WOOD

Different woods are the palette of the furnituremaker. They provide color and texture, strength
and beauty to handmade furniture.
Each type of wood has characteristics to be considered when building a piece of furniture. Some
are very hard and durable; some are flexible and suitable for bending. "Hardwood" is a term
applied to trees that lose their leaves in winter. "Softwood" describes evergreens such as fir, pine
and redwood. The actual durability a wood is described in a range from very soft to very hard.
Every wood has a distinctive grain structure. Woods such as white and red oak, ash and walnut
have "open-pores". These woods have small holes in their surface that give the piece a textural
quality. When a stain is applied to this type of surface, the stain tends to collect in the "openpores" and appears darker than the rest of the piece. Tight grained woods include maple, alder,
and cherry. These woods are smooth to the touch and can take finish evenly.

The color and grain look of different types of

wood

California Softwoods and Hardwoods

Alder, Pacific Maple, Black Oak, Madrone, Tan Oak, Redwood, Myrtlewood (pepperwood), Claro
Walnut, Western Red Cedar, and Yew
Humboldt County woodworkers prize the unique woods of the Pacific Northwest for their beauty
and durability. Local woodworkers use native woods alone and in combination with domestic and
exotic species creating the furniture that is part of the distinctive designs of Northern California.

Alder

Warm brown color with a figure like cherry. Alder is

a medium soft wood suitable for cabinetry and
furniture with the appropriate sized joinery.

Pacific
Maple

Madron
e

Golden yellow wood with a variety of figure

available, can be found in the curly or fiddleback
varieties. This is a medium hard wood suitable for
all types of furniture.

One of the harder California native woods,

Madrone has a reddish pink color with streaks of
color throughout. Madrone is used in furniture and
turnings, and can be used in flooring and
architectural woodwork.

Softwoods and Hardwoods

Ash, Basswood, Beech, Birch, Butternut, Tennessee Aromatic Cedar, Cherry, Fir, Hickory, Maple,
Pine, Poplar, Red Oak, Walnut, White Oak.
Long a staple of the American furnituremaker, these mostly eastern hardwoods are most familiar
to the public. Humboldt County woodworkers use these woods to make the finest handmade
furniture.

Maple

Cherry

Hard rock maple is one of the hardest of domestic woods.

The "select white" grade of maple has a warm gold-ivory
color when finished with a hand rubbed oil. Because of its
hardness rock maple is suitable for all types of furniture and
cabinetry.

Furniture grade cherry is a moderately heavy, hard, strong,

wood. Close grained, it can be polished to a deep and
glowing red. Many of the finest early American table tops
and interior panels were made of cherrywood. This wood is
suitable for all furniture and cabinetry including chairs.

Walnut

North American walnut is one of the most prized hardwoods.

It can range in color from deep rich brown to an almost
purple brown. This is an open-pored wood that is relatively
hard. Walnut is durable and finishes beautifully. The wood is
useful in many furniture applications.

Exotic Woods
Andiroba, Bayo, Bloodwood, Bocote, Bubinga, Spanish Cedar, Chaktekok, Chechen, Chicozapote,
Cocobolo, Ebony, Fishtail Oak, Granadillo, Ironbark, Ipe, Jabin, Jarrah, Jatoba, Katalox, Kingwood,
Koa, Lacewood, Lignum Vitae, African Mahogany, Machiche, Narra, Obeche, Pau Ferro, African
Paduak, Peruvian Walnut, Purpleheart, Brazilian Rosewood, Satinwood, Snakewood, Teak, Vesi
Wenge, Zebrawood
With bright colors and expressive grain patterns these woods are often used as highlights in
furnishing and turnings. Also, some of these exotic woods such as African mahogany and
granadillo are excellent for building whole pieces of furniture, chairs and cabinetry.

Lacewoo
d

Granadill
o

A relatively soft wood grown widely in Australia, lacewood

has an unusual grain structure that has the look of
hammered copper when properly cut. It can be used as an
accent wood or in veneered tabletops.

A beautiful, very hard wood from Southern Mexico with a

tan-deep brown streaking. This close grained wood is a
"Smart Wood" selectively harvested in cooperation with the
indigenous people. This wood is suitable for all furniture
applications.

African
Mahogan
y

Common

Here is traditional mahogany, deep rich, red and suitable

for any furniture application. This wood is imported from
Ghana, which has had a sustained yield forestry program in
place since 1910.

Binomial

Colour

Densit

Location

Characteristics, Usage and Status

name

nomenclature

Aini or
Aangili

Artocarpus
hirsutus

Yellowish 595
brown
kg/m

Maharashtra, Andhra
Pradesh,Tamil
Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala

Elastic, close-grained, and strong. It

takes polish. It can be used underwater. It is
used for ordinary building construction,
structural work, paving, furniture and so forth.

Arjun

Terminalia
arjunaTerminalia
elliptica

Dark
brown

870
kg/m

Central India

It is heavy and strong. It has such uses

as beams, rafters, and posts.

Axlewood

Anogeissus
latifolia

930
kg/m

Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu,

Maharashtra, Madhya
Pradesh,Bihar, Uttar Pradesh

It is very strong, hard and tough. It takes a

smooth finish. It is subject to cracking.

Babul

Acacia
Whitish
niloticasubsp. indi
red
ca

835
kg/m

Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh,

Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh,
Tamil Nadu,
Karnataka, Bengal,Gujarat,
Uttar Pradesh

It is strong, hard and tough and it takes up a

good polish. It is used for such products as
bodies andwheels of bullock cart, agricultural
instruments, tool handles, and well curbs.

Bakul

Mimusops
elengiMimusops
parvifolia[2]

880
kg/m

Some parts of North India

It is close-grained and tough. It is used for

making cabinets.

Bamboo

FamilyPoaceae,
tribe Bambuseae

Reddish
brown

Throughout India,
especiallyAssam and Bengal

Not actually a tree, but a woody grass, it is

flexible, very strong and durable. It is used
for scaffoldings, thatched roofs, rafters,

temporary bridges, and so forth.

Banyan

Ficus
benghalensis

Benteak

Lagerstoemia
parviflora

Brown

580
kg/m

Throughout India

It is strong and durable only under water. The

aerial roots are utilized for such items as tent
poles and well curbs.

675
kg/m

Kerala, Madras, Maharashtra,

Karnataka

It is strong and takes up a smooth surface. It

may be used for building constructions, boat
building and furniture.

Pterocarpus
marsupium

Light
brown

800
kg/m

It is coarse-grained, durable and strong but

Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh,
difficult to work. Termites (also known as white
Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra,
ant) do not easily attack it. It is used for
Kerala, Uttar Pradesh, Tamil
ordinary building construction and
Nadu, Orissa
for cart wheels. Vulnerable

Casuarina

Casuarina spp.

Reddish
brown

765
kg/m

Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu

It grows straight. It is strong and fibrous. It is,

however, badly twisted. It is often used for
scaffolding and posts for temporary structures.

Coconut

Cocos nucifera

Reddish
brown

Throughout coastal India

Takes polish. Requires preservative treatment.

Used as poles, piles, furniture and as formwork
in concrete construction.

Deodar

Cedrus deodara

Yellowish 560
brown
kg/m

Himalayas, Punjab, Uttar

Pradesh

Bijasal

Deodar is the most important timber tree

providing soft wood. It can be easily worked
and it is moderately strong. It possesses
distinct annual rings. It is used for making
cheap furniture, railway carriages, railway

sleepers, packing boxes, structural work and

so forth.

Gumar

Hopea

Gymnema
sylvestre

Hopea parviflora

Pale
yellow

Light to
deep
brown

Himalayan
Elm, Indian Ulmus wallichiana Red
Elm
Ironwood,
Penaga
Lilin,
Bosneak,
Gangaw,
Mesua
Irul,
Pyinkado

Mesua ferrea

Xylia xylocarpa

Reddish
brown

Central India, South India

It can be easily worked and is strong and

durable especially when used under water. It is
used for such products as furniture, carriage,
well curbs, yokes, and door panels.

1010
kg/m

Madras, Kerala

Hopea is extremely strong and tough. It is

difficult to work. However, it can be seasoned
easily and it is durable and not likely to be
damaged by white ants. It has been variously
used for ordinary house construction, railway
sleepers, piles, and boat
building. Endangered

960
kg/m

Throughout India

It is moderately hard and strong. It is used for

door and window frames, carts, and so forth.

580
kg/m

9601060
kg/m

8301060
kg/m

Ironwood is durable though it is very hard and

is not easily worked. It even resists
penetration of nails. It is used for ordinary
house construction, bridges, piles, agricultural
instruments, railway wagons, and railway
sleepers.
Karnataka, Kerala, Andhra
It is very hard, heavy and durable. Difficult to
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, work, it also requires slow and careful
Tamil Nadu
seasoning. It is used for railway sleepers,

agricultural instruments, paving blocks, and

heavy construction. Least concern

Yellow,
595
darkens
kg/m
with age

Jack

Mangifera caesia.

Jarul

Light
Lagerstroemiaflos
reddish
-reginae
gray

Kathal,
Keledang,
Jackfruit

Artocarpus
heterophyllus

640
kg/m

Yellow to
800
deep
kg/m
brown

Lauraceae,
Lauraceae
Saj

Dark
brown

880
kg/m

Mahogany

Reddish
brown

720
kg/m

Swietenia spp.

It is compact and even grained. It is

moderately strong and easy to work. It takes a
Karnataka, Maharashtra, Tamil good finish and maintains its shape well. It has
Nadu, Kerala
many uses including plain furniture, boat
construction, well curbs, door panels, cabinet
making and musical instruments.

Assam, Bengal, Maharashtra

Hard and durable, it can be easily worked. It

takes a good finish and is used for house
construction, boat building, railway carriages,
cart making and scaffolding.

Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh,

Kerala, Maharashtra, Tamil
Nadu

It is heavy and hard. It is durable under water

and in damp conditions, however, it cracks if
exposed to direct sun. White ants do not
attack it. It is used for piles, platforms of
wooden bridges, door and window panels.

Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh,

Bihar, Orissa, Madhya
Pradesh, Kerala, Tamil Nadu

It is strong, hard and tough. It is subject to

cracking and attack by dry rot. White ants do
not attack it. It takes a smooth finish. It is used
for such purposes as house construction, boat
construction, railway sleepers and structural
work.
It takes a good polish and is easily worked. It is
durable under water. It is most commonly

used for furniture, pattern making and cabinet

work.

Mango

Mangifera spp.

Deep
gray

560720
kg/m

650
kg/m

Throughout India

The mango tree is well known for its fruits. It is

easy to work and it maintains its shape well. It
is moderately strong. It is most often used for
cheap furniture, toys, packing boxes, cabinet
work, panels for doors and for windows.

Punjab

It is strong, tough and elastic. It takes up a

clean finish. It can be well seasoned. It is
turned and carved easily. Mulberry is typically
used for baskets and sports goods like hockey
sticks, tennis rackets andcricket bats.

Mulberry

Morus spp.

Brown

Oak

Quercus spp.

Yellowish 865
brown
kg/m

Oak is strong and durable, with straight silvery

grain. It is used for preparing sporting goods.

Dark
brown

It contains ripe wood in the outer crust. The

colour of this ripened wood is dark brown. It is
strong, durable and fibrous. Palm is used for
furniture, roof covering, rafters and joists.

Palm

Arecaceae

Pine

Pinus spp.

1040
kg/m

Throughout India

Pine wood is hard and tough except white pine

which is soft. It decays easily if it comes into
contact with soil. It is heavy and coarse
grained. It is used for pattern making, frames
for doors and windows, and for paving
material. White pine is light and straight
grained and is used in the manufacture

ofmatches.

Red cedar

Rosewood

Sal

Red

Dalbergia latifolia

Shorea robusta

Sandalwoo
Santalum spp.
d

Dark

Brown

480
kg/m

Assam, Nagpur

850
kg/m

It is strong, tough and close-grained. It is a

handsome wood that takes up a high polish. It
Kerala, Karnataka,
maintains its shape well and is available in
Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh,
large sizes. It is used for furniture of superior
Tamil Nadu, Orrissa
quality, cabinet work, ornamental carvings
and so forth. Vulnerable

8801050
kg/m

It is hard, fibrous and close-grained. It does

Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh,
not take up a good polish. It requires slow and
Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh,
careful seasoning. It is durable under ground
Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and water. It is used for railway
sleepers, shipbuilding, and bridges.

White or 930
Red
kg/m

Satinwood

Chloroxylon
swietenia

Yellow

Simul

Bombax spp.

White

960
kg/m

450
kg/m

It is soft and even grained. It is used for

furniture, door panels and well curbs.

It has a pleasant smell. It is commonly used

Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala,
for agricultural instruments, well curbs,
Assam, Nagpur, Bengal
wheels, and mallets. Vulnerable

Central and Southern India

All over India

It is very hard and durable. It is close grained.

It is used for furniture and other ornamental
works.Vulnerable
It is a loose grained, inferior quality wood.
Light in weight, it is used for packing cases,
the match industry, well curbs, and for cheap

furniture.

Siris

Sissoo

Spruce

Albizia spp.

Dalbergia sissoo

Dark
brown

Dark
brown

Picea spp.

Sundri

Heritiera fomes

Dark red

Tamarind

Tamarindus indica Dark

brown

770
kg/m

North India

Hard and durable, Siris wood is difficult to

work. It is used for well curbs in salty water,
beams, posts, and furniture.

Mysore, Maharashtra, Assam,

Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Orissa

Also known as shisham or tali, this wood is

strong and tough. It is durable and handsome
and it maintains its shape well. It can be easily
seasoned. It is difficult to work but it takes a
fine polish. It is used for high quality
furniture, plywoods, bridge piles, sport goods,
railway sleepers and so forth. It is a very good
material for decorative works and carvings.

480
kg/m

Spruce wood resists decay and is not affected

by the attack of marine borers. It is however
liable to shrink, twist and warp. It is used for
piles under water and (formerly) for aeroplane
construction.

960
kg/m

It is hard and tough. It is difficult to season

and work. It is elastic and close grained. It is
strong and durable. These qualities make it
suited for such uses as boat building, piles,
poles, tool handles, and carriage shafts.

1280
kg/m

Bengal

All over India

Tamarind is knotty and durable. It is a

beautiful tree for avenue and gardens. Its
development is very slow but it ultimately

forms a massive appearance. Its fruit is also

very useful. It is used for agricultural
instruments, well curbs, sugar mills, carts and
brick burning.

Teak

Toon, Red
Cedar

Tectona grandis

Deep
yellow to 639
dark
kg/m
brown

Toona ciliata

Reddish
450
brown or
kg/m
dull red

Central India and Southern

India

Moderately hard, teak is durable and fireresistant. It can be easily seasoned and
worked. It takes up a good polish and is not
attacked by white ants and dry rot. It does not
corrode iron fastenings and it shrinks little. It is
among the most valuable timber trees of the
world and its use is limited to superior work
only.

Assam

It can be easily worked. It is light in weight. It

is used for such products as furniture, packing
boxes, cabinet making and door panels.

WOOD-ALL OVER THE WORLD

Species/

Timber type/

Densit
y

Origin

Colour

kg/m3

Abura
Hallea ciliata
W Africa
Afrormosia
Pericopsis elata
W Africa
Afzelia (doussi)
Afzelia spp
W Africa

Hardwood
Light brown
Hardwood
Light brown
Hardwood
Reddish-brown

580*

710

830*

Workin
Treatabilit
Texture Moisture g
Durability y
moveme qualitie
nt
s
Heartwood
Fungi
Medium
/
Moderately
Small
Medium Not durable
fine
easy
Medium
/
Small
fine
Medium
/
Small
coarse

Medium
Medium
/
difficult

Durable very
durable
Very durable

Availability
/
Remarks

Uses

Price
Limited
Low

Extremely
Difficult

CITES II

Extremely
difficult

Limited
Medium

Colour variable. Resistant

to
Interior joinery,
acids
mouldings
Darkens on exposure.
Stains in
contact with iron in damp
conditions
Exudes yellow dye in
damp
conditions

Interior and exterior

joinery. Furniture.
Cladding
Interior and exterior
joinery. Cladding

Agba
Gossweilerodendr
on
balsamiferum
W Africa
Andiroba
Carapa
guianensis
S America
Ash, American
Fraxinus spp
USA
Ash, European
Fraxinus excelsior
Europe

Aspen
(American,
Canadian)
Populus
tremuloides
Canada, USA
Balsa
Ochroma lagopus
S America

Moderately
Hardwood

Hardwood
Pink to redbrown
Hardwood
Grey, brown
Hardwood
White to light
brown
Hardwood
Grey, white to
pale
brown
Hardwood
White
Hardwood
Yellow-brown to
red-brown

Basswood
Tilia americana
N America
Beech,
European

Hardwood
Creamy white to
pale brown
Hardwood
Whitish to pale
brown, pinkishred if
steamed

640
670*

coarse

Difficult

Coarse

710*

450

160*

coarse

Fine

Fine

Medium

Medium

Medium

Not durable

Easy

Regular
Medium

Moderately

Regular

Selected stock may be

tough

Interior joinery.
Sports

easy

Medium

and suitable for bending

goods

Extremely

Variable

difficult **

Low

Difficult

Limited
Medium

High buoyancy value.

Good
insulating value

Variable
Low

A hard, heavy, strong

timber.
Obtainable in large sizes

Medium

Large

Small

Good

Medium

Good

Not durable

Not durable

Not durable

Durable

Extremely
difficult

420

Fine

Good

Not durable

Easy

Medium

Easy
(red heart

Colour

kg/m3
640/71
0

Large

Good

Not durable

Workin
Texture Moisture g
Durability
moveme qualitie
nt
s
Fungi

extremely
difficult)

Large

Good

Not durable

Interior joinery
Interior joinery, trim.
Tool handles

Interior joinery.
Matches

Limited
Medium
Regular
Low/Mediu
m

Heat, sound and

vibration insulation
Heavy structural
work,
bridge and wharf
construction
Constructional
veneer.
Turnery, piano keys,
woodware
Furniture, interior

Excellent bending
properties

joinery, flooring.
Plywood

Availability
Treatability /
Remarks
Heartwood
Easy -

Fine

troublesome

- moderately Difficult
durable

Medium

Origin

Medium

Interior and exterior

joinery, trim.
Cladding

Medium

Medium Medium

Fine

Gum exudation may be

Limited

980*

720

Limited

Small

Medium
/

Densit
y

Hardwood
Light to dark
reddish
brown

durable -

Slightly
durable

Medium
/

Timber type/

Betula spp
North America

Good

durable

Species/

Birch, American

Medium Small

Yellowish-brown

Balau (yellow)
Shorea spp
S E Asia

Fagus sylvatica
Europe

510

moderately
easy

Price
Regular

Includes yellow birch

and

Furniture. Plywood.

Low

paper birch

Flooring

Birch, European
Betula pendula, B.
pubescens
Europe

Cedar of Lebanon
Cedrus libani
Europe
Cedar, Central/S
American
Cedrela spp
Central & S America
Cherry, American
Prunus serotina
USA

Cherry, European

Hardwood
White to light
brown

Light brown
Hardwood
Pinkish-brown to
dark reddishbrown
Hardwood
Reddish-brown
to
red

Chestnut, horse
Aesculus
hippocastanum
Europe
Chestnut, sweet

Hardwood

Douglas fir
Pseudotsuga
menziesii

Fine

580

Mediu
m

480

Coarse

Large

Good

White to pale
yellow-brown

easy

small **

Small

Includes silver birch and

white

Plywood. Furniture.

Low

birch

Turnery

Limited
Good

Good

Durable

Durable

Moderately
580

Fine

Medium

Good

durable
Moderately

630

Fine

510

Fine

560

Mediu
m

Medium

Small

Large

Good

durable

Medium Not durable

Good

Hardwood
Reddish-brown

moderately

Limited

Difficult

Extremely
difficult

Low
Limited
Medium

Durable
Moderately

750

Fine

Medium

Good

durable

No
information

N America & UK
Ebony
Diospyros spp
W Africa, India, Sri
Lanka

Hardwood
Black, some
grey/black
stripes

Ekki/azob

Hardwood

Lophira alata

Dark red to dark

W Africa

brown

Pungent cedar odour

Distinctive odour

No
information

Easy

Limited

furniture. Gates
Cabinet work,
interior
joinery. Racing boat

530

Mediu
m

Small

Good

Inclined to warp; use in

Limited
small
Medium/Hig
h
sections

1030/

Fine

Medium

Low

and boxes

Extremely

Limited

Stains in contact with

iron in

Interior and exterior

difficult

Medium

damp conditions

joinery. Fencing

Difficult extremely
difficult

Limited

Flooring. Joinery.

Low

Turnery

difficult

Medium

Extremely

Limited

difficult

High

Durable

Extremely

(variable)

difficult

Limited
Low/Mediu
m

Medium Very durable

1190

1070

Coarse

Large

Difficult

furniture
Brush backs. Fruit
trays

Regular

durable

Cabinet making,

Limited

Extremely

durable -

Cabinet making,
furniture, interior
joinery

Medium

Moderately
Softwood
Light reddishbrown

Joinery. Garden

building. Cigar boxes

Hardwood
Yellowish-brown

Not durable

Medium/

Hardwood
PInkish-brown

Castanea sativa
Europe
Danta
Nesogordonia
papaverifera
W Africa

670

Softwood

Prunus avium
Europe

Easy -

Marked flame-like growth

ring
Plywood. Interior and
figure. Long lengths and
exterior joinery.
clear
Construction. Vats &
grades available
tanks
Generally small sizes
Used primarily for
only
decorative work.
available. Dust may be
irritant
Turnery, inlaying
Moderately resistant to
termite
attack. Acid resistant.
Obtainable in large sizes

Heavy construction;
marine and
freshwater.
Bridges, sleepers,
etc

Elm, European
Ulmus spp

Hardwood

Europe

Light brown

560*

Species/

Timber type/

Densit
y

Origin

Colour

kg/m3

Elm, White

Aucoumea klaineana
W Africa
Gedu nohor/edinam
Entandrophragma
angolense
W Africa
Geronggang
Cratoxylon
arborescens
S E Asia
Greeenheart
Ocotea rodiaei
Guyana
Guarea
Guarea cedrata
W Africa
Hemlock, Western

580

Hardwood
Pinkish brown

Reddish brown

Workin
Texture Moisture g
Durability
moveme qualitie
nt
s
Fungi

Coarse

Medium

Medium

Mediu
m

560

Mediu
m

Small

Medium

540

Coarse

Medium

Medium

Medium

Medium

Hardwood
Pink to red

Hardwood
Yellow/olive green
to
1040
brown
Hardwood
Pinkish brown

Softwood

N America
Hevea - see
Rubberwood

Pale brown

Hickory

Hardwood

Carya spp

Brown to

Idigbo

Slightly
Medium durable

430

Hardwood

Tsuga heterophylla

N America (Eastern)

Medium

Hardwood

Ulmus americana
N America
Gaboon

Coarse

reddish-brown

Fine

Medium

Difficult

590

Mediu
m

Small

Medium

500

Fine

Small

Good

830

Coarse

Large

Difficult

Slightly
durable

Moderately
easy Difficult

Limited

Includes smooth leaved

elm,

Furniture, coffins.
Boat

Medium

wych elm

building

Availability
Treatability /
Remarks
Heartwood

Price
Limited

Good strength, toughness

and

Furniture. Coffins.

Medium

bending properties

Rubbing strips

Difficult

Limited

Slightly
durable

Difficult

Moderately

Extremely

durable

difficult

Slightly
durable

Easy

Interior joinery

Low

Medium

Durable

Extremely

(variable)

difficult

Variable
Low/Mediu
m

Moderately
easy Difficult

Regular
Low/Mediu
m

Moderately

Limited

easy

Medium

Moderately

exterior joinery

Variable

difficult

Slightly
durable

Furniture, interior
and

Limited
Low/Mediu
m

Variable

Slightly
durable

Used principally for

plywood and
blockboard

Medium

Extremely
Very durable

Uses

Available in very large

sizes

Heavy construction;
marine and
freshwater.
bridges, etc

Fine dust may be irritant. Furniture, interior

Resin exudation may
joinery, cabinet
occur
making
Obtainable in large sizes,
long

Construction. Joinery

lengths and clear grades

Good steam bending

Striking tool handles.

properties. Good shock

Ladder rungs. Sports

resistance

Stains yellow in contact

with

goods

Terminalia ivorensis

Hardwood

W Africa

Yellow

Iroko
Milicia excelsa, M.
regia
W Africa
Jarrah
Eucalyptus marginata
Australia
Jelutong
Dyera costulata
S E Asia
Kapur
Dryobalanops spp
S E Asia

560*

660

Mediu
m

820*

Mediu
m

Hardwood
Pink to dark red

White to yellow

470

Hardwood
Reddish-brown

770*

Timber type/

Densit
y

Origin

Colour

kg/m3

Dipterocarpus spp
S E Asia
Larch, European
Larix decidua
Europe

Larch, Japanese
Larix kaempferi
Europe

Lauan - see Meranti

Medium

Hardwood
Reddish-brown

durable /

Small

900

Fine
Mediu
m

Variable

difficult

Medium

Extremely

Regular
Low/Mediu
m

Durable /

difficult

Very durable difficult

Extremely

Medium

Very durable

Good

Slightly
durable

Small

Easy

Durable /
Very

Extremely

Variable

Medium

durable

difficult

Medium

Medium

Large

Difficult

Durable

difficult

Regular

Coarse

Medium

Large/

740*

Mediu
m

Hardwood
Pinkish-brown to
dark brown
Softwood
Pale reddishbrown
Softwood
Reddish-brown

Medium

550

530

Fine

Fine

Medium

Small

Small

Difficult

Durable
Moderately

Difficult

durable
(variable))

Latex ducts may be

present

Camphor-like odour

Price
Limited

difficult

Medium

Difficult

Low

Difficult

Regular

(variable)

Low

Slightly
durable
Extremely
Medium / Moderately
difficult
durable
Slightly
durable
Extremely
Medium / Moderately difficult
durable

joinery. Plywood
Exterior and interior
joinery. Bench tops.
Constructional work

work. Flooring

Heartwood
Extremely

Interior and exterior

Heavy constructional

Availability
/
Remarks

Limited
880

may occur

Treatabilit
y

Hardwood
Orange-red to
red-brown

water; stains in contact

with
iron when wet. Acidic and
may
corrode ferrous metals.
Occasional deposits of
stone

Limited
Low/mediu
m

Difficult

Workin
Texture Moisture g
Durability
moveme qualitie
nt
s
Fungi
Mediu
m

Extremely

Medium
/

Hardwood

Species/

Karri
Eucalyptus
diversicolor
Australia
Kempas
Koompassia
malaccensis
S E Asia
Keruing, apitong,
gurjun,
yang

Small

Durable

Hardwood
Yellow-brown

Mediu
m

Pattern making.
Drawing
boards
Exterior joinery.
Decking.
constructional
use
Uses

Heavy construction
Slightly acidic and may
encourage corrosion of
ferrous
metals

Heavy constructional
use

Heavy and general

construction.
Liable to resin exudation Decking,
vehicle flooring

Regular

Boat planking.

Low

Transmission poles

Regular
Medium

Stakes. General
construction

Lignum vitae
Guaiacum spp
Central America
Limba/afara

Hardwood
Dark
green/brown

Pale yellow,

W Africa

brown/straw

Lime, European

Hardwood
Yellowish-white
to
pale brown

Khaya spp
W Africa
Mahogany,
American
Swietenia
macrophylla
Central & S America
Makor
Tieghemella heckelii,
T. africana
W Africa
Maple, rock
Acer saccharum, A.
nigrum
N America

Fine

Medium

Difficult

Very durable

560*

Mediu
m

Small

Good

Slightly
durable

Hardwood

Terminalia superba

Tilia spp
Europe
Mahogany, African

1250

560

Fine

530*

Mediu
m

Hardwood
Reddish-brown
Hardwood
Pinkish-brown to
dark red

Medium

Small

Good

difficult

High

Moderately

Limited
Low/mediu
m

Medium

Not durable

Easy

Moderately

Extremely

durable

difficult
Extremely

560*

Mediu
m

Small

Good

640

Fine

Small

Medium Very durable

Medium

Slightly
Medium durable

Hardwood
Creamy white

CITES II

easy

Hardwood
Reddish-brown

Extremely

740

Species/

Timber type/

Densit
y

Origin

Colour

kg/m3

Fine

Durable

Workin
Texture Moisture g
Durability
moveme qualitie
nt
s
Fungi

Sports goods

Furniture. Interior
joinery
Carving, turnery.
Bungs.

Low

Clogs

Regular
Low/Mediu
m

Furniture, cabinet
work.
Boat building.
Joinery

CITES III

Furniture, cabinet
work.

Regular
High

Extremely
difficult

Variable
Medium
Regular
Medium

Fine dust may be irritant

High resistance to
abrasion

Availability
Treatability /
Remarks
Heartwood

Bushes and
bearings.

Limited/

difficult

Difficult

Obtainable in small sizes

only

Interior and exterior

joinery. Boat building
Furniture. Interior
and
exterior joinery. Boat
building. Plywood
Excellent flooring
timber.
Furniture. Sports
goods

Uses

Price

Maple, soft
Acer saccharinum,
A. rubrum
N America

Mengkulang
Heritiera spp
S E Asia
Meranti, dark
red/dark

Hardwood
Creamy white

550*

Fine

Medium

Slightly
Medium durable

Small

Slightly
Medium durable

Hardwood
Red, brown
Hardwood

720

Coarse

Slightly
durable

Moderately
easy

Difficult

Extremely

Limited
Medium

Furniture. Interior
joinery. Turnery

Limited

Interior joinery.
Construction.
Plywood

Medium

red seraya/red
lauan
Shorea spp
S E Asia
Meranti, light
red/light
red seraya/white
lauan
Shorea spp
S E Asia
Meranti, yellow/
yellow seraya

Medium to dark

710*

Medium Small

red-brown

Hardwood
Pale pink to mid
red

550*

Medium Small

Yellow-brown
Hardwood
Medium brown
to
dark red-brown

660*

Medium Small

830

Coarse

Hardwood
Reddish brown

640*

Medium Medium

Nyatoh
Palaquium spp

Hardwood
Pale pink to

720*

Fine

Oak, American red

Hardwood

red-brown

Quercus spp

Yellowish-brown

Oak, American
white
Quercus spp

Hardwood

N America

Pale yellow to
mid-brown

N America

with red tinge

Oak, European
Quercus robur, Q.
petraea

Hardwood

Europe

Yellowish-brown

790

Small

Medium

Medium Medium

(variable)

Slightly
durable

Extremely

Medium / Moderately difficult

Slightly
Medium durable
Durable /
Moderat Very
e
durable

Moderately
durable
Slightly
durable
Medium / Moderately
Good

durable

Slightly
Medium durable
Moderately

770

720*

Medium Medium

Medium
/
coarse

Species/

Timber type/

Densit
y

Origin

Colour

kg/m3

Medium

difficult

(variable)

durable

Hardwood

Shorea spp
S E Asia
Merbau
Intsia bijuga, I.
palembanica
S E Asia
Niangon
Heritiera utilis, H.
densiflora
W Africa

S E Asia

Medium - durable

Medium durable /
Durable

Medium
/

Durable

difficult

Workin
Texture Moisture g
Durability
moveme qualitie
nt
s
Fungi

(variable)
Extremely
difficult
(variable)

Regular
Low/Mediu
m

Interior and exterior

joinery. Plywood

Interior joinery.
Plywood

Regular
Low
Limited
Low/Mediu
m

Interior joinery.
Plywood

Extremely

Variable

Liable to stain in contact

with

Joinery. Flooring.

difficult

Medium

iron in damp conditions

Structural work

Extremely
difficult

Variable
Low

Interior and exterior

joinery. Furniture

Extremely
difficult

Variable
Low

Furniture. Interior
joinery.

Moderately
easy/
Difficult

Regular

Furniture. Interior

Medium

joinery

Extremely

Regular

difficult

Medium

Extremely
difficult

Variable
Medium/Hig
h

Acidic nature; iron staining

may
occur in damp conditions.
May
also corrode metals
Iron staining may occur
in
damp conditions,
similarly
corrosion of metals

Treatabilit
y

Availability
/
Remarks

Heartwood

Price

Furniture, cabinet
work.
Interior and exterior
joinery. Flooring.
Tight
cooperage
Furniture. Interior
and
exterior joinery.
Flooring. Tight
cooperage. Fencing

Uses

Oak, Japanese
Quercus mongolica
(mainly)
Japan
Oak, Tasmanian
Eucalyptus
delegatensis
E obliqua, E regnans
Australia & Tasmania
Obeche /wawa
Triplochiton
scleroxylon
W Africa
Opepe
Nauclea diderrichii
W Africa
Padauk
Pterocarpus spp
W Africa, Andamans,
Myanmar
Parana pine

Hardwood
Pale yellow

Hardwood
Pale pink to
brown
Hardwood
White to pale
yellow

Yellow to
orange-yellow
Hardwood
Red to dark
purple-brown

S America
Pine, Canadian red
Pinus resinosa

Reddish yellow,

Pine, Corsican
Pinus nigra var
maritima

Softwood

N America

610/

Medium Medium

Medium

Coarse

Medium

Medium

710*

390

Very limited

Furniture. Interior

durable

difficult**

High

joinery

Limited

Furniture. Interior

Medium

joinery

Regular
Low/Mediu
m

Interior joinery.

Moderately

Difficult

durable

Medium Small

Good

Not durable

Difficult

Furniture. Plywood
Heavy construction.
Marine and
freshwater
use. Exterior joinery.
Flooring

white

750

Coarse

Small

Medium Very durable

Moderately
easy

Variable
Low

740*/
850

Coarse

Small

Medium Very durable

Moderately
easy

Limited
High

Dust may be irritant

Interior and exterior

joinery. Turnery.
Flooring

Moderately
easy

Regular
Low/Mediu
m

Distortion may occur in

drying

Interior joinery.
Plywood

Moderately

Limited

easy

Low

Extremely

Regular

Medium (variable)

difficult

Low

Joinery, construction

Slightly
Medium durable

Moderately

Regular

Pallets, packaging.

easy

Low

Joinery

Moderately

Variable

easy

Low

550

450

Fine

Fine

Medium

Small

510

Coarse

Pinus elliottii
Brazil, Chile
(Plantation

Softwood
Pale brown to
yellow

590

Medium Medium

Pine, Jack
Pinus banksiana

Softwood
Pale brown/
reddish

Pine, lodgepole
Pinus contorta

Softwood
Yellow to pale

brown

Good

Good

Not durable
Slightly
durable

Slightly
durable
Slightly
durable

Light yellowish-

Europe

Extremely

Hardwood

Softwood
Golden brown
with
bright red
streaks
Softwood

Araucaria angustifolia

670

Moderately

Small

(variable)

Construction. Joinery

Pine, elliotis

grown)

Canada, USA

brown

500

470

Medium Medium

Fine

Small

Slightly
Medium durable

Good

Slightly
durable
Difficult - Moderately Extremely

Regular

Construction, joinery

Construction. Joinery

N America
Pine, maritime
Pinus pinaster
Europe

brown tinged
with
red
Softwood
Pale brown to
yellow

durable

Species/

Timber type/

Densit
y

Origin

Colour

kg/m3

Pine, patula
Pinus patula
South Africa

Pine, pitch,
American
Pinus palustris, P.
elliottii
Southern USA
Pine, ponderosa
Pinus ponderosa
N America

Pine, radiata
Pinus radiata
S Africa, S America,
Australia, New
Zealand
Pine, Scots
Pinus sylvestris
UK
Pine, Southern
Pinus spp including
P.
palustris, P. elliottii, P.
echinata, P. taeda
Southern USA
Pine, yellow

Softwood
Pale brown to
yellow

to reddish-brown

670*

Yellow to pale

Coarse

Medium

Good

Mediu
m

Mediu
m

Fine

480

Mediu
m

Medium

Medium

510

durable

Coarse

Slightly
durable
Slightly
durable

Medium

Small

Medium

Medium

Good

Good

brown

Softwood
Pale yellowishbrown to redbrown

- Moderately Difficult

Workin
Texture Moisture g
Durability
moveme qualitie
nt
s
Fungi

480

Softwood

Medium

Medium

Not durable
Slightly
durable

Heartwood

Pallets and
packaging.

Low

Joinery

590

Mediu
m

durable/
Medium

Medium

Moderately
durable

Softwood
Pale yellow to
light

Plane, European

Hardwood

brown

420

Fine

Small
No

Good

Slightly
durable

Uses

Price

Moderately

Limited

Pallets and
packaging.

easy

Low

Joinery

Difficult -

Regular
Medium

Denser material also

known as
longleaf yellow pine or
longleaf
pitch pine

Interior and exterior

joinery. Heavy
construction

Moderately

Variable

easy

Low

Construction. Joinery

Moderately
easy Difficult

Regular

Construction,
furniture,

Low

packaging

Regular
Low

Construction, joinery

Slightly
durable
Difficult - Moderately Extremely
durable

Regular

Availability
Treatability /
Remarks

- Moderately Extremely
durable
difficult
Slightly
durable

Low

difficult

Slightly
Softwood
Pale yellow to
light
brown

Pinus strobus
N America

590

Softwood
Yellow-brown to
red-brown
Softwood
Pale to dark
yellow

Slightly
durable

Medium
530

difficult

Difficult Extremely
difficult
Moderately
easy

Regular

Also know as Southern

yellow

Construction, joinery.

Low

pine

Plywood

Regular
Low/mediu
m

Also known as Quebec

yellow
pine and Eastern white
pine

Pattern making,
drawing

Limited

Quarter sawn material

Decorative

boards, doors

Platanus x hispanica

Mottled brown

Poplar

Hardwood
Grey white to
pale
brown

Europe

Populus spp
Europe
Poplar, American
yellow

Hardwood

Peltogyne spp
Central & S America
Ramin

Purple to
purplish-brown

Redwood,
European
Pinus sylvestris

450

Hardwood
White to pale
yellow

880

670

Mediu
m

Scandinavia/USSR

Species/

Timber type/

Densit
y

Origin

Colour

kg/m3

510

Hardwood

Dalbergia spp

Medium to dark
870*
purplish-brown
with
black streaks
Hardwood
Cream to light
560
brown
Hardwood
Medium reddish640
brown with
marked
stripe figure

cylindricum
West Africa
Sepetir
Sindora spp
S E Asia
Seraya- see Meranti
Sesendok

Large

Medium

Not durable

Medium

Not durable

Medium
/

Moderately

Hardwood
Golden brown
Hardwood

Small

Difficult

durable Durable

Large

Medium Medium

Medium

Not durable

Medium

Difficult

Variable

(variable)

Low

Pallet blocks, box

boards, turnery.
Wood
wool

Extremely

Limited

Heavy construction.

difficult

High

Flooring. Turnery

680

Workin
Texture Moisture g
Durability
moveme qualitie
nt
s
Fungi

Medium Small

Medium

Medium
Medium
/
Medium - /
Coarse
Large
Good
Medium Medium

Easy

Slightly
durable
Difficult Medium - Moderately Extremely
durable

Rosewood

Rubberwood / hevea
Hevea brasiliensis
Brazil, S E Asia
Sapele
Entandrophragma

Fine/
Mediu
m

Mediu
m

Softwood
Pale yellowishbrown to red
brown

S America, India

Fine

purposes.

No
information

produces lacewood
figure

Inlay work

see Tulipwood

Purpleheart

Gonystylus spp
S E Asia

640

informati
on

Medium

Very durable

Not durable
Moderately

Medium

Difficult

Durable

Mouldings. Furniture
Construction.
Joinery.

Regula
r
Low

Furniture

difficult
Availability
Treatability /
Remarks
Heartwood

Uses

Price
Unlikely to be available as
raw
material. Fine dust may
be

Interior joinery.
Cabinet

Extremely

D nigra

difficult

CITES I

Easy

Limited

Furniture, Turnery

Regular

Interior joinery.

Medium

Furniture. Flooring

Limited
Low

Joinery. Furniture

Limited

Mouldings, interior

Difficult

durable
Medium Small

Variable
Low/Mediu
m

Extremely
difficult

irritant

work, turnery

Endospermum spp
S E Asia
Spruce, Canadian
Picea spp
Canada

Spruce, Sitka

Pale cream to
straw
yellow
Softwood
White to pale
yellow

Pinkish-brown

Sycamore
Acer
pseudoplatanus
Europe
Taun
Pometia pinnata

Hardwood

S E Asia
Teak
Tectona grandis
Burma, Thailand
and plantations
elsewhere

500

White or
yellowish-white
Hardwood
Pale pinkishbrown

450

Not durable

Good

Not durable
Slightly
durable

Medium Small

Good

Not durable
Slightly
durable

Coarse

Small

630

Fine

Medium

Good

720

Coarse

Medium

Medium

Easy

Low/mediu
m

Golden brown,
sometimes with
dark

Difficult

Difficult

Construction.

Regular

Construction.
Packaging,

Low

pallets

Not durable

Easy

Moderately

Difficult Extremely

Limited

durable

difficult

Low

Extremely
660

Medium Small

Medium

Very durable difficult

Turnery. Joinery

Medium

Regular
High

Structural work.
Turnery, joinery,
furniture
Fine dust may be irritant.
Good
chemical resistance.
Resistant
to termites. Some
cultivated

Furniture. Interior
and

timber may have lower

building

durability

Yellowish to olive 510

Fine

Medium

Good

Slightly
durable

No
information

brown with dark

Limited

exterior joinery. Boat

Joinery, Furniture

Medium

stains

Species/

Timber type/

Densit
y

Origin

Colour

kg/m3

Hardwood

Hardwood
Pale pinkishbrown

joinery

Low

markings

Reddish-brown

Also known as Kauvula

(Fiji)

Regular

Hardwood

American yellow
Liriodendron
tulipifera

Virola spp
Dialyanthera spp

Medium

Limited

Hardwood

Utile
Entandrophragma
utile
W Africa
Virola, light

Small

400*/

Tulipwood /Poplar,

N America

to
coarse

Softwood

Picea sitchensis
North America, UK

480

Workin
Texture Moisture g
Durability
moveme qualitie
nt
s
Fungi

660

Mediu
m

530*

Mediu
m

Moderately
Medium

Medium durable Durable

Treatabilit
y

Availability
/
Remarks

Heartwood

Price

Medium Not durable

Interior and exterior

Extremely

Regular

difficult

Medium

joinery. Furniture and

cabinet work

Limited
Low

Carpentry,
mouldings.
Furniture. Plywood.

Easy Medium

Uses

Moderately
easy

Central and S
America
Wallaba
Eperua falcata,
E. grandiflora
Guyana
Walnut, African
Lovoa trichilioides
W Africa
Walnut, American
Juglans nigra
N America
Walnut, European
Juglans regia
Europe
Weng / Panga
panga
Millettia laurentii
M stuhlmannii
Central & E Africa
Western red
cedar
Thuja plicata
N America

Hardwood
Dull reddishbrown

910

Coarse

Medium*
*

Medium Very durable

Slightly
durable

Hardwood
Yellowish-brown,
sometimes with
dark
streaks

560

Mediu
m

Hardwood
Rich dark brown
Hardwood
Grey-brown with

660

670

Coarse

Coarse

Small
Small/
Medium*
*
Medium

Moderately
Good

Good

difficult

Medium

durable
Moderately

880*

Coarse

Small

Good

Durable

Gum exudation likely

Difficult -

Difficult Extremely
difficult
Difficult

durable

Variable

Furniture, cabinet
work.

Medium

and exterior joinery

Variable
Also known as Black
Medium/Hig
walnut
h

Furniture. Gun
stocks

Limited
High

Extremely
difficult

Transmission poles.
Flooring, Decking.
Heavy
construction

Staining likely if in contact

with
iron under damp
conditions

Furniture, turnery.
Gun
stocks
Interior and exterior
joinery. Flooring.

Limited
Medium

Turnery

Softwood
Reddish-brown

Limited

Medium - Moderately Extremely

durable
difficult

dark streaks
Hardwood
Dark brown with
fine black
veining

Extremely

390

Whitewood, American - see Tulipwood

Whitewood,
European
Softwood
Picea abies and Abies
alba
White to pale
470
Europe, USSR
yellowish brown
Willow
Hardwood
Salix spp
450
Europe
Yew

pinkish-white

Taxus baccata
Europe

Orange-brown to 670
purple-brown

Softwood

Coarse

Small

Good

Moderately

Difficult -

durable -

Extremely

Durable

difficult

Mediu
m

Medium

Good

Slightly
durable

Fine

Small

Good

Not durable

Mediu
m

Small/
Medium*
*

Difficult

Durable

Difficult Extremely
difficult
Difficult

Difficult

Regular
Medium

Fine dust may be irritant.

An
acidic timber which may
corrode metals under
damp
conditions and cause
iron
staining

Shingles, exterior
cladding.
Greenhouses,
beehives

Regular

Joinery. Construction.

Low

Flooring

Limited
Medium/hig
h

Cricket bats. Boxes,

crates

Very
Limited

Furniture, turnery.

High

Interior joinery

CUTTING

A mountain ash (Eucalyptus regnans) being felled. Dated to c. 1884-1917, Australia

Timberjack Harvester at work

Logging is
the
cutting,
skidding,
of trees or logs onto trucks[1] or skeleton cars.

on-site

processing,

and

loading

In forestry, the term logging is sometimes used in a narrow sense concerning the logistics of
moving wood from the stump to somewhere outside the forest, usually a sawmill or a lumber
yard. However, in common usage, the term may be used to indicate a range of forestry or
silviculture activities.

Illegal logging refers to what in forestry might be called timber theft. It can also refer to the
harvest, transportation, purchase or sale of timber in violation of laws. The harvesting
procedure itself may be illegal, including using corrupt means to gain access to forests;
extraction without permission or from a protected area; the cutting of protected species; or the
extraction of timber in excess of agreed limits.
In common usage what is sometimes called clearcut logging is not is necessarily considered a
type of logging but a harvest or silviculture method and is simply called clearcutting or block
cutting. In the forest products industry logging companies may be referred to as logging
contractors.
Cutting trees with the highest value and leaving those with lower value, often diseased or
malformed trees, is referred to as high grading. It is sometimes called selective logging, and
confused with selection cutting, the practice of managing stands by harvesting a proportion of
trees.
Logging usually refers to above-ground forestry logging. Submerged forests exist on land that
has been flooded by damming to create reservoirs. Such trees are logged using underwater
logging or by the lowering of the reservoirs in question. Ootsa Lake and Williston Lake in British
Columbia, Canada, are notable examples where timber recovery has been needed to remove
inundated forests.

Clearcutting
Clearcutting, or clearfelling, is a harvest method that removes essentially all the standing trees
in a selected area. Depending on management objectives, a clearcut may or may not have

reserve trees left to attain goals other than regeneration, [7] including wildlife habitat
management, mitigation of potential erosion or water quality concerns. Silviculture objectives
for clearcutting, (for example, healthy regeneration of new trees on the site) and a focus
on forestry distinguish it from deforestation. Other methods include Shelterwood cutting, group
selective, single selective, seed-tree cutting, patch cut and retention cutting.

Logging methods

The Washington Iron Works Skidder in Nuniong is the only one of its kind in Australia, with
donkey engine, spars and cables still rigged for work.
The above operations can be carried out by different methods, of which the following three are
considered industrial methods:

Tree-length logging
Trees are felled and then delimbed and topped at the stump. The log is then transported to the
landing, where it is bucked and loaded on a truck. This leaves the slash (and the nutrients it
contains) in the cut area where it must be further treated if wildland fires are of concern.

Full-tree logging

Trees and plants are felled and transported to the roadside with top and limbs intact. The trees
are then delimbed, topped, and bucked at the landing. This method requires that slash be
treated at the landing. In areas with access to cogeneration facilities, the slash can
be chipped and used for the production of clean electricity or heat. Full-tree harvesting also
refers to utilization of the entire tree including branches and tops. This technique removes both
nutrients and soil cover from the site and so can be harmful to the long term health of the area
if no further action is taken, however, depending on the species, many of the limbs are often
broken off in handling so the end result may not be as different from tree-length logging as it
might seem.

Cut-to-length logging
Cut-to-length logging is the process of felling, delimbing, bucking and sorting (pulpwood,
sawlog, etc.) at the stump area, leaving limbs and tops in the forest.Harvesters fell the tree,
delimb and buck it, and place the resulting logs in bunks to be brought to the landing by
a skidder or forwarder. This method is routinely available for trees up to 900 mm in diameter.
Harvesters are employed effectively in level to moderately steep terrain. Harvesters are highly
computerized to optimize cutting lengt, control harvest area by GPS and utilize price list for
each specific logs to archive most economical results during harvesting.

Springboards

The image at the top of the page illustrates the use of springboards. Loggers cut a springboard
notch into which they insert the springboard, which is then used as a platform, allowing the
logger to stand above obstructions/snow or to cut higher-up where the trunk is narrower.

Transporting logs

Timber rafting in Joensuu canal at 2009.

Felled logs are then generally transported to a sawmill to be cut into timber, a paper mill
for paper pulp, or for other purposes like fence posts. There were many methods for moving
logs from where they were cut to a rail line of a mill. The cheapest methods of transportation of
timber are log driving and timber rafting which makes use of a river's current to move floating
tree trunks downstream to sawmills and paper mills. To help herd the logs to the mill, in 1960
the Alaskan Lumber and Pulp Mill had a specially designed boat that was constructed of 1 1/2
inch steel. In the late 1800s and the first half of the 1900s the most common method was
the high-wheel loader which was a set of wheels over ten feet tall that the log or logs were
strapped beneath. Oxes were first used with the high-wheel loaders, but in the 1930s tractors
replaces the oxes. In 1960 the largest high wheel loader was built for service in California.
Called the Bunnyan Buggie the unit was self propelled and had wheels 24 feet high and a

front dozer blade that was 30 feet across and 6 feet high. Log transportation can be
challenging and costly since trees are often far from navigable roads. Road building and
maintenance may be restricted in National Forests or other wilderness areas since it can cause
erosion in riparian zones. When felled logs sit adjacent to a road, heavy machinery may simply
lift logs onto trucks. Most often, special heavy equipment is used to gather the logs from site
and move them close to the road to be lifted on trucks.Many methods exist to transport felled
logs lying away from roads. Cable logging involves a yarder which pulls one or several logs
along the ground to platform where a truck is waiting. When the terrain is too uneven to pull
logs on the ground, a skyline can lift logs off the ground vertically, similar to a ski lift. Helilogging, which uses heavy-lift helicopters to remove cut trees from forests by lifting them on
cables attached to a helicopter, may be used when cable logging is not allowed due to
environmental concerns or when roads are lacking. It reduces the level of infrastructure
required to log in a specific location, reducing the environmental impact of logging. Less
mainstream forms of log transport, or methods used previously include horses, oxen, or balloon
logging.

SEASONING

Seasoning is the controlled process of reducing the moisture content (MC) of the timber so that
it is suitable for the environment and intended use. We need to reduce the MC of timber for the
following reasons:
_ Every time the MC reduces the timber shrinks especially tangentially.
_ Consequently it will show fewer tendencies to warp, split or shake.
_ Seasoned timber although lighter will be stronger and more reliable.
The sap in timber is a food for fungi and wood parasites. Remove the sap and the wood will be
less attractive to these dangers. For construction grade timber the timber must be below 20%
MC to reduce the chances of Dry Rot and other fungi infestations.
_ Dry well seasoned timber is stronger.
_ Dry well seasoned timber is easier to work with and consequently safer especially machine
working.
Timber with higher moisture content is difficult to finish i.e. paint, varnish, etc.
There are two main ways of seasoning timber, Natural (Air) and Artificial (Kiln) drying. Both
methods require the timber be stacked and separated to allow the full circulation flow of air,
etc. around the stack.

Air Seasoning.

Air seasoning is the method used with the timber stacked in the open air. It requires the
following:
Stacked stable and safely with horizontal spacing of at least 25 mm.
Vertical spacing achieved by using timber battens (piling sticks) of the same or neutral
species.Today some timber yards are using plastics.The piling sticks should be vertically

aligned and spaced close enough to prevent bowing say 600 to 1200 mm max centres.

Ends of boards sealed by using a suitable sealer or cover to prevent too rapid drying out via
the end grain.
The stack raised well clear of the ground, vegetation, etc to provide good air circulation and
free from rising damp, frost, etc.
Over head cover from effects of direct sunlight and driving weather.
The details depend on the size, quantity and species of the timber.You cannot however expect
to obtain less than 16 - 17% mc in the UK.Further seasoning needs to be done inside, in heated
and ventilated buildings.

Kiln Seasoning.

There are two main methods used in artificial seasoning, compartmental, and progressive.
Both methods rely on the controlled environment to dry out the timber and
require the following factors:
_ Forced air circulation by using large fans, blowers, etc.
_ Heat of some form provided by piped steam.
_ Humidity control provided by steam jets.
The amount and duration of air, heat and humidity again depends on species, size, quantity,
etc. Schedules are published for the various species to enable operators to select an

appropriate drying environment.In the UK they are usually provided by the Kiln Manufacturers
and also published in the Handbook of Hardwoods and Handbook of Softwoods (BRE).

Compartmental.

A compartment kiln is a single enclosed container or building, etc. The timber is stacked as
described above and the whole stack is seasoned using a programme of settings until the
whole stack is reduced to the MC required. Compartment kilns differ from progressive kilns in
that the timber is loaded into the kiln and remains in place throughout the drying process.
Compartment kilns are usually smaller than progressive kilns, and because of their
construction the temperature and humidity conditions within them can be closely controlled.
Consequently, they are often used to dry expensive material or woods which are difficult to dry.
Circulation may be either forced or natural just as with progressive kilns. Drying conditions
cannot be controlled as closely in natural draft compartment kilns, however, as in forced draft

kilns, and the rate of drying is also slower. For these reasons kilns built today are of the forced
draft type and many of the old natural draft types have been converted.

Progressive.
In the progressive kiln, timber enters at one end and moves progressively through the kiln
much as a car moves through a tunnel. Temperature and humidity differentials are maintained
throughout the length of the kiln so that the lumber charge is progressively dried as it moves
from one end to the other. Progressive kilns may be further subdivided into natural draft
kilns in which heated air is allowed to rise through the material by natural convection,
and forced draft kilns in which fans are employed to force the air through the wood. A
progressive kiln has the stack on trolleys that progressively travel through chambers that
change the conditions as it travels through the varying atmospheres.

Progressive Kiln

The advantage of this system, although much larger, has a continuous flow of seasoned
timber coming off line.
A number of commercial processes for seasoning of timber are available, the most common of
which is kiln-drying. Kiln seasoning accelerates the process of seasoning by using external
energy to drive the moisture out. The timber is stacked in much the same way as it is for air
drying, and is placed inside a chamber in which the conditions can be varied to give best
seasoning results. Air is circulated around the charge (stacked timber) and the temperature
and humidity can be varied to give optimum drying. Each species has different cell
characteristics and therefore requires different drying schedules. Typically the timber may be in
the kiln for a period of between two days to one week.
Generally, it is not feasible to kiln-dry structural timber in thicknesses greater than 45 mm,
although there are limited amounts of 70 mm thick kiln-dried softwood members in the market

place. All untreated structural pine and some commercial hardwoods are seasoned, mostly
using kilns that are often heated by sawmill by-products or gas.
Plenty of research is continually being done to determine kiln drying schedules for different
species. An optimum schedule will remove the moisture as quickly as possible, with the
minimum quantity of introduced energy, and giving minimum damage to the dried timber.
After kiln seasoning, there is often some damage to cells near the surface of the wood. (All of
the moisture passes through those cells.) They have in fact collapsed, but can easily be
pumped back up in a reconditioning chamber. This chamber introduces steam for a period and
puts some moisture back into the outer cells and removes the effect of seasoning collapse.
Hard woods have closed cell structure, so take more time in being seasoned and dried.