highest dielectric constant. Furthermore, the
paper thickness and conductivity of PEDOT:PSS/SWCNT ink was comparable to commercial
papers.
42
6.1 Future work

Although this work showed that ACPEL devices could be fully printed ACPEL onto paper, the
luminance can be improved. This can be accomplished by changing the device preparation,
materials or operating conditions. Firstly, the anode was painted on, which resulted in significant
variation within and amongst the samples. This could be addressed by printing the anode layer.
Similarly, the phosphor and dielectric layers were deposited by mask printing which resulted in
varying layer thicknesses. A method where the resin layers can be better metered (such as screen
printing) would be beneficial to optimize thickness and therefore luminance of the final device.
Furthermore, although the conductivity the cathode was increased by printing 10 layers of the
PEDOT:PSS/SWCNT ink, a silver nanoparticle ink may be a superior, yet costly, option.
Further, all the samples were tested at 60 Hz, but typical operating frequencies can exceed 1 kHz
which would increase the luminance proportionally. The drawback to increasing the frequency
significantly would be a significant decrease in device lifetime. Similarly, luminance could be
increased by driving the devices at a voltage above 300 VAC.
In this work, we showed that commercial papers can be used as both the dielectric layer in
ACPEL devices and the mechanical support. The dielectric constant was increased by filling the
paper pores with BaTiO3 powder. Instead of filling the paper in the post formed stage, the
addition of BaTiO3 powders could be investigated during the paper making process to increase
the dielectric properties of the paper, without significantly increasing the paper thickness. Other
paper properties such as ink retention could also be optimized during this process. Alternatively,
high dielectric coatings can be investigated for thin commercial papers to increase its dielectric
properties. Further, other substrates such as polymers or ceramics could also be investigated as
dielectric layer and mechanical support of ACPEL devices.
43
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(ZnS:Mn) nanoparticle pigments," in Nanotechnology: Biofuels, Renewable Energy,
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[57] Emine Tekin, Patrick J Smith, and Ulrich S Schubert, "Inkjet printing as a deposition and
patterning tool for polymers and inorganic particles," Soft Matter, vol. 4, no. 4, pp. 703-713,
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Low Cost Binder for Flexible AC Powder Electroluminescent Panels," SID Symposium
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[59] Xingwei Wu et al., "36.4: Invited Paper: Large-screen Flat Panel Displays based on ThickDielectric Electroluminescent (TDEL) Technology," SID Symposium Digest of Technical
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functionality," Organic Electronics, vol. 10, no. 5, pp. 1020-1023, August 2009.
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Chemistry of Materials, vol. 18, no. 18, pp. 4354-4360, September 2006.
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eXPRESS Polymer Letters, vol. 2, no. 4, pp. 294-301, April 2008.
[64] Joseph T. Polasik and V. Hugo Schmidt, "Conductive polymer PEDOT/PSS electrodes on
the piezoelectric," Smart Structures and Materials 2005: Electroactive Polymer Actuators
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51
Appendices
8.1 Appendix A: Composite structure

In addition to the various structures investigated, the composite structure, where the phosphor
and dielectric are combined (Figure 33) in an A structure, was also explored.
Figure 33: Composite structure

In order to determine a viable ratio of phosphor to dielectric (BaTiO3 nanopowder), the dielectric
constant and thickness were estimated for various ratios of phosphor and dielectric. Further, the
pure phosphor layer was also investigated. The dielectric constant was estimated using the same
procedure as described in Appendix B.
Figure 33 shows the results of this investigation. As can be seen, there is no significant
difference between the different composites in terms of thickness or dielectric constant.
70
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Thickness (m)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
10
20
30
40
50 60 70
% Phosphor
Thickness (m)
80
90 100 110
Dielectric Constant
Figure 34: Composite thickness and dielectric constant

52
Dielectric Constant
However, the thickness and dielectric constant is much lower for the pure phosphor layer.
Three devices were tested (25%, 50%, 75% phosphor) fabricated and tested using the same
procedure as in Chapter 3. Luminance was only observed in the 50% phosphor device with a
maximum luminance of 2.3 cd/m2 and a turn-on voltage of 50 VAC (Figure 35). This
performance is comparable to other device A structures as described in Chapter 3. The
composite structure could be a favourable alternative to the device A structure, because it
eliminates the processing step of one layer. This process was used to pattern the University of
Toronto crest onto Supergloss paper (Figure 36)
Luminance (cd/m2)
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0
100
200
300
400
Voltage (VAC)
Figure 35: 50% phosphor composite device luminance
Figure 36: 50% phosphor composite device patterned by inkjet printing cathode
Cross-sections of the device were imaged using SEM. All three devices have a uniform
thickness. Figure 37 shows the 50% phosphor device which was the only function device.
Figure 38 shows the 75% phosphor device, which has the lowest layer thickness, possibly due to
53
the fact that it contains the least phosphor. Figure 39 shows the 25% phosphor device, which has
a similar thickness to the 50% device.
SEM image
100 m
Composite Off
layer (m)
On (190
On (190 VAC),
VAC),
darkened room
ambient light
76
Electrode
Composite
layer
Paper
Figure 37: SEM cross section of 50%

phosphor composite device on Xerox
Supergloss, x130
100 m
52
No luminance
Electrode
Composite
layer
Paper

Supergloss, x100
54
74
No luminance
100 m
Electrode
Composite
layer
Paper

Supergloss, x100 (note, composite layer
not adhered to paper)
55
8.2 Appendix B: BaTiO3 vs. dielectric constant

The size of the BaTiO3 powder has effects on packing and potentially dielectric constant. It has
been argued that nanopowder BaTiO3 in the dielectric resin increases the luminance of the device
when compared to micron-sized BaTiO3 [67]. In order to further investigate this, polydispersions
of nanopowder (<100 nm) and micron-sized power (<3 m) were incorporated into the dielectric
resin. The dielectric constant was estimated by screen-printing (Micrasem stainless steel 200
mesh, wire diameter 51 m) the dielectric resin onto ITO coated polyethylene terephthalate (100
electrode was applied with a silver pen and the capacitance was measured using a
capacitance meter (as in Chapter 5). The thickness of the layer was measured using a
micrometer.
As can be seen in Figure 40, the dielectric constant does not change drastically with respect to
the polydispersion. Therefore, it can be assumed that the effect of packing is insignificant on the
dielectric constant.
100
60
80
50
40
60
30
40
20
20
10
0
0
-10
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
% Micron-sized BaTiO3
Thickness (m)
Dielectric constant
Figure 40: Effect of polydispersion on dielectric constant
56
Dielectric Constant
Film Thickness (m)
70
8.3 Appendix C: Screen printed devices

Devices were fabricated with A, B, C, and D, structures on all 6 substrates. 10 layers of the
PEDOT:PSS/SWCNT ink was inkjet-printed for the cathode. The dielectric layer is deposited by
screen-printing (Micrasem stainless steel 200 mesh, wire diameter 51 m), while the phosphor
layer is similarly deposited by screen printing (Micrasem stainless steel 165 mesh, wire diameter
40 m). 3 layers of the PEDOT:PSS/SWCNT ink was inkjet-printed for the anode.
All devices were tested, however the only device that did not result in short circuit was
Supergloss A. Figure 41 shows 4 replicates of Supergloss A, with a maximum luminance of 1.5
cd/m2 and minimum turn-on voltage of 25 VAC. Furthermore, there is much variation between
all 4 replicates and as can be seen in Supergloss A4, a short circuit occurred at 225 VAC.
Luminance (cd/m2)
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0
50
100
150
-0.5
Supergloss A1
200
250
300
350
400
V (VAC)
Supergloss A2
Supergloss A3
Supergloss A4
Figure 41: Luminance of Supergloss A screen printed devices. Note 4 replicates are
reported.
Figure 42 shows the cross-section of the Supergloss A device. As can be seen, the layers are very
thin and seem to be discontinuous. This could be the reason for the short-circuiting of the other
devices. Furthermore, the thinness of the phosphor layer would also explain the low luminance
of the device.
57
Phosphor layer
Dielectric layer
Paper
Figure 42: SEM cross section of Supergloss A, x100 (screen printed)
58
8.4 Appendix D: SEM cross-sections of A devices

SEM was used to image the cross-sections of the devices. As can be seen from the figures below,
the phosphor and dielectric layer thickness varies greatly from substrate to substrate regardless if
the substrate is coated or not.
SEM image
Electrode
100 m
Phosphor layer thickness

(m)
19
Dielectric layer thickness

(m)
31
24
46
Phosphor layer
Dielectric layer
Paper
Figure 43: SEM cross section of

Xerox Supergloss A, x130
100 m
Electrode
Dielectric layer
Paper
Phosphor layer

Multicoat A, x100
59
47
100
46
113
104
63
100 m
Phosphor layer
Dielectric layer
Paper
Electrode

Catalyst Electracote A, x130
100 m
Electrode
Phosphor layer
Dielectric layer
Paper

Xerox Copy paper A, x100
Electrode
Phosphor layer
Dielectric layer
Paper
100 m
Figure 47: SEM cross section of 18.0

Catalyst Directory A, x100
60
8.5 Appendix E: SEM cross-sections of B, C, D devices

SEM was used to image the cross-sections of the devices. . As can be seen from the figures
below, the phosphor and dielectric layer thickness varies greatly from substrate to substrate
regardless if the substrate is coated or not. Generally, the phosphor layer seems to be thicker in D
devices.
SEM image

(m)
209
Dielectric layer thickness

(m)
n/a
80
100
Electrode
Phosphor layer
Paper
100 m

Xerox Supergloss D, x100
100 m
Electrode
Phosphor layer
Dielectric layer
Paper

Multicoat B, x100
61
24
111
30
n/a
51
40
100 m
Electrode
Phosphor layer
Dielectric layer
Paper

Multicoat C, x100
100 m
Electrode
Phosphor layer
Paper

Multicoat D, x140
100 m
Electrode
Phosphor
layer
Dielectric
layer
Paper

Catalyst Electracote B, x120
62
Paper
22
n/a
48
100
83
n/a
100 m
Phosphor layer
Electrode

Catalyst Electracote D, x100
Electrode
Phosphor
layer
Paper
Dielectric
layer
100 m

Xerox Copy paper C, x100
Electrode
Phosphor layer
Paper
100 m

Xerox Copy paper D, x100
63
100 m
100
79
117
n/a
35
35
Electrode
Phosphor
layer
Dielectric
layer
Paper

Catalyst Directory C, x100
100 m
Electrode
Phosphor layer
Paper

Catalyst Directory D, x100
100 m
Electrode
Phosphor
layer
Dielectric
layer
Paper

Catalyst Directory B, x100
64
100 m
69
41
81
n/a
Electrode
Phosphor
layer
Dielectric
layer
Paper

Catalyst Directory C, x100
50 m
Electrode
Phosphor layer
Paper

Catalyst Directory D, x200
65
8.6 Appendix F: SEM cross-sections of filter paper devices

In Figure 61, the thickness of the phosphor layer is not consistent. The approximate thickness of
the phosphor layer is about 50 m. In Figure 62, the phosphor layer is extremely uniform. This
could be due to the fact that the phosphor resin was applied directly to the coated surface. The
resulting thickness of the layer is slightly higher compared to structure D1. In Figure 63, the
phosphor layer again is not as uniform as in the previous image even though it is also applied
directly onto the coated surface. The thickness is not easily determined, but was estimated to
about 24 m. Therefore, it is clear, that there is much variation in this printing method (mask
printing).
SEM image

(m)
50
Paper/dielectric layer
thickness (m)
110
59
100
50 m
Electrode
Phosphor
layer
Paper

BaTiO3 nanopowder, coated, structure
D1, x200
100 m
Electrode
Phosphor
layer
Paper
Figure 62: SEM cross section 20%

66

D2, x100
24
110
100 m
Electrode
Phosphor
layer
Paper

D1, x100
67

Kronfli Rosanna K 201406 MASc Thesis PDF

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A Novel Design for Fully Printed Flexible AC-Driven

Powder Electroluminescent Devices on Paper

A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements

Copyright by Rosanna Kronfli 2014

A Novel Design for Fully Printed Flexible AC-Driven Powder

Project motivation and significance ................................................................................. 1

Hypothesis and objectives ................................................................................................ 3

Literature review ..................................................................................................................... 4

Background on electroluminescence ................................................................................ 4

ACPEL vs. ACTEL .......................................................................................................... 4

Device structures ....................................................................................................... 4

Comparing performance ........................................................................................... 5

ACPEL light emission mechanism .................................................................................. 5

ACPEL device operation and features ............................................................................. 6

Materials in ACPEL devices ............................................................................................ 8

ZnS-based phosphors ................................................................................................ 8

Dielectric materials ................................................................................................... 9

ACPEL developments .................................................................................................... 11

Solution deposition techniques....................................................................................... 11

Commercial products ..................................................................................................... 13

ACPEL devices on paper ...................................................................................................... 14

Experimental methods .................................................................................................... 14

Device preparation .................................................................................................. 14

Conductivity of PEDOT:PSS/SWCNT ink ............................................................ 16

Device characterization ........................................................................................... 17

Substrate effects on conductivity ............................................................................ 18

Substrate effects on luminance ............................................................................... 20

Novel design for ACPEL devices on paper .......................................................................... 23

Experimental methods .................................................................................................... 24

Device preparation and characterization ................................................................. 24

Effect of structure on luminance ............................................................................. 24

Novel design for ACPEL devices on BaTiO3-filled paper ................................................... 29

Experimental methods .................................................................................................... 29

Substrate preparation .............................................................................................. 29

Substrate characterization ....................................................................................... 31

Conductivity of PEDOT:PSS/SWCNT ink ............................................................ 31

Device preparation .................................................................................................. 32

Device characterization ........................................................................................... 32

Substrate characterization ....................................................................................... 32

Effect of substrate on conductivity ......................................................................... 38

Device characterization ........................................................................................... 38

Future work .................................................................................................................... 43

Appendix A: Composite structure .................................................................................. 52

Appendix B: BaTiO3 vs. dielectric constant .................................................................. 56

Appendix C: Screen printed devices .............................................................................. 57

Appendix D: SEM cross-sections of A devices ............................................................. 59

Appendix E: SEM cross-sections of B, C, D devices .................................................... 61

Appendix F: SEM cross-sections of filter paper devices ............................................... 66

Alternating current driven powder electroluminescent

Alternating current driven thin-film electroluminescent

International Commission on Illumination

Energy dispersive spectrometry

Scanning electron microscopy

Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry

Voltage in alternating current

Luminance equation constant

Thickness between electrodes

Thickness of dielectric layer

Thickness of phosphor layer

Applied electric field

Luminance equation constant

Luminance at 30 V above Vth