GET-l 00BL

DISTRIBUTION DATA BOOK

A col lection of fundamental data pertain ing to th e elements of, and th e
loads on, d istributi on sys te ms

In working on problems involving distribution

circuits and equipmenl, our engineers often lind
il convenient to refer to basic data that have been
compiled from various sources by our Power
Distribution Systems Engineering Operation.
Since this material is equally useful to distribution
engineers in the electric utility industry, we are
printing it under one cover and presenting it as
a Distribution Data Book.

GENERAL .

lon nOMI

ELECTRIC

P"nled in u. s .....

TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE

SECTION

I. Circuit Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..

A. Resistance and Reactance of

Overhead Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
B. Resistance and Reactance of Cables. . . .. 5
C. Underground Cables. . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
5
D. Aeri al Cables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
E. Transformer Characte ri stics . . . . . . . . . 11
II. Underground Distribution Systems fo r

Residential Areas . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . 13

A. Primary Syste m ....... ... ... .....

13

B. Secondary System . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . '3

C. T ransformers . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
O. Separable Insulated Connector

13

M~u l ~

............ ...... .
1. Modules Available ...... . . . ...

14
14
2. Selection ............ . . .. 14
III . Transformer Connections . . . . . . . . . . . .

15

A. Transformer Polarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
B. Single-phase Paralleling . . . . . . . . . . . .. 15
C. Small Three-phase Step-down Banks .... 15
1. Delta-delta Banks . . . . . . . . . . . .. 15
2. Wye-delta Banks . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3. Deltawye Banks ....... .
16
4. Open-wye, Opendelta Banks ..... 16
5. Open-delta, Open-delta Banks . .... 16
6. Wye-wye Banks ........ .
16
7. Caution . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
D. Autotransformers . . . . . . . .... .
16
IV. Short-circuit Calculations ... . . . . . ....
A. Line Impedance . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .
B. Transforme r I mp,edance
. . . . . . ... . .
C. Impedance of Lines with Different
Voltages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
D. Effect of Offset. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
E. Per Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F. Allowable Sho rt-circuit Currents for
Insulated Cond uctors . . . . . . . . . . .

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Temperature Limits ..... ...

Conductor Heating. . . . . . .
Characteristics of Short Circuits ...
Application Procedure . . . . . . . . .
Examples of Data Use. . . . . . . . ..

17
17
17
17
17
18
19
19
19
19
20
20

V. Voltage Calcu lations . . . . . . . . . . . . .

22
A. Voltage Drop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
B. Tables fo r Estimating Vo ltage Drop. . . .. 22
1. Threephase Problems
. . . . . .. 22
2. Single-phase Problems . . . . . . . . .. 23
VI. Voltage Regu lating Equipment
. . . . . .. 26
A. Selection of Regulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1. Type... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
2. Location and Size .... . . .
26
3. Choice for Threephase Circuits ... 28

PAGE

SECTION
B. Regulator Control Setti ngs

1.
2.
3.
4.

.. . . ...

Regulator Bandwidth ..........

Time Delay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Voltage Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Line-drop Compensator Setting
Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..

28
28
30
30

30
C. Light Fli cker. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 31
D. Lamp Operating Vo ltage. . . . . . . . . . .. 32
E. Reduction of Light Flicker by
Bank in g Secondaries. . . . . . . . . . . .. 32
VII. Application of Shunt Capacitors .. .
A. Basic Considerations in Applying
Shunt Capacitors ..... . . . . . . . . .

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Released Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . .
Voltage Rise . .
. . . . . . . . . ..
Reduction of Losses . . . . . . . . . ..
Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Additional Benefits .. .. .......

33
33
33
34
34

36
36

VII I. Lightning Protection of Distribution

Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
A. Primary Distribution Systems. . . . . . . .. 39

1. Impulse Withstand Level to

be Protected . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. Selection of Arrester. . . . . . . .
3. Effective Location of Arresters
4. Special Applications . . . . . . . . . ..
5. Lightning Protection of UD
Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6. Overhead Line Protection ..

39
39
41
42

43
43

B. Secondary Distribution Systems. . . . . .. 44

IX. Overcurrent Protection of Distribution
Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
A. Primary Circuits ....
. . . . . . . . . . . 46
1. Calculating Short-circuit Currents .. 46

2. Selection of Overcurrenr Protective

Equipment .... ....... . . .. 47
3. Coordination Requirements . . . . .. 49
B. Seconda ry Circuits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 50
X. System Design - Loading Data ... . . . . . .
A. Estimating Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Load Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Coincidence of Diversity Factor . . . . . ..
D. Distribution Transform er Size . . . . . . . .
E. Thermal Loading of Und erground Cables..
F. Design of the Secondary System . . . . . .
G. Monitor ing Transformer Loading . . . . . .

51
51
51
52
52
55
55
56

XI. Losses and Economic Data . . . . . . . . . . ..

A. Line Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
B. Transforme r Losses .. . . .. . . . . . . . . .
C. Evaluation of Energy Losses . . . . . . . ...
D. Increased Revenue from Increased
Voltage . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . ..
E. Present Va lue of $1.00

57
57
57
57
59
59

TABLES
PAGE
Table 1. Physical and e lectrical characteristics of o pen -wire distribution li ne conductors . . . . . . .
Table 2. DC resistance and correction factors for AC resistance ..
Table 3. Conductor sizes, insulation th ickness and jacket thickness
Part A. Crosslinked-polyethylene-i nsulated cab les. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Part B. Rubber-insulated cables. .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . _ . . _ . . . . . . ..
Part C. Paper-insulated cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .... . . ... _ . _ ..
Tabl e 4. Approximate distribu tion transformer impedances. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Table 5. Full-load current of transformers in amperes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Table 6. Typical data fo r single-conductor concentric neutral cable, crosslinkedpo lyethylene-insu lated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .
Table 7. Typical data for si ngle-phase trip lexed 600.., service cable, crosslinked jX)lyethylene-insulated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . . . . ..
Table 8 . Transformer imba lance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tab le 9. Circuit breakers, circu it reclosers, di stri bution expulsion arresters and fuses . . . . . . . . . . .
. ............
Table 10. Max imum short-circuit temperatures for types of insul at ion. . .
Table 11. Natu ral si nes, tangents and a ngles corresponding to cosine values of 1.00 to 0.00 . . . . . . . . ..
Table 12. Voltage drops of open -wi re lines in volts per 100,000 ampere feet
. .......... . _ .
Table 13. Vol tage d rops of undergrou nd cables in volts per 100,000 ampere feet. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Table 14. Function performed by regulators and capacitors . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Table 15. l oad bonus regulatio n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .
Table 16. Power-factor correction fa ctors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Table 17. Application guide for group-fu sing capacitor banks with General Electric universal
ca ble-type and oil cutout fuse link ratings " N", "OI L", "K", and "T" types
(G ro tmded-wye and de lta co nn ections; 25-, 50- and 100-kVar units) ..
Table 18. Application guide fo r group-fusi ng capacitor banks with General Electric universal
cab le-type and oil cutou t fuse link ratings "N", "O i l", "K", and "T" types
(Floating-wye con nection; 25-, 50- and 100-kVar units) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ ....
Table 19. Applicatio n gu ide for group-fu sing capacitor banks wit h General Electric universal
cable-type and o il cutout fuse link ratings "N", "Oil" , "K", and " T" types
....
(Grounded -wye and delta connections; 15 0-,200-, and 300-kVa r un its) . . . . . . . . . .
Table 20. Application guide for group-fu sing capacitor banks with General Electric universal
cable-type and o il cutout fu se link ratings "N", "O IL", UK", and "T" ty pes
(Float ing-wye connections; 150-, 200-, and 300-kVa r units)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Table 2 1. Basic impulse insulation leve ls (Blls) and withstand tests ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Table 22. Arrester ratings vs maximum overvoltages ... . . . . . . . . . .
Table 23. Performance characteristics of Genera l Electric distribution arresters ...
Table 24. Dielectric tests for dry-type transformers and dry -type sh unt reactors .... _ . . . _ . . _ ..
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . _ . . _ ...
Table 25. UD transformer-arrester protection .... .
Table 26. T ime-current curves for HR reclosers ..
Table 27. Distri bution transformer losses . . . . . . . .
Table 28. Distribution transformer losses at other than rated voltages ....

6
7
9
10
11
11
12
13

14
15
18

19
23
24
25
27
27
35

36
38

38

38

40
40
41
42
44

47
58
. .. ... 58

Table 29. Losses for distribution transformers operating at other than rated voltages .... . . . . . . . . . . 58
Table 30. Present values (Vn) of $1 .00 in vestments to be made in years (n) from now, based
on certain rates of interest (i) .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 59

I - CIRCUIT CHARACTERISTICS
A. Resistance and Reactance of Overhead Lines
Resistance depends primarily on the conductor size and type
of conductor used. Reactance depends not only on the
conductor size but also on the equivalent delta spacing between
the conductors. Accordingly, Table 1 gives the physical and
electrical characteristics for commonly used overhead conductor
sizes and types of conductors.
The conductor reactance may be separated into two parts the internal reactance of the conductor including the area
around the conductor of one' foot radius and the external
reactance of the conductor beyond the one foot radius. Hence,
the total reactance (X) per conductor is equal to the sum of the
two parts, or:
X Xl + X2 in ohms per 1000 feet
Xl ;: reactance of conductor at one foot
X = reactance of conductor beyond one foot
2

Table 1 gives the values for Xl for the various conductor

types and sizes. Fig. 1 gives the values of X 2 for various
equivalent spacings between conductors as may be used in
practice.
For ordinary single phase circuits. the equivalent spacing is
the distance between conductors. For ordinary three-phase
circuits, the equivalent spacing is expressed by the formula:
~A x B x C where A, B, and C are the distances, centerto
center. of the conductors. as follows:

To assist in obtaining the spacings. a few typical arrange.

ments with their equivalent spacings are shown in F ig. 2. The
arrangements used in practice wi ll vary from system to system,
but because of space limitat ions only these few are shown.

The reactances of three-conductor or triplexed cables may be

obtained by usi ng the upper scales of thickness of insulation and
jacket in Fig. 3. For cables not in direct contact with each
other, use the botto m scale (abscissa) of Fig. 3.
Example (showing method of using Tables)

Given: A triplexed 500 MCM. aluminum, 15 kV grounded

neutral , shielded and jacketed cross-l inked polyeth ylene cable,
9OC.
From Table 2. D-C resistance at 25C = 0.03538 ohms per 1000
228 + 90
feet. At 9OC, the resistance would be 0.03538 x
253 ..
0.04447 ohms per 1000 feet. The ac correction factor is 1.06,
50 the ac resistanct at 9OC " 0.0447 x 1.06 = 0.04714 ohms per
1000 feet.
From Table 3, Part A. The insu lation thickness is 175 mils. The
jacket thickness is 80 mils. An additional 100 mils shou ld be
added for semicon layers and shielding. (See paragraph C. which
foll ows.) The total thickness of insulation and sheath system is
175 + 80 + 100 " 355 m ils.
From Fig. 3. At the intersection of 500 MCM and 355 mils
(interpole between 350 and 400 mils), read 0.036 ohms per
1000 feet.
C.

Undergrou nd Cables

For threeconductor cables, the insulation thicknesses

ordinarily used can be obtained from Table 3, Parts A, Band C,
and then the reactance can be obtained directly from Fig. 3 at
the intersection of the cable size and insulation thickness lines.
On three-conductor cables an identifying tape is frequently
8 . Resistance an d Reactance of Cables
applied over the insulation of the ind ividual conductors. Th is
Cable resistances are given in Table 2, and cable reactances in tape usually adds approximately 30 mils to the diameter of the
Fig. 3. The reactance data that follow are based on the formula: ooncluctor and consequently 15 mils snould be added to the
insulation thickness to find the correct value of reactance. For
X .. 0.023 (loge ~ + K)
inner semicon tapes, outer sem icon tapes and shield add 100
mils when this shielding system is used. Metallic tape insulation
X = Reactance in ohms per 1000 feet at 60 hertz.
shields generally add 10 to 30 mils to cable diameter. For sector
S Spacing of conductors (centertocenter) in inches.
cables use a corresponding round conductor diameter.
D = Diameter of conductor in inches.
To obtain the reactance for three single conductor cables
K - A coefficient dependent on the ratio of the inside
diameter of a conductor to the outside diameter of the with random spacing in a condu it , multiply the reactance for
cond uctor. For cable of standardstrand construct ion, K three conductor cable spacing (Fig. 3) by 1.20 for nonmagnetic
oond uit or by 1.50 for magnetic cond u it.
equals 0 .25.
Reference on cab le ampacities are given in Section X under
These reactance curves are correct for shielded or non,
Thermal Loading of Underground Cables.
shielded cable without a magnetic binder.

CIRCUIT CHARACTERISTICS

CIRCUIT CHARACTERISTICS
Table 1. Physical and electri ca l characterist ics of open-wire distribution line conductors
Size

Aw,

,
6
4
2

1/0
2/0
3/0
4/0

(Strands)

MCM

Diame le'

Lo..

Approx. Amp _

In I n.

1000 Fl.

Capac ity'

Resislence

50
80

16.51
26.25
4 1.74
66.37
83.69
105.5
133.1
167.8
211.6

0.1285

0.464
0.522

205
258
326
411
518
653

250

0.574

772

119)

300

(1 9)

350

0.629
0.679

926
.OS.

111
111
(3)
(7)
(7)
(7)
(7)
(7)
(7)
(19)

0.162
0.254
0.292
0.328
0.368
0.414

6/ 1
6/1
6/1
611
8/1
6/1
6/1

66:37
105.54
133. 1

0.447

145.6
183.7

167.8

0.502
0.563
0.642

23 1.6
192.1
366.8

0.721

462.4
546.4

655.7
1093.0

41.74

211.6

266.8
336.4
397.5

26/7

477.0

26/7
26 /7

556.5
795.0

1.108

0.232
0.292
0.368

(7)
(7)

0.41 4
0.464
0.522

{7)

266.8

0.586

336.4

0.666

(19)
( 19)

397.5

(191

556.5
795.0

0.724
0.793
0.856
1.026

(37)

91.6

765.0

477.0

390
62.0
98.5
124.3

156.7
197.6
249.1
315.7
373.0
447.6

522.0
N6.0

0.290
0.366

74.3
101.6
161.5

256.8

50
70
110
\45
170
200

240
280
330
375
425
475

80
110
161
2.0
245
285
335
390
450
510
575
635

0.656
0.413
0.263
0.167
0.\32
0.105
0.083
0.066
0.053
0.045
0.037
0.032

';0 0.0

~-;

. 0
so
,_0.
<
0
v

0.126
0. 121

.-

0.114
0 . 109

55

75
110
'50
175
210
245

0.0
0.0

0.0

<

,0

0,092

<

0.090
0.088

290

340
380
430
480
620

0. 128
0. 125
0. 126
0.124
0.122

0.066

0.088

535
605
670
850

0.053
0.045
0.037
0.032
0.022

0.086
0.084
0.082
0.080
0.076

115
'60
215
250
290
340
400
<65
520
690
645
820

0.424
0.267
0.168
0. 134
0. 106
0.084
0.066
0.053
0.045
0.037
0.032
0.022

0. 114

260

305

355
410
480

75
105
.45
170
200
240
280

S
0

330

370
425
<65
605

60
84
115
.85

90
120
165
220

0.664
0.418
0.263
0 .166

- 00

0.084

0.082
0.079

0.127
0.123
0118
0.112

-0.0 2

-0.0

"" ,
"

-00

, , ,,

10

0.118
0.1 10

0.109
0.103
0.101
0.098
0.095
0.092
0.088
0.086

, ,,
.. ,

0.106
0.1035
0.101
0.098
0.095

0.675
0.425
0.267
0.168
0.134
0. 106
0.084

85
120
165
225

0.0 ,

;; -0.0
<

' Conducror af 80 C. 40 C AMBIENT, emissivity -0. 5 for copper. 0.2 forlliuminum.

LOWl!r current Vlllues correspond to srill air.
Higher current vlllues correspond ro air moving lit two feel pilr second.
Resisfimce of conoocror in ohms/fOOD fl, 60 hertz. 2~ C remp(Jrllture .
reactance o f conduc tor out tJ one foot III ohms per 1000 ft. 60 hertz.
Torlll reactance per phllse - X, -I- X 2X2 " EJ/le,~1 refJC"nce ofconducror M'Iondone ft in ohms per 1000 ft. 60 hertz obtained from Fig. 1.

..o.-X,

0.0

ox

Copperwetd _ Copper

0.199
0.230

0.0 7

. ,

.f::

AU Aluminum - Hard Drewn

(7)
(7)
(7)

(7)
(191

36.2
57.6

0.198
0.250
0.316
0,398

26.25

(Sl rlnds)

8A
6A
4A
2A

0.0

ACSR

0.783
0.858
0.927

26/7

".

0.09

,,

(X, )
At 1 Ft. Spacing

Copper - Hilrd Drawn

2617
26/7

4
2
1/0
2/0
3/0
410

.,

Reactance

AUSteel

6
4
2
1/0
2/0
3/0
410

0.' 0

10
o

20
(Clu'vol~nl

30
O~lIo

,oe "'"

40 ~ 60 8 0 100
SpocinO in Inclles

!KlO

.000

Fig. 1. E.uernal rellctance of conduCIor beyond one foot in o hms per 1000 fee t . 60 hertz for va riou s equivel ent spacing between conductors

Table 2 . DC resistance and cor rection factors for AC resistance

.,.

("owIv,lO'
Sl

DC Resistance

....., ".

AC Resis tanc e Multipli ...

Single COnductor
Cabl es +

Ohms per 1000 feet @' 25C'

8
6
4
2

COPPER

ALUM INUM

0.6532

1.071
0.6741
0.4239
0.2666
0.21 14
0.16 76
0. 1329
0. 1054
0.08361
0 .07077
0.05897
0.05055
0.03538
0.02359
0.01796
0.01179
0 .00885

0.'1110

0.2584
0 . 1626
0.1289
0. 1022
0.08105
0.06429
0.05098
0.04315
0.03595
0.03082
0.02157
0.01438
0.01079
0.00719
0.00539

1/0
2/0
3/0
4/0
250
300
350
500

750
.000
' 500

2000

Mult iconductor
Cables t

COPPER

ALUM INUM

COPPEft

ALU M INUM

1.000

1.000
1.000

1.00
1.00
1.00

1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00

1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
' .000

' .000

1.000
1.005

1.006
1.009
1.018
1.039
1.067
1.142
1.233

1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.00 1
1.00 1
1.001
1.002
1.003
1.004
1.007
,""OIS
1.026
1.058
1.100

1.01
1.01
1.02
1.03
1.04
1.05
1.06
1.0 7

1.08
1.13
1.21

1.30
I.S3
1.82

1.01
1.01
1.02
1.02
1.03

1.06
1.12
1.19
1.36

1.56

'To correct to other temperatures, use the fol/owing:

Fo,coppe.; R

" R

25

J/234.5-1- T

259.5

For IIluminum:

""e,e R T iS the new re$islllnce at tempenJtu.~ T find R 25 is the tabuillted resis tllnce
-I-Includes only skin effecr (Use fo r cllbles in separate ducts)
tlncludes skin effecr and p,oJ/ imiw ,!ffeer (Use for t riplflK, multiconducro., or cllbles in the SiN1le duct)

CIRCUIT CHARACTERISTICS

CIRCUIT CHARACTERISTICS
Table 3, Conductor sizes, insulation thickness and jacket th ickness
Part A. Cross-linked-polyethylene-insulated cables

;fl

~.~- I-

19:)<1

'10("':$

,J

~1

~.

r:

t o , .... ,," ."

..

.."
"

[o.o"U>I'

~ro-+J
,

"
"

"

..

.,.

"'

."<~

-1'

i ' ~.'''n

.,

~ M[~ SIOl<S

OOhO NA~

IZUyll2

INCHU

H9<lI'.

[_LENT

l4

.,
.,

"
".,
"

,
,

'0'0<.'.'[ -.v

....,.

~"".u

""

"

S""1IO(l

149

47

82

62
78
9'
109

149

60

82

70
90
105
120

0< .. ["501
I", H(~

..oMLNAL

It .,Tl n

..

00\.'4G

to 40", '

"

Fig. 2. Spacing 01 conduc tors for us. in calculating line . &ac lance

... ..

"
,,'"

'n

M.'

M.

55

2.39

65

2.77

80

1.52
1.78
2.29
2.67
3.05

55
65
75
90

45

0.76
1.14
1.40
1.65
2.03
1.14
1.40
1.65
1.90
2.29

..

mils

mm

15

0.38

30

1-410
2501000

45

65

0 .76
1.14
1.65

15

0.38

30

0.76
1. 14
1.65

,.

6-2

"62..
1-4/0
2501000

8410
225500
5251000

11 0
120
130

2.79
3.05
3.30

110
120
130

2.79
3.05
3.30

6S

86

30

42/0
3/0,' 000

45

I
300

0.07

3-conduclor cable
thickness of Insula lion
+ shield a sheath In
0 .0 6 mils
200

150

0 .0 5

>.-.> I'-.,

0 .0 , / '>

0.0 2

500

.-

"

"-

;: ~ ;:"....

~~

~~

~~

!.~

~f-

0.4

0.5

,
f'::
I'--

I.,
1.0
1.1
1.2
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
Conductor spac lnt;! (center to ce nter) In Inches

'-'

2.29

90

2.29

60
80
80

1.14
1.52
2.03
1.52
2.03

500 18000

61000

I1S

2.92

14<l

356

1.4

2 10001 I

. 175

4.45

215

5.46

2750
1000
1500
600-1000

80
11 0
80
110
80
11 0
80
110

2.03
2.79
2.03
2.79
2.03
2.79
2.03
2.79

15001-25000

1-1000

260

6.60

345

8.76

25001-28000

11000

280

7. 11

. ..

.. .
...

2800135000

1/01000

345

8.76

.. .

1-500
600-1000
1/0-350
400-1000

4S
60

Conductor Size
AWG or MCM

133 Percent
Ins.ulation Level
(UngrOunded
Neutral)

45
60
80

62
1750

60
80

,000

,iD

1-600
750 1000
1350
4001000

80
11 0
80
110
. ..
. ..

. ..
. ..
. ..

...
...

1.1 4
1.52
2.03

'"

;.~~
2.03
2.79
2.03
2.79

...
...

...
...

[COnlinued on Par I B)
"Baied on IPCEA Standard 566-524 on M;Jfch 1972 iiiue.
fSame Iii rubber insula /ed cable.
f t For 133 p ercent insulario n level (ungrounded noutra/}, /he m inimum ConduClOr size is I AWG.

Conduc1or

NO/II I - Column A rhicknesse$ (02000 volt$) are applicable /0 #ng/o-cOllduc/or pOWlf!r cables for general IIpplicll/ion when a carbcmblack pigmented
i nsule/ion is used without a further covering.

AWG or
c ircular
mi ls

Column B rhicknll$$es (02000 volu) are applicable to l1!ult,p/e-conc/Uc/or cables wirh an outer coverll1g and to singie-conducto/ cables Wit" lin
outer covering.

s Ius In

0.0 I

0.'

90

800 115000

~ I.~

"-

81000

.2

1>10,0

.-.>

,/

'

200 15000

No.4

100

,J, I

400- 4 5

",.
",.

550

'00
250

6S

0.76
1.14
1.65

62/0
3101000
6-1/0
210 1000

45

133 Percenl
Insulation Level
(Ungrounded
Neut ral)

"

0.0 8

0.2

30

.5

MCM

Singleconductor Jackel Thickn ess for 100

an d 133 Porcen l Insul etion Lev aisl
(Grounded and Unwounded Neutral )

100 Percent
Insulation Level
{Grounded
NetJlrall

io>--

20015000

of distribUlion circuits .

l4,.mU

"
,,'"

"
"

!.J'.t.CIfIG

0.0 450

1.19
1.57
1.98

Con ductor
Sile,
AWGor

Nonshielded

(QI,OVAL [N

Insulation Thickness fo. 100 and

133 Parcant Insulalion Levals!
(Groun ded and Unll'ounded NeutraO
Column A
Column B
mils
mm
mil s
mm

100 Percent
Insulation Level
{Grounded
Neutral)

o
o

MCM

14/0
225500
5251000

,
,

Conductor
Size.
AWGor

14/0
225-500
525 1000
60 12000

,
QiJ

0_

."

~.

~,

Rated Circu it
Voltage.
Ph ueto Phan,
Volts

',=1

/'

li;- '

" ' 7 ' IT,l

~-n

vO\.' oGr - .v

..o" '''A~

0I .. [ ~ SIOl<5

1.5

16

I. 7

The Column B rh icknesset Ifre considered adequatll lor II/ec rrical purpo$et and mav be specified !or $ingle-conducror cab/et .wrh a carbon'black
pigmented insUlation without furth" covering for applications where ins tallation and service conditions arB such thaI the additional th ie/men for
mechenica/ protection is not considored nffCIIssary for sat,sfiK:wrv operation.

Fig. 3. In ductive reac tance pM phas. In ohms per 1000 feet &1 60 hertl.

CIRCUIT CHARACTERISTICS

CIRCUIT CHARACTERISTICS

Ta bl e 3 . Conductor sizes, insulation thickness and jacket thickness

Part C Paperinsulated cables it

Table 3. Condu ctor sizes, insulation thickness and jacket thi ckness

Part B. Rubber-insulated cables *

Single Con du cto r Ca bl e

Ra ted Circu it

Vol lage
Phast!o Phase,
Vol ls

0600

100 Percent

133 Percent

100 Por cent

Insul atio n
Level t
(Gro unded

Insul atio n

Insul atio n
Level t

A WG o r

Neutral!

Neu trall

MCM

m ils

Co nductor
Size,

10012000

Conductor
Size,
AWGo.

Leve l'
(Ungro unded
mits

MCM

mm

30
45

0.76

1816

1.14

60
80

1.52
2.03

149
82
1-4/0

2 .41

95

2.4 1

2.79
3.18

110

1816

30

0.76

14-9

45
60

1. 14
1.52

80

2.03

95
110

82
1-4/0
225500

6OHOOO

mm

525 1000
Over-IOOD

125

14 8
72
14/0
225500
5251000
Overl000

60

1.52

60

80
95
11 0
125
140

2.03
2.'11
2.79
3. 18
3.56

80
95
110
125
140

148
72
1<110
225500
Over500

80
95
110
125
140

2.03
2.'11
2.79
3.18
3.56

125

80
95
110

125
140

Con ductor

IGrou nded
N ..... traJ)
m ils

.. .

133 Percen t
Insul ati on

mm

Size,
AWGo.

MCM

.. .

Lave l t
(Un grou nd ed
Neut ral)
ml S

. ..

15

0.38

15

0.38

0.76

0.76

1.14

30
45

2.79
3.18

65
65

1.65
1.65

65
65

1.65
1.65

95

2041

95

2.41

1.52
2.03
2.'11
2.79
3.18
3.56

1<19
8-4
23/0
<1/01000
Over 1000

15
30
45
65
95

0.38
0.76
1.1<1
1.65
2.'1 1

15
30
45
65
95

0.38
0.76
1.1 <I
1.65
2.'11

2.03
2.'11
2.79
3. 18
3.56

'<1. 12
104
23/0
<110 1000
Over1QOO

15
30
45
65
95

0.38
0.76
1.1<1
1.65
2.'11

15
30
45
65
95

0.38
0 .76
1. 1<1
1.65
2.'11

GO

1.52
2 .03
2.79

60
80
110

1.52
2 .03
2.79

5001-8000

80

2.03

800115000

84/0
2251000
Over l000

155
110
190

3.9<1
4.32
<1.83

155
170
190

3.9<1
<1.32
<1 .83

84
2750
1000

6 and over

190

<1.83

250

6.35

6
<1750
1000

2450
5001000

2 and over
1 and over

,,)S

7.'19

..
420

...
10.67

80
110

60
80
110

1.52
2.03
2.79

6001000

1 10

2.79

80
110

2.03
2.79

14/0
2501000

80
110

2.03
2.79

6600

Cable Diameter
Under Jacket
15001 25000

1 and over

'55

11.56 }

2500128000

1 and over

600

12.70

..............

{0.701., .500
1.501 . 2.500
2.501 and larger

80
110
140

2.03
2.79
3.56

173 Percent Level - Cables in this ca tegory shOuld be applied on systems where Ih e t ime required 10 de-energizlng II grounded sec l ion is indefinilfl. Their
use ;s recommended also for resonant grounded syS l ems. Comult th e manu facturer for insulation thicknesses.

Si ~e

AW G o r MC M

Lead Shealh
pl us Jacke l
Thickness

In sul et iont
Th ick ness
mils

.. .
..
..

. . ..
... .
. . ..

2/01000

110

180240

160 165
165200

6 '
2/01000

180
165

180195
180-240

255
2..

170
170200

255

3/01000

205
205275

330

175205

2501000

330

2 <15285

155190

65

155 190

5000

6 1000

90

155 195

8000

6 .
3 1000

125
110

160 195

15000

4 '
1 1000

180
165

25000

12/0
3101000
2/01000

lGO

..

'/0

80sed on ,AEIC Standard 168, 10th Edition, April 1968

, Values are for 100$ insulation thickness Igrounded neutralJ. For 133" insulation tht'Ckness (ungrounded
neUlral. refer to Slandilrd, as the insula l i on tht'ckness chllnges for every 1 k Vof rated vol /age.

Sheath and jacket thicltne$S depend on cable core diameler. Range is given for range of conductor lius.

D. Aerial Cables

E. Transformer Characteristics

The reactance of an aerial cable is determined in the same

manner as outlined above. On threeconductor non shielded
preassembled aerial cable, each conduct or may be :::overed with
a sheath or jacket, the thickness of w hich is given in Table 3,
Part A or B. T he thickness of this sheath must be added to the
insulation thickness in determining the proper reactance.

The characteristics of General Electric distribution trans

forme rs are given in Tables 4 and 27 . These characteristics
include percent lA, percen t I X, percent IZ, noload losses, and
fu " 'oad losses . T ransfor mer regulation for a kVA load of power
factor cos 0, at rated Voltage, can be calculated from the
formula:
% Aegulation =
kVA (load)
(% r A cos 0 +
kVA (transformer)
.... ,X 0 {%IXcos(J
% IAsinO)2 I
10
Sin
+
200

On shielded constructions a tape is applied under the shield , and

15 mils shou ld be added to the normal insu lat ion thickness in
determining the reactance.

Fullload current in amperes of American National Standard

transformer sizes are tabulated in Table 5.

Ta ble 4 . Approximate di stribution tran sformer imped ances'"

2400/41 60 Y 10
1201240 Vol"
60

,V.

480018J20 Y 10
1201240 Volts
60 Her ..

I-te",

Peree"t

Pe<eent

Perce ...

Pere,n.

Perce",

Percen t

"
"
"
1.0

OX

"

,.,"

OX

"

5
10
15

19

16

7.5

1.0

U
U

"

12

25
3>5
50

09

,-'

U
U

1.2

1.,

1.'
1.0
' .0

75

09

'00

0.9
0 .'

1.3
1.6

1.6
1.8
1.9

1.0
0 .9
0 .'

r The selection of the cable insulation level to be used in a particular imtalflltion shall be made on the basis of the applicable phaselophase volt/Jf}t/llOd
rht/ gent/ral SI'Hem category as outlined in the following paragraphs:

133 Percent L e'Wl!l - This insulalion level corresponds to rha t f ormerly designaled for ungrounded systems. Cables {n this category may be applied in
situations where the clearing l ime requlfemenrs of Ihe 100 percenr level category cannot be met, and yel Ihere is edequBle assurBnce Ihal the feulred
section will be de-energired in a l ime nOI eJ<ceeding 1 hour. Also they may be used when addit ional insulat ion Irrength over Ihe 100 percent level
ca l egory ;. desirable.

Condu ctor

.. .
...
. ..

60

6 1000

35000

Saud on IPCEA StandiJrd S' 19-81, o f March 1971 Issue.

100 Percent Level - Cables in th is Cllfegor l' mel' be applied where the system is provided with relay protaction such that ground faults will ba cIt/Bred
as rapidly as pOS!lible, but in anI' case within 1 minute. While tltese cables fife applica ble to tlte great majoritl' of cabla instal/ations wIIich are on
grounded sys tems. they may be used also on other Sl'stems for which the application of cables is acceptable pro vickJd the abo ve clearing requirements are
met in complelel l' de-energiring the faulted section.

Lead Sheat h
plu s Ja cket
Th ic kn ess
mils

6 1000

1.1 4

225500
5001000
Over.10ClO

In sul at ion t
Th ic kn ess
mils

GOO

.. .

30
45

Conduc tor
Siu
AWGo r MCM

2000

mm

Shielded
200 15000

Rated Ci rcu it
Vol tage
Ph ase to Phase

Single-conduct or Ja cket Th ic kn llS!

Insula tion Thickn ess

Three or Fou rcon ducto r Cable

167

'3

1.7

240480

' 50
333
500

08
08
07

79
3.'
3.'

,.

Pe rce .. t

1.6
1.0
1.2

U
U

7.'
1.'
1.3

",-'

1.8

1.2
1.'

'.'
,.,

"

"
1.0

1.9

0.'
0.'

240, 480

30

33
33

08
08
07

29
32
3.7

30

33
33

7200{t 2470 Y . o
1201240 Vol t.
60 Her"

08
0 .8
07

14400 /24940 ORO Y to

120/ 240 VolU
60 Her ..

Perce .. t

Perce ...

OX

"

2.'
10
1.7

3. '

,.

Perce",

Pe rcen t
OX

,.

Peteen ,

3.3
1.'
7.'

...

...

1.'
1.'

1.0

1.3
1.'
1.7

1.5
1.'

1.0
1.0
0.'

Percent

"

7.5
1.,

7.7
10

1.8

,-'

' .6
1.'
1.3

7.0
1.8

1.3
1.1

1.5

1.8

..,'.'

"

' .7
1.,
7.1
' .7

1.0

1.'

09

19
' .0
7. '

,-'

1.'

1.'
1.8

240/ 480

240, 480

29

,.,

32
32

30
33
3.3

08
08
07

31
33

3 4500 G RO Y!t9920 " to

1201240 Volt s
60 Hen.

"

' .3

Percen.

OX

"

"

1.6
1.5
1.8

Percent

"

. ..
U
22

' .0
' .1
1.'
1.,
1.8
' .0

2401480

30

32

"

08
0 .8
07

29

30

31
33

32

"

WhIM only Orlll of Ihe l WO lOW-Voltage ....ndmgs IS loaded. Ihe perc~nt IR and the percent IX (on kVA base equal to capac"y of that wmdmg,
or one-half namep la te k VA) Itfe apprOJ<imll tely 0.75 and from 0.6 10 1.25 of full'winding percenr IR and full'winding percent IX, respectively.

125 kV

70

77

CIRCUIT CHARACTERISTICS
Table 5. Fu ll-load currents of transformers in am peres
Single-ph.sl Circu lls
Circ uil

'VA

120

240

41.7

20.8

10

83.3

41.7

25

125
208

15

62.5

104

37,5

3'3'

50

417

75
100

625

156
208
313

833

417

167
250
333
500

1392

696

2083

1042

2775
4167

1388
2083

480
I DA
20.8
31.3
52.1

78. 1

104
156
208
348
521
694
10<2

2400

4 160

VO ll ~!tO

4800

2.08

1.20

1.04

4.17

2.40
3.61
6.01

2.08

6.25
IDA
15.6
20.8

12.0

31.3

18.0

41.7

24.0

69,6

104
139
208

9.01

7200

0.69
1.39
2.08

3.13
5.21

3.48
5.21
6.94

7.8 1
10.4

15.6
20.8

10.4

7620

14,400

1 2, 000

13,200

0.42
0.83
1.25

0.38

0.35

0.25

0.76

0.50

1.14

0.69
1.0<

208

1.89

1.74

1.26

4.92

3.12

1.88

4.17

2.84
3.79
5.68

2.60

6.56
9.84

3,41
5.21

7.58

6.95

2.51
3.77
5.02

0.66
1.31

1.97
3,28

13.9

1 3. 1

21.9
32.8

6.25
8.33

19,9 20

II - UNDERGROUND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

FOR RESIDENTIAL AREAS

0.75

A. Primary System

8.38

27.8
41.7

12.7
18.9
25.2
37.9

11.6
17 .4
23.2

34.7

12,6
16.7
25.1

1 2.000

12,470

13,200

24,940

1.04
2.0B
3.13
5.2 1

0.72
1.44
2.16
3.61

0.69
1.39

066
1.31
1.97
3.28

0.35
0 .70
1.0 4
1.74

7.8 1
10.4
15.6

5.41
7.22
10.B
14.4

5.21
6.94
10.4
13.9

4.92

2.61

1.88

6.56
9.84

3.48

2.51
3.77
5.03

24.1
36.1
48.2
72.3

23.2
34.7
46.2

40.2

34.8

23.2

60.1
SO.O
120

52.1

34.7

69.4
104

46.3

4 3.7

69.4

65.6

13.9
20,8

Three-phase Circu its

Circu it Voltage I U na-Io-Li nel

'VA
15

30
45

75
112 .5

150
225
300
500
750
1000
1500

208
41.6
B3.3

240
36.1
72.2

480
18.0
36. 1
54.1
90.2

125
208

108
180

312
416
625
833

271

36 1
541
722

135
ISO
271
361

1388
2082

1203
IS04

601
902

2776
4164

2406

1203
1804

3609

2400
3.61
7.22
10.8
18.0
27. 1
36. 1

54.1
72.2

120
1SO
241
361

4 160

2.08
4.16
6.25
10.4
15.6

20.8
31.2
41.6

69.3
104
139
208

4800
1.80
3.61
5.41
9.02
13.5
18.0
27.1

36.1

7200
1.20
2.4 1

3.60
6.01
9.02
12.0
18.0
24.1

60.1

40.1

90.2

60.1
SO.O
120

120
180

8320

2<>.8
34.7
52.0
69.4

104

2.08
3.47

69.4

13.1
21.9
32.8
43.7
65.6

5.21
6.95
11.6
17.4
23.2
34.8

standard 120/2 40 volt , threewire construction. Popu lar cables

are threesingle-conductor, polyethy ll::neinsulat ed aluminum
conductors, usually triplexed, and frequently with the neutral
conductor of reduced crosssection.
Approximate cable dat a for typical URO secondary and
service cables Bre given in Table 7. I mpedances given are
" Iine-to-neutral" values per conductor, assuming no current in
the neutral.

Increasingly, new housing developments are being supplied

by singlephase underground distribution (URD ) systems.
Essentially all U RD primari es are operated line-to-multig-ounded neutral, using a single, direct-buried, solid, insulation
cable wi t h bare, f u ll-conducti vi ty, concentric neutral. Cable may
be inst alled in conduit uncler paved areas or in areas where extra
mechanical protection is required. These cables are highly
efficient, having low reactance and excellent thermal capability.
Primary circuits may be radial or looped and normally are
designed for nominaI200ampere capaci ty .
34,500
0.25

0.50
0.75
1.26

C. Transformers

Approximate cable data for typical URD primary cables are

given in T able 6. Note that the impedance 'given is the total loop
impedance of the cable when used in a single-phase, lineto
neutral application.

The transformers used for URO, whether pad-mounted ,

subsurf ace, or direct-buried, all make use of standard core-and
coil assembl ies similar to those used i n poletype transformers
and , consequently, the electrical characteristics given in Sections
' and XI can be used.
Thermal loading of URO transformers iscovered in Section X.

B. Seco ndary System

Secondary and service d istribut ion in residential areas uses

Table 6. Typica l data for single-cond uctor cor,centric neutra l cable, crosslinked polyethylene insulated

8.38
12.6
16.8
25.1

Overall Ca ble
Oiam. Inch es

Raling

Siu AWG

15kV

#2AL

0.86

15kV

# 1 AL

15kV

# 1/0 AL

15kV

#2/0 AL

25kV

"Volt. Reg. 11 4> LG)

fo r 100,000 amp-fl.
al 90" p.l . lag

TOhl l (Loop )
Impeda nce
Ohms/ l000'
R

at 720 0 V

117620 V

0.586

0.152

0.825

0.779

0.89

0.465

0.136

0.664

0.627

0.93

0.368

0.128

0.538

0.508

1.01

0.292

0.1 19

0.437

0.4 13

a1 13200 V

al 14400 V

0 .159

0.370

0.339

Ampec ilV
O;r8C1 Buried
Single Cable--

167
193
218
248

# 1 P.L

1.08

0.465

25kV

#1/0 AL

1.12

0.368

0.15 1

0.300

0.275

173
198

25kV

#2/0 AL

1.20

0.292

0.140

0.245

0.225

228

25kV

#4 /0 AL

1.35

0.184

0.127

0. 167

0.153

303

al 15600 V at 19900 V
35kV

# 1/0 AL

1.32

0 .368

0.170

35kV

#2/0 AL

1.37

0.292

35kV

#3/0 Al

1.42

0. 232

351<V

# 4/0 AL

1.52

0.184

0.260

0.204

0. 159

0.2t3

0.167

0, 152

0.176

0.138

0.144

0.146

0.115

178
208
244
283

A$Sumes 100. neutral conduc rl!lIty, 50C cabltt temperaturtt and all return Cu,rttnt In thtt concenmc
neutral,

Based on 20C earth, 90C conductor, earth rfuistivity {p}

12

a.

90,

'OO~

load factor.

13

UNDERGROUND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS FOR RESIDENTIAL AREAS

III - TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS

Table 7. Ty pical data for single-phase triplexed 600V service cable, crosslinked polyethy lene insulated
Size_AWG
or MCM
Stl1lnd&d

Overa ll
Ca ble
Dia m el&r

Impeda nce- Ohms

per Condu ctor
per 1000 h .

% Voltage Reg ul ation

10,000 a mp.h .
a l 240V and 90% pJ. leg
p&r

Unchesl

#2A L

0.86

0.293

0.0297

# 1 AL

0.98

0.233

0.0307

'.306
1.860

# 1/0 AL

1.07

0.184

0.0297

1.488

# 2/0 AL

1.18

0.146

0.0290

1.200

Ampa<:ity Di. ect Bu ried

Single Trip lexed Cable'

,.7
189

21'

#310 AL

1.29

0.117

0.0284

0.980

'"

#410 AL

1.40

0.093

0.0277

0.798

315

#350 Al

1.75

0.057

0.0271

0.526

415

278

BIJS8d on SOC conduClOrt, with no current in the neutral.

Based on 20C earth, 90C conductor, earth resistivity (pl 90, 700 9(, 1000d (actor.

D. Separable Insulated Connector Modules

Important elements in underground distribution system
design are abilities:

To connect or disconnect equipment

To extend or t o tap into t he system at any time
To pro ... ide sectionalizing points.

These functions, long taken for granted on t he o ...erhead

system, required de ...elopment of sectionalizing equipment,
e... olution of techniques fo r working l ines hot, and introduction
of handl ing equipment. Switched connectors can be used safely
to accomplish t he desired functions underground .

1. Modules A ...ailable
Indi ... idual products which comprise the connector system
line for 15 kVand 25 kV class systems are:
Switch modules
Elbow connector modules with and wi thout capacitance tap
Basic connector modules
Elbow-tee connector modules with and wi thout capacitance
top
Swit ch-t ee connector module
Insulating cap
Multi-taps (2- 3- and 4'position)
Feed-through
Insulated bushing

Grounded bushing
Integrated bus~ng
SAF-ANG L E
bushing
Test rod
Ground ing rod

2 Selection
An assortment of insulated cable-connector modules is now
a... ailable to perform a variety of line and transformer switching
funct ions. Components can be arranged to provide great
flexibili t y of operation at costs w hich are only a fraction of
wha t equi ... alent housed switching equipment would be.
When connectors are used on t hree-phase appl ications, the
switched ...oltage must not exceed the rating of the connector .
On deltaconnected transformers or ungrounded wye systems,
the ra t ing of the connect or must be such as to handle the
switching of the l ine-to-line ...oltage.
On wyewye grounded transformer connections, connectors
rated linetoground voltage can, in genera l , be appl ied satis
fac t or ily . The remote possibility exists, however, that the 60Hz
reco ...ery ... oltage could reach a ...alue 1.73 times normal
line-t oground ...oltage under either of t wo conditions:
(1 J Single-pole primary switching of a threephase transfor mer whose load is 100 percent ungrounded.
(2) A l inet o-l ine fa ult not in ... olving ground.

If either of these condi tions is l ikely to exist, fuliline -to-line

voltage rated connectors should be applied.

A. Tran sformer Pol arity

Transformer polarity is an ind ication of the direct ion of
current flow through the high ... oltage terminals wi th respect to
the direction of current flow through the low... oltage t erminals
at any gi ...en instant in the alternating cyele.
The polarity of a si nglephase distribu t ion transformer may
be ei t her additive or subtracti ... e. A simple test for polari ty is to
connect t wo adjacent terminals of the high and low windings
together and apply a moderate voltage to either windi ng.
The polarity is additive if the vol tage across the other two
leads of the windings in question is greater than that of the
high...oltage winding alone (Fig. 41The polarity is subtractive if the ...oltage across the other two
leads of the windings in question is less than that of the
highvoltage winding alone (Fig. 5).
By industry standards, all singlephase distribu tion transformers 200 kVA and smaller, wi th a high vol t age of 8660 vol ts
and below, w ill have additi ... e polarity. All other singlephase
transformers wi ll have subtractive polarity.
By industry standards, the highvoltage terminal markings are
H I to the right and H2 to the left when facing the high ...oltage
side of the transformer.
For additive polarity the low-voltage XI terminal is on the
right w hen facing the low'voltage side o f the transformer, and
for subtracti ...e polarity the low-voltage XI terminal is on the

. ...

<

U. 4 .

<

<,
Fig. 4. Additive pola rit y

R ...

2' 6.

left .

"

B. Single-phase Paralleling
If greater capaci ty is desired, two transformers of the same or
different kVA ratings may be connected in parallel . Single.phase
transformers ha ... ing either additi ...e or subtractive polarity may
be paralleled successfullv if they are connected as shown in Fig.
6 and the follo wing conditions ex ist:
1. Voltage ratings are identical
2. Tap settings are identical.
3. Percen t impedances are wi thin 7 '1.%of each other.
4. Frequency is the same.

C. Small Three-phase Step-down Banks

1. Delta-delta Banks

Fi g. 5. Su btra ct ive pOlari ty

a. All units must be connected on the same tap

b. All units must have the same ...oltage ratios
c. All units must have the same impedance.
It is possi ble to operate at reduced bank output with a small
unbalanced lransformer toading if two of the units ha ...e the
same impedance and t he third unit has an impedance within
25% of the like units. Table 8 shows the amount of imbalance
of three transformers o f the same k VA size and voltage rating in
a threephase bank . (Zl "" impedance of odd unit and Z2 =
impedance of lik e units.)

In order to ha... e balanced transf ormer loading, the fo llowing

conditions must exist:

Table 8. Transf orm er imbalance

Al l io ....:!

Z,

", Aaa,,, ",

Qcla"I,

<,

"

",
POlO' '' ,

<.

"

<,

",

",

"

SuD t,o,r i
Qola,d,

Fi g. 6. Si ngle pha$8 connection s 10' pa ra ll el ing t ransfo rm ers of v~ riOllS polarities

14

0.75
0.80
0.85
0.90
t . l0
1.15
1.20
1.25

Pen:en t Load ' on

Odd Un't

Like Uni t5

109.0
107.0
105.2
103.3
96.7
95.2
93.8
92.3

96.0
96.5
97.3
98.3
102.0
t02.2
103.t
103.9

'With unbalanCed Ultns fo rmer loading. the I~d

mUll be checked 10 rhltt no one transformer is
oVtlrlooded.

15

TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS
2. Wye-delta Banks
I t the high-voltage neutral of the transformer bank is
connected to the circuit neutral, the transformer bank may burn

La rge
Transformer

Qut for theJoliowing reasons:

1. It will cafry circulating current in the delta in an attempt
to balance any unbalanced load connected to the primary
line beyond it.
2. It will act as a grounding bank and will supply fault
current to any fault on the circuil to Which it is
connected.
3. It provides a delta in which triple harmonic currents will
circulate.

All of these effects cause the bank to carry current in

addition to its normal load current, and often this combination
is sufficient to cause roast-out of the bank.

When this transformer connection is used, and the high .

voltage neutral of the transformer is not connected to the
circuit neutral, an open conductor in the primary results in a
single phase input and output of the bank. If the transformer
supplies a motor load, a harmful overcurrent is produced in each
threephase motor circuit. An equal current flows in two
conductors of the motor branch circuit. and the sum of the two
currents flow in the third conductor.
The usual overload protection in motor circuits consists of a
protective device in only two of the conductors. If the highest
of the three currents happens to be in the unprotected circuit,
motor burnout will very likely occur.
If a third overload device is installed in each motor circui t.
then the likelihood of motor failure from this cause is
eliminated. Whether three protective devices are justified is
influenced by the probability of an open primary line to the
transformer. Such a probability is effected by the kind of
switching and protective arrangements used in that part of the
system.
3. Dclta-wye Banks
T he comments about motor pro tcction in regard to wye
delta banks apply equally to deltawye banks.
4. Openwye, Open-delta Banks
Distribution lines in rural areas often consist of two phase
wires and one neutral wire. In urban distribution it is sometimes
desirable to have multiphase, where only single-phase primary is
available and the second phase wire is installed. These lines
originate from three-phase. f ourwire, groundneutral systems
and are known commonly as "V' phase lines. T he major
portion of the load laken from these "V"phase lines is
singlephase, but occasionally it is necessary to supply three
phase motor loads from these lines. in addi tion to a singlephase,
120/ 240volt connection.
Since both transformers carry the threephase load, and one
carries the singlephase load in addition, the latter transformer
must be the larger unit. It must carry the vectorial sum of the
single.phase load plus 58 percent of the threephase load, while
the smaller transformer must carry only 58 percent of the
three.phase load. For example, if it is desired to carry a
single phase load of seven kVA and a three.phase load of f ive

16

IV - SHO RT-CIRCUIT CALCULATIONS

kVA. where the loads have the same power factor, transformer
sizes are arrived at as follows:

Transfo:mer

7kVA

Single phase 1000

Three-phase load (0.58 )( 51

Smllil

2.9
9.9 kVA

Required tran sformer size

lQkVA

2.9
2.9 kVA
3 kVA

These sizes are based on the assumption that the loads are
continuous, steadystate loads. In actual practice. this is seldom
the case. Some judgment can be exercised, depending upon the
knowledge of actual load conditions. as in the selection of
transformers for any other application.
5. Open-delta, Opendelta Banks
This connection is similar to openwye, opendelta except
that the transformers are connected phasetophase instead of
phaseloneutral. Selection of large and small transformer ratings
can be made t he same way.
6. Wy ewy e Banks
A bank of wyewye transformers should not be used unless
the system is fourwire. It is important to remember that the
primary neutral of the transformer bank should be tied firmly
to the system neutral. If this is not done, excessive voltages may
develop on the secondary side.
7. Caution
Singlephase, selfprotected transformers should /Jot be used
to supply threephase, fourwire, closeddel ta circuits serving
combined threephase power and single'phase lighting loads. If
the secondary breaker in the lighting phase opens, the lighting
phase is still supplied with 240 volts. With the breaker open,
however, there is nothing to hold the lowvoltage neutral at the
midpoint between the 240 volts. The voltage betweef) each
phase to neu tral will depend on the relative i mpedance of the
loads connected on either side of the 120/240vol t circuit. Since
lhese are rarely equal. the lam ps on one side will probably burn
out from overvoltage.

D. Autotransformers
A considerable saving in cost may often be effected by using
autotransformers instead of twowinding transformers. When it
is desired to effect a comparatively small voltage change. or
where both voltages are low, an autotransformer can usually be
used as successfully as a twowinding transformer.
Autotransformers should not. except under special con
ditions. be used w here the difference between the high voltage
and low-voltage ratings is great. because the occurrence of
g"ounds at certain points w ill sllbject the insulation on the
lowvoltage circuit to the same stress as the high-voltage circuit.
Auto transformers are rated on the basis of their kVA output
rather than the transformer kVA. Efficiencies. regulation and
other electrical characteristics are also based on output rating.

A. Line Impedan ce

C. Impedance of lines with Different Voltages

When the resistance AL and the reactance XL have been

determined, the impedance, ZL' of a circuit can be obtained

When it is necessary to combine a line and transformer

impedance with t he impedances of another line of a different
voltage, the impedance of the new line must be put on the same
voltage base as the or iginal line. This can be done by multiplying
the impedance of the new line by the ratio of the square of the
linetoline voltages of the t ransfor mer connecting the lines
together. It must be remembered tha t the ohms i mpedance
varies directly as the voltage squared. Therefore, in going from a
low voltage to a higher vo ttage, the impedance will increase, and
viceversa. The transformer linetoHne voltages squared ra t io
must be taken so that this will be t he case.

from the relation ZL .. JAL 2 + XL 2.11 limited only by a circuit

impedance, the shortcircuit current is as follows:
Three phase fault = ~a mperes in each phase.

v3Z L
line-Io.neutral fault : -,;=,E
,--_ amperes, assuming that the

v32ZL
impedance of the phase conductor and the neutral conductor
are equal and that the phase conductors are arranged like the
points of an equilateral triangle with the neutral conductor
an equal distance from all phase conductors."
lineto line fault =

2~

amperes
L

w here:
E = linetoline voltage
Zl '" line to neutral impedance in ohms. or the impedance of
one conductor to the point of fault.

B. Transformer Impedance
It is frequently necessary to take into account the effect of
stepup or stepdown transformer banks. The impedance of
deltawye, wyedelta. and deltadelta transformer banks should
be combined directly with conductor impedances in calculating
shortcircuit currents. The transformer impedance, which is
usually given in percent, will have to be converted to ohms
before it is combined wi th the line impedance. This can be done
with the relation:

Zn.. 10E2
ZTlI -- _"kVA
''''_
where:
ZT n '" transformer impedance in ohms
ZT % transformer impedance in percent
E - linetoline voltage in kV
kVA = rating of the three phase transformer bank

D. Effect of Offset
The magnit ude of the shortcircuit current, as determined
from voltage and impedance values, does not necessar ily
represent the rms value of the current for the first few cycles,
because of the fact that the current wave may be offset or
unsymmetr ical with respect to its zero axis. The rms value of
the first half-cycle increases as the amount of offset increases.
For constan t reactance circuits the max imum value which the
rms of the offset current wave can attain with respect to the rms
of the symmetrical current wave is a funct ion. among other
things, of the reactance/ resistance ratio of the circuit up to the
point of fault.
tn the Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical
Engineers (Vol. 67, 1948) paper entitled Simplified Calcularion of Fault Currents, are the various multiplying factors to
be used with the currents calculated by the formu lae above.
These are the basis of the values shown in Table 9.
When applying circuit breakers, circuit reclosers, distribution
expulsion arresters and fuses. the formulae for the type of fault
which will give the highest value of rms symmetrical current
should be used. Then the multiplying factor in Table 9 should
be applied to determine the rms current which should be
compared with the rating of the device.
T he relationship shown by the curve in Fig. 7 gives the valucs
that can be used in calculating the maximum rms value of the
first half-cycle of f ault current. This curve can be used instead
of Table 9 for checking the suitability of the interrUPting rating
of fuse cutouts and reclosers when the circuit constants of a
particular installation are know n.

The shortcircuit currents for the combination of line and

transformer are:
Threephase fault "

Vi

Linetoneutral fault

E
amperes in each phase.
3(Zl + ZTn'

= ..Jj(

E
amperes with the
3(2Z L + ZTn'
same assumptions as given under line impedance.
Linetoline fault '" 2 (Zl .; ZT n' amperes.
-In the case o f a multigrounded neutral system, the impedance of the
neutral is somewhat less thao that o f a phase conductor of equat si~e. 10
f igu ring the impedance of a multigrounded oeutr&1 conductor, a faCIOr
of 2/3 is sugge$ted. because of the multiple path for the return current.

Rati o of ~ for Sl,lbstation tr llnsformer plus primary circ;'''t seldom

R
exceeds 4, and ts usually 1 to 3 .
Fig. 7. Mult iplying factot for det&rmining shortcirc uit duty on
rlll$ampeterated devices, such as d istr ib u ti on cu to uts f rom
ca lcu l8ted $V mm ot rica l short c; rcuit cu rrent

17

SHORTCIRCUIT CALCULATIONS

SHORTCIRCUIT CALCULATIONS

Table 9. Circuit breakers, circuit reclosers. distribution expulsion arresters and fuses

F, Allowable Short-circuit Currents for

Insulated Conductors

Reacun<;e a .. ~n "' v to. Use on XI

,.

MultIplYIng

Synchronous

FacIo,

Generalo,

Svnchro"ous
MOlo'

'"duellor>

Mach ,,,,

A. Core ll,, -breaker InterruptIng Du l y

Gener al Case
E,ght -cycle or ~Iower break ers "

,.

F,vecycle breaker ...

Th'Ht vcle breake,
Two"<, ycie breaker
Spec'lI l cMe fo r brea kers a t !lene'llIo, vOIl. onl v . Fo. sho" c,,e ... ,

""
""

\ Sublrans.en"

calcu la h ons o f more th an 500,000 k V A Ib e fo re lhe apploca ll on 0 1 any

pf~ om,nan U v d" ec l ,, ~ geneta,o,s,
mul l'IlIV' '' 9 lacl Ol'I
through cu rren t-li mn ,ng reac tors onl v

'"

TWo-t yc le breakers .

J
B

.......

..

. ... . ...

...

... .

..

Mechan.cal Suess and Momen, a'v Du\'{ 0 1 Corcu" Breake rs

..
General Case .. ..
below. unleu cu rren t IS led pr ed om.nat ely b,
Ao 5000 volts
d"ectly co nnected sync hronous mac h.oes Or thr ough rr ac to"

...

'"'

C. DlStrlbut.on

Arres,ers.,nd Clf CU' t Reclosers;

ra" ng ..
M,n,mum ra" ng - ~ m,n,mum system capac,\,{ and m,n.mum 0 1
....
EIX , o r JE I!2 Xl ' XO I.
E~pu ls, on

M;!~,m um

.....

"

"

1.25

\ Su bl rans,enl

"

\ Sub tr ans.en t

1.0 1

L3
"

AIf corcul\ breakelS ra'ed 600 volt s and less ...

,.,

Nt!gII!<: '

"

e,gh' -c ycle or slowe. b, eakers "

F,ve 'c ycle breakers
Three-c vcle breake..

TraO$,en\

..

S ublrans ,en ,'

Trans''''l1

Neglec ,

Sui)lrans,enl

Sub tr al1$.rnl

Sub" .,ns.ent

SutJuans,ent

"

,.

,
"

..

....

\ Sub t ra!"l$,en ,

Sub Ir D""e"l

Sub"a""e" t

Subtr ans ,en l

Subtr ans.en,

Sub,r ans,e nl

As Q/d CITcu ' l break ers lire rlo we' ,hiln m odern ones. /I m,ghr bI! e xpec fed II low mu//lp l,er could be used "" Ih old crrCUlI b,eakers Howe~(II. mOfkrn
Clre u,1 brellk ers lire " klll'l 10 be more e (fee/llre Ih;m ,he" slo wer predecessors, lI"d fhere fore. fhe appl,clltron procedure ""Ih lhe olde, CrrCu,/ br~akers
sho uld be more c onserva lIVe Ihan "" /h mod e,n Cltcu,t breakers. A lro, Ihere" no auurance Ihllr II shari crrcu,/ WJII "a t change ,ts cha'acle, atld "',I,are
II hl~' cur, en t flow Ihrough II c",u,t brea ke, wh ile /I I~ op e,"nfl. C4meque",ly. Ihe fac l ors 10 be used "" Ih oIde, 1I1uj slower Crn:u,r breakers well
mily be the lame as for modern e'flhl'cycle c,rcu,r breakers.
Th" ' s M e d on rhe cond"lon Ih. r lIt1y h yd,oelecl rrc fIIIneralO'J ttwolrllld harlll amortlueu , wm dmgs. Fa, h ydr~ec. frrc fIIIneralOrs WJrhoul amOlI,SSeu'
wrn dmflS. a ~aiuc o f 75 p e rcen , of Ihe /fllnstllfl/ rlldclance should be used l or Ih" cIII,,,lal ,on rather Ihan Ihe sub rr,lflJlcnr ~alue.
O,'tri t)ul,on ~xpuls'on IIneSl ers .nd crrcul l rec/Olers a, e ril l ed on a ' IImmemclll bilsis. h ence Ihe muillp ill",g flltto, IS 1.0.

E. Per Unit
Perunit quantities can be used to great advantage in
det ermining curren ts, voltages, etc . throughout a threephase
system in w hich there are many circuits connected by tran s
formers operating at different voltages. One of the principal
advantages of the per-unit method is that when expressed as per
unit, based upon nominal circuit voltages. impedances can be
combined directly without regard for actual transformer turn
ratios w hen calculating short -circui t currents in complicated
networks or systems of more than one voltage . Using percent
has t he same advantages as perunit. The use of perunit is easier
than using percent because it eliminates the introduction and
omission of the factor 100 at appropriate stages. Any quantity
in t he percent system divided by 100 is the corresponding
quantity in the per-unit system and viceversa.
The first step in determining shortcircuit currents by the
perun it method is t o choose a convenient kVA base. Since the
various transformers, generators, and synchronous motors in a
system will have a reactance value expressed on its own kVA
rating. these valu es must be converted to the chosen k V A base.

18

""

During normal operat ion the magnitude of current that a

given cabl e may carry is limited by the continuous temperature
rating of t he insulation. It is recognized, however, that under
fault cond itions t here will be an abrupt elevation in conduc tor
temperat ure w hic h will subject the insulation to a more severe
thermal stress for a short period of ti me. It is the intent here to
define t hese thermal stress limits (in terms of current and time
for various conductor sizes) so that the system designer may
check that the protection equipment will prevent severe
permanent damage to cable insulation during an interval of fault
current f low.

This can be done by the relation:

perunit reactance (on base kVA) . perunit
reac tance (rated kVA) kkVA (base)
VA (rated)
The values of line constants w ill usually be given in ohms. These
have to be put into perunit on the chosen kVA base. The
following formula w ill do this:
perunit impedance (on base kVA ) =
Impedance in
ohms to neutral
Rated lineto
l ine kV

Threephase
kVA base

(1000)
After the system impedances have all been put on the chosen
kVA base. they can be added up in series or parallel , just as
ohms would be, to determine the equivalent impedance from
source to fault. Dividing one by the equivalent impedance gives
the number of times normal kVA (or the corresponding current)
which will flow from the source to t he fault. This '"number of
times normal'" multiplied by the chosen kVA base will give the
threephase shortcircuit kVA (or the corresponding current) .

Tvpe of In$ulal io n
Vulkene
Pape r

Rubber - Versatol
- Su per Co rono l
- Silic on e Rubb er
Thermoplas tic - Flameno l
- Po lv el hvlenfl
Varni$hed Cllmbri'

Maximum
Conti nuou s
Tem peralure
Ralin 9

90 C
85C

75C
90C
125 C
60C
70C

85C

M.ximum
Shortei rcuit
Tem perature
Rating

,so C
'''' C
''''C
''''C
250

Ct

'SOC
1SO C
' OO C

1. Temperature Limits.
The IPCEA - in Publication P-32382, titled Shorr Circuit
Characteristics of Insulated Cable, dated Aug. 1958 - has
established maximum allowable short circuit temperatures for
various types of insulation. These recommendations are listed in
Table 10 and are the basis for the dat a which is to follow.
2. Conductor Heating

O. FU$e$:
Ao 15.000 vOlts. A. bel ow. except 10 ' cu rre nl IIml1lng fuses. wh en Ih e
luse 1$ loC ated remOle from generallng Stall OnS Or prrmary substatI ons
1tk3t II, XI R is less ,han 4 ) ..
All Ol her caSE!$ . Inc lud,ng all cu " en t-l imi "ng fU SE!$ rega rdl ess of vo UlIye

Table 10. Maximum shortcircuit temperature s for

types of insulation

Under shortcircuit conditions the ultimate condu ~tor

temperature depends on (1) the magnitude of fault current; (2 )
the cross sectional area of the conductor; (3) the duration of
fault current flow and (4) the conductor temperature before the
short circuit occurs. On the basis that all the energy produced
during fault current flow is effective in raising the conductor
temperature (since the time period is very short t his is a valid
assumption for engineering purposes). the conductor heating is
governed by the following equations:

FOR COPPER :

(~y t = 0 .0297 10910

FOR ALUMINUM :

,\2 t 0.0125 log , 0

( A)

(TT,+228
T'-'..+..,'",'",8)

T2 + 234)

T, + 234

Alrhough (he conrinuou s rlJmplJrlJlUrlJ ratings of some insulll(i om ~lJry

with voltage ratings. Ihe ~hort circ uir temperatures af/J indepondenr of
lIo1lage and apply in all cllses.
Thll fPCEA has nor 118 1 lIuign(ld remperalUre lim i ts for rh is insu/lltion.
The above ~alue i, General Electric recommendati on

mVA is provided to allow direct entry into either graph w ithout

converting mVA (megavoltamperes) to amperes. Also prov ided
is a tabulation of the interrupting time of various circuit
breakers. The graphs apply only to an initial conductor
temperature of 75 C and a shortcircuit tempera ture of 200 C.
Generally the initial conductor temperature is not accurately
known since it depends upon the loading o f the cable and
ambient conditions. To be conservative. it is usually assumed to
be equal to the maximum continuous operating temperature of
the insulation . In critical cases a more accurate analysis might be
required using a more reali stic initial temperature . In such ca ses
temperature correction fa ctors (K t ) can be obtained from Fig.
9 . Also, if the insulation under consideration is thermoplast ic
(F'amenol or Polyethylene) the maximum shortci rcuit
temperature is 150 C and the correction factors from Fig. 9
must be used .
3. Characteristics of Short Circuits

where

I '"
A '"
t .,
T 1 '"
T 2 '"

Shortcircuit current in amperes .

Conductor area in circular mils.
Time of short circuit in seconds.
Initial conductor temperature in degrees Centigrade.
Final conductor temperature in degrees Centigrade.

It is important to note that the abnormal temperature

persists much longer t han the duration of fault current flow.
For example, a flow of 30,000 amperes in a 500 mcm cable will
elevate the copper temperature from 75 C to 200 C in
approximately one second. With the current then reduced to
zero as much as 3000 seconds could be required fo r the copper
to return to normal operating temperature. The cooling time
will vary with the cable geometry (wall thickness. diameter.
etc .). T his thermal lag in cooling is of special importance in
cases w here ci rcuits are protected by automatic reclosers and
where immediate manual reclosing is someiimes practiced.
For simpliCity, the above equations are presented graphically
in Fig. 8 which shows a separate family .of curves for copper and
alu minum conductors . For convenience. a chart of interrupting

Oscillograms show that shortcircuit currents are nearly

al w ays asymmetrical during the first few cycles after the fault
occurs. This simply means that short-circuit currents usually
consist of an a-c component superimposed on a dc component.
The d c component decays wi th ti.me; its rate of decay
depending on the resist ance and reactance of the circuit . Fig. 10
illustrates these conditions during a typical short circuit .
The procedure that is normally followed in making a
shortcircuit study is to f irst evaluate the symmetrical short
circuit cu rrent and then alter it by an appropriate multiplying
factor to include t he additional heating ellect 01 the d c
component . If the fault is cleared within the first few cycles the
d--c component and, therefore. the multiplying fact or w ill be
appreciable. The effect diminishes as the interval of fault
current flow becomes longer. The appropl"iate factor ( KQ) by
w hich the symmetrical current value should be multiplied is
given in Fig. 11 for several typical ratios of compl ete circu it
reactance to resistance (distribution cable locations w ill
generally fall in the region 01 X/ R = 10 or less).

19

SHORTCIRCUIT CALCULATIONS

SHORTCIRCUIT CALCULATIONS

COPPER COND UCTORS

':ffN) _-~I

A LUM INUM CO NDU CTOR S

__ r

~~ -- !

I N"~"U P I "G ... . . ,

,...,

- 1-

:"'"1,

'"
_ no

1rY'l'fIYf:l"J ~~

..
:}"t~fm~'-~~

,-. . . . .6 n . . ; ; ' , ; ; ; ;

_I -r- _

" " - -1000

"
"

"

"N

Solution;

.. oc~[O

From Fig. 8 we see that 41,300 amperes in a No. 4/0 will raise the
conductor to maximum temperature in approximately six or seven c ycles
(by interpolation). This means that the cable would overheat if faul t
cu rrent flowed for 8.5 cycles. Two alternate solutions are pOSsible ; (11

..

'>"

0 . ,0"">0.7>.100
, C TeL[ . ~[ . . ( .
.CTC", " "E HU

>0

,.0

--- r---

' .2

,.

,.

Fig. 11 . Co rrection factors 1<0 for dc compo nents of current

use a 250 mcm pol yethyl ene cable or (2~ use a No. 4/0 Super Co ronol
cable which will be satisfactory for shortcircuit conditions as indicated
on Fi9- 8 and w ill also be mo.e than adequate for continuous
currentcarrying capacit y .

"
t.

,,.

]0
"

.t,".";('"

:. ---{,-{, ,",.>i-.d.-o,;,.,-,,",O,

..
,>0

.... "
~

,./

e"(."'
. . '00. , ..... , .

' 10

,~\\

'0 N It/R
20
'0

.. ,,"

,.,.,
+t --tttt-t-t-i. O~H "'"
[ .

Symmetrical current - 30.000 amperes.

Time duration - 8.5 cycles (from breaker information on
Fig. 8).
Factor Ko " 1.10 (from F ig. 11 a conservative va lue ).
Factor K t .. 1.25 for an initial temperature of 75 C and a
final temperatu re of 150 C (from Fig. 9 ).
Corrected current - 30.000 x 1. 10 x 1.25 .. 41.300 amperes.

J\

TO ,.,

tyee . . ,

, .. .. u .... tOu.

lIO

Ihe symmetrical fault cu rrent is 30,000 amperes. For

continuous duty a No, 4{0 (copper) pOlyethylene cable is

suitable. An eightcycle circuit breaker with instantaneous

trips has been chosen. Will Ihe polyethylene cable be

Rr .... '" ~~

E><ample 2 - A 4160-volt feeder is to be run from a substation at which

-'"

"

,
0

40,000

".

interrupting time o f 1-1/2 cycles will adequately prolect Ihe cable.

suitable under short-circuit conditions?

"

fI ~(

In Fig. 8 we deTermine thaI a N o.2 AWG copper conductor will

wi thstand 20,800 amperes for more than two cycles. Therefore, an

"

0.00

"'0 .,0
c ..... $I "

owe

' >0'''' 1<>11

00 .. e ..

Fig. 8. Maximum siZes of insulated copper and alum inum conductors for a conductor t emperature change from 75 C init ial
to 200 C final during a shortcircuitcu rrent interrupting interval.

~ 220

.. \

~
,
;:

..

:Yf;,:-'.'1,""

,,~

~
./$
.){'.;p
"

'&D

...,
.~

4. A pplication Procedu re

A'

"

"

"

..

"

-- -

,10

'"

". ".

Fig. 9. Corret:tion factors Kt for initial and ma .

shortcircuit temperatu res

'OTo. "'~ ~" "' "

" .' 'O ~ 'O_""

.,
,, ,,

,u ..

,~,

," ,, ,," ,,
, ,

Step' - Evaluate the symmetrical shortcircuit current .

Step 2 - Knowing the clearing time of the protective device,
determine a correction factor Ko from Fig. 1'.
Mult!ply the symmetrical current by factor K o to
allow for the dc component
Step 3 - If the problem involves an initial temperature other
than 75 C or a maximum shortcircuit temperature
other t han 200 C a correction fa ctor Kt should be
obtained from Fig. 9 . Multiply the symmetrical
current (or its corrected value from Step 2) by the
factor K t to allow for different limiting temperatures .
Step 4 - Check the conductor size being considered on Fig.
S using the corrected value of current. The
permissible time should exceed the protector inter
rupting time to prevent cable damage.
5. Examples o f Data Use
EHampl a 1 - Feeder ci rcuits are to be run from a 48D-volt, 6D-hert z load
cente r unit su bst ation . Du r ing normal operat ion it has been
decided that a No. 2 AWG Versato l Geoprene Cable
(co pper conductor) will provide adequate currentcarrying
capacity. Evautalion indicates that the symmetrical shon
ci.cuit current is 16,000 amperes. The interrup t ing time of
th e c ho sen breaker is 1.5 cycles and it is desired to check
the cab le 's shortcircui t capacity.
Solution;

Fig. 10. Oscillograms showing decay of d c com ponent and effect 01

asymmetry of current

20

Symmetrical current - 16,000 amps.

Time duration - 1.5 cyc les.
Factor Ko - 1.3 ( From Fig. 111.
Corrected current - 16.000 x 1.3 - 20,800 amps.

21

VOLTAGE CALCULATIONS

v-

Table 11 Natural sines , t angents and angles correspond ing to cosi ne values of 1 00 to 0 00

VOLTAGE CALCULATIONS

A. Voltage Drop
When the electrical characteristics of the line under con
sideration have been determined, the line drop for a gi~n
concentrated load of power-factor cos 0 can be computed from
the formula :
Volts drop = I fR cos (J + X sin 0)

where

Fig. 12. VlI(: lor d iagrem

Sine

O.SO
0.49
0.48
0.47
0.46
0.45
0.44
0.43
0.42
0.41
0.40

0.866
0.872
0.877
0.883
0.888
0.893
0.898
0.903
0.908
0.912
0.917

1.732
1.828
1.878
1.931
1.984
2.041
2.100
2.161
2.225
2.291

60 0'
60 39'
61 19'
6 1 58'
62 37'
63 15'
6J" 54'
6432'
65 10'
65 48'
66 25'

7'
2821'
29 32'
30 41'
31 47'
32 51'
33 54'
34 55'
35 54'
36 52'

0.39
0.38
0.37
0.36
0.35
0.34
0.33
0.32
0.31
0.30

0.921
0.925
0.929
0.933
0.937
0.940
0.944
0.947
0.951
0.954

2.362
2.434
2.51 1
2.592
2.677
2.765
2.861
2.960
3.065
3. 181

67 40'
68 17'
68 54'
69 31'
70 7'
70 44'
7 1 20'
71 56'
72 33'

0.776
0.802
0.829
0.855
0.882
0.909
0.936
0.963
0.992
1.020

37 49'
38 44'
39 39'
40 32'
41 24'
42 16'
43"
43 56'
44 46'
45 34'

0.29
0.28
0.27
0.26
0.25
0.24
0.23
0.22
0.21
0.20

0.957
0.960
0.963
0.966
0.968
0.971
0.973
0.975
0.978
0.980

3.298
3.427
3.566
3.7 15
3.871
4.046
4.230
4.431
4.658
4.901

0.724
0.733
0.742
0.751
0.160
0.768
0.777
0.785
0.792
0.800

1.049
1.078
1.108
1.1 38
1.169
1.200
1.233
1.265
1.298
1.333

46 22'
47 9'
47 56'
48 42'
49 27'
SOo 12'
S00 57'
51 41'
52 24'
53 8'

0. 19
0.18
0.17
0.16
0.15
0.14
0.13
0.12
0.11
0.10

0.982
0.984
0.985
0.987
0.989
0.990
0.991
0.993
0.994
0.995

5.169
5.466

0.807
0.815
0.822
0.828
0.835
0.842
0.848
0.854
0.860

1.368
1.404
1.441
1.480
1.518
1.559
1.600
1.643
1.686

63 SO'
54 33'
55'"' 15'
55 57'
56 38'
57 19'
58 0'
58 40'
59 20'

0.09
0.08
0.07
0.06
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.Q1
0.00

0.996
0.997
0.998
0.999
0.999
0.999
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000

Sine

Tllnvant

1.00

0.000
0.141
0.199
0.243
0.280
0.312
0.341
0.368
0.392
0.415
0.436

0.000
0.142
0.203
0.2SO
0.292
0.329
0.363
0.395
0.426
0.456
0.484

11 28'
4'
16 15'
18 12'
19 57'
2134'
23 4'
24 30'
25 SO'

0.87
0.86
0.85
0.84
0.83
0.82
0.81
0.80

0.456
0.475
0.493
0.510
0.527
0.543
0.558
0.572
0.586
0.600

0.512
0.540
0.567
0.593
0.620
0.646
0.672
0.698
0.724
0.750

0.79
0.78
0.77
0.76
0.75
0.74
0.73
0.72
0.71
0.70

0.61 3
0.626
0.636
0.650
0.661
0.673
0.683
0.694
0.704
0.714

0.69
0.68
0.67
0.66
0.65
0.64
0.63
0.62
0.61
0.60
0. 59
0.58
0.57
0.56
0.55
0.54
0.53
0.52
0.51

A."

~~==::====='='='O~'~r~~"='="='~'~'~;:
v~ ,

neutral. The three-phase line-te-line drop is..j3 times the above

value, and the single-phase drop is tw ice the above value, To
obtain voltage drop in percen t, the fo l lowing equation can be

used:
% volts drop = kVA fR cosO + X sinO)
10 kV2
where kVA is threephase kVA, R and X are the total resistance
and reactance, respectively, of one conductor in ohms and kV is
linetoline kilovolts. For single'phase circuits, kVA is single
phase kVA, R and X are total values for both conductors, and
kV is the actual single'phase kilovolts.
It can be seen from the vector diagram in Fig. 12 that both
formulas are approximate, but are close enough for practical
purposes.
In this diagram, 0 is shown as the powedactor angle at the
station end of the feeder because, on most distribution feeders,
this is the only location at which the power factor of the load
can be measured.
To assist in the application of this formula, Table 11 has
been prepared. This table gives the values of ,sines, tangents, and
angles which correspond to cosine or powerfactor values from
1.0 to O.
In actual practice, loads are usually distributed over the
feeder rather t han concentrated at one end. When t his is the
case, simpl ifying assumptions can often be made. These are
shown in Fig. 13. For instance, if a load is uniformly distributed
over the feeder, the drop to the end of the tine is the same as if
the to tal load were concentrated at a point half way out on the
feeder . Th is is mathematically correc t for a very large number of
loads. For a small number of distributed loads the error may be
large. When the load can be divided into a number of large
concentrated loads distributed along the tines, it is possible to
divide the line into the sections between loads for calculation
purposes, and to consider each section individually w ith the
load w hich it carries.
If there is distributed load on a line and it is desired to find
the voltage drop to some point on the line, the following
formula will be helpful :

B. T ables for Estimating Voltage Drop

Voltage drops for openwire and cable circuits can be quickly
estimated by simple calculations and use of the foflowing
"ampere feet" tables. The values given in the tables are the
absolute difference in voltage (voltage drop) between sending
end and receiving end linetoneutral voltages of a balanced
three phase circuit for each 100,000 amperefeet of combined
load and circu it length. T able 12 covers standard. openwire
three phase voltages used for distribution. A wide range of
spacing is used to cover various line construction. Table 13 gives
similar information for various classes of distribution cable
voltages.
1. Th reephase Problems
In using the tables. the first thing required is the number of
amperefeet involved in the problem. This is obtained by
multiplying the amperes per phase by length of circuit in feet.
Divide this amperefeet by 100,000 to determine the multiplier
to be used with values in the tables. For the proper voltage,
conduct or si ze, conductor material, power factor, and
conductor spacing (interpolat e, if necessary) find the vol tage
drop factor in the table and mul t iply by the multiplier
determined previously. Th is will be the absolute linetoneutral
volts difference (drop) between the sending and receiving ends
of the circuit. Dividing by lineto:1eutral voltage of sending end
So..,e.

LlRt

(A) tatlet M,al t<l load

sa.. "..J..
I""
U

f--

kVA (R cosO+X sinO) Ll

% volts drop =
2
10 kV
where: kVA " total threephase load in L l ine
A resistance per 1000 It
X '" react ance per 1000 It
source power' factor angle
L l distance from source to desired point
thousands of feet
L . total length of line in thousands of feet

v,

,.

R and X are the total resistance and reactance,

respectively, o f one conductor of the line under consideration.

This formula gives t he voltage drop on one conductor, line-to-

lJ;:C Urt:

!to].,

:l
U

i'"IIQlft ----!
IC) U,u'a,m)y <I .. IIIII"lld )00<1

I'
(5

o'"'

22

Angle

Cosine

Angle

Cosine

Tenvant

CoI(ula led d,ap

in

(Olu ..,to,,,,ly

CM"l

t- ill ~!~

dill"b~ I 'd

100 d a .. e, pa,1 a l lin.

Fig. 13. Auu mpl ions for distributed ~nd c onc aniritled
loa ds - vo ll~ge drop

0.98
0.97
0.96
0.95
0.94
0.93
0.92
0.91
0.90
0.89

A."

SO 6'

,.0

,,0

,.

or receiving end and multiplying by 100 will express this as a

percentage of sending or receiving end voltage, respectively.
Example - Given a three-phase, 50-hertz distribution line
one mile in length, which consists of #4/0 stranded copper
oonductors with an equivalent delta spacing of 60"; conductor
temperature, 50 C; receiving end load 6000 kVA at 0.8 power
factor lagging; receiving end line-to-!ine voltage 13,200.
Ampere.fee t = 6000 kVA x 5280' = 1,387,000, or 13.87

v3, ' 3.2

tim es tabular va lue

From Table 12 for #4/0 copper, 60" spacing, 0.8 PF the
value is 12.5

1.779

>7"

6.174

~586

7.071
7.630
8.264
9.034
9.960
11.059
12.474
14.241
16.668
19.970
24.898

33.366
49.816
101 .107
000.000

,,0 3'

73 8'
73 44'
7420'
74 56'
75 31'

,,0

"

76 42'
77 17'
77 53'
78 28'

,,0 3'
79 38'
SOo 13'
SOo 48'
81 22'
8157'
82 32'
83 6'
8341'
84 16"
84 SO'
85 25'
85 59'
86 34'

S,O S'
87 42'
88 17'
8851'
89 26'
90 0'

Linetoneutral vol tage drop is 12.5 X 13.87 ... 174

This is

~x

100 '" 2.29% voltage drop on basis of receiving

,nd.

2. Singlephase Problems
The voltage drop f or singlephase circuits wi th two identical
conductors can be obtained in a similar manner using t he same
tables. The only difference is, in obtaining t he number of
ampere feet multiply the amperes per phase by twice the length
of circuit in fee t .

23

Table 12. Voltage drops of open_wire lines in yolts per 100,000 ampere leet Inote 1)
SYSTEM VOLTAGE CLASS
(qui ..... ' 000,. _ ' " I",",. 21

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VOLTAGE REGULATING EQUIPMENT

VI - VOLTAGE REGULATING EQUIPMENT

A. Selection of Regu lator
The two fundamental factors of service, from both the

consumer's and the operating company's point-of-view, is the

maintenance of continuity and as nearly a constant voltage
supply

as is economically possible. To the consumer, an

improvement in voltage regulation means greater satisfaction

from electric devices and a stronger incentive for extending the

use of electric energy. To the operating company, an improve

ment in voltage regulation results in greater customer satisfaction, greater goodw ill towards the operating company, an

Table 14. Functi on performed by regulators and ca pacitors

generating station bus voltage, using the generator fie ld control.

Although fun use shou ld be made of th is method of voltage
control, this met hod alone does not meet all of the requirements of the system. To meet the system requirements most
utilities use, in varying degrees, a combination of automatic
voltageratio and kilovar control or. as applied here, regulators
and shunt capacitors. The question arises as to how much
emphasis should be p laced upon each of these methods of
voltage control. The technical functions that can be performed
by regulators and capacitors are given in Table 14.

improvement of service rendered, and a higher average voltage

level, which results in higher revenue to the company for the

same value of connected load. Where t he load is chiefly lighting
and heating, as in residential areas, this variation in kWhr
consumption will be most pronounced . Fig. 14 gives the
increased revenue on typical circuits.

1. Type
Several different types of equipment are used to maintain
voltage levels throughout a system. This equipment can be
grouped into three major classes:
1. Source voltage control; generating station bus voltage
control.
2. Voltage ratio control.
a. l oad tap changing transformers
b. Step voltage regulators
c. Induction voltage regulators
3. Ki lovar control
a. Synchronous condensers
b. Switched capacitors
The l ypes and sizes of the equipment chosen depend upon
the nature of the load and the characteristics of the system.
It should be recognized that the easiest and least expensive
met hod of system voltage control is by variation of the

>14

.'

c.,

,
,

Carl rilise SVSlem voltages on source or i"put

side of regulati"g mea"s .

To determine the correct location and size of the regulator,

the loading and voltage characteristics of the circuit should be
known. Also, the voltage conditions from the substation to the
end of the feeder should be known fo r both the peak and light
loads. These voltages may be measured or t hey may be
calculated if the following are available: a circuit diagram which
shows the size, spacing, and length of conductor; an indication
of at least the most important loads and the phases to which
they connect; and a notation as to whether the loads and
circuits are single-phase or threep hase.
The size of the regulator depends upon the load which it
must carry and the percent of voltage regulation. Therefore it is
necessary first to determine the proper location for the
regulator. In determining the location for a regulator it is
advisable to consider the effect of load growth as well as present
load condit ions_ If a voltage profile based on a reasonable
estimate of fu ture load is made and compared with a voltage
profile based on present load, a determination of the extent of
voltage control requ ired with time can be made. A regulator
that is sized and located in accordance with this procedure will
provide proper voltage correction for present and future load
conditions. See Fig. 15.

Feeder load loc i or 0.30, pI =0.95

UQhlillQ l ood 501001 10 10 1.
VolloQe drop ofteelillQ all lighlinQ
lood 7010 0 1 drop 01 o ron uat p.ak.
R .... e l'lu . fro m in cr. o s.d loo d 0 1
3 c p .r kWh

NO

YES

YES

NO'

band

YES

NO'

5. Capable of many SWitching operations with

oul l'eQuent inspec t ion.

YES

NO'

6. Reduces 12R loss lI"d 12 X loss in system.

NO '

YES

7. Reduces thermal loading.

NO

YES

8. Raises system loading capabililV.

YES'

YES

Capable
control.

".
".

stepless

"

small voltage step

mai"tai"i"g a

314-volt

The amount of kVA of regulation required for a singlephase

regu lator in a single'phase circuit can be determined as the
product of percent voltage regulation and the total circuit kVA
beyond the regulator divided by 100 (see Fig. 16.).
A three-phase circuit can be regulated by one three-phase
regu lator, two single-phase regulators, or three singlephase
regu lators. Fig. 17, 18, 19, 20a and 20b show the connections
for the different methods. There are two types of three phase
regulators:
a. T hreephase coreandcoi l construction with threephase
switching mechanism.
b. Triplex . Three separate singlephase units mechanically
coupled within one rank.
The amount of kVA of regulation required for wye
connected three-phase regulators is equal to the product of
percent voltagE! regulation and the circuit kVA beyond the
regulator divided by 100 (see Fig. 17.).

UI II moll
profll.

"

!
>

o
>

200

Prutnr volt o9t

prolilu

Not inherent with switched capaCit ors. but will pro

duce smal l c har>ge5 in vollage if ba"k si~e is small or
system impeda...::e to ba"k is small.
Switched capacilOfs do not usuallv pefmit this small
bandwidth,

it

Capacitor switch contacts deterio'Dle rapidlv with

large numbe, 01 switching operatio"s per day,
Not inherent wit h uoltage regulators but som e ,educ
tion in losses may rasul t on output side by virtue of
,"creased volta{le.

Voltage regulat ors will raise the loading capabilitv on

raise loading capability of
output side but will
system on input side.

0"'

,," or three-phase feeders, with two single-phase regulators

connected open-delta, see Fig. 18.
There are two schemes of connecting three singlephase
regulators. into a three-phase feeder; in wye as shown in Fig. 17,
or in delta as shown in Fig. 20a and 20b.
In regu lating a threephase, three-wire system with a bank of
regulators connected in delta as in Fig. 20a and 20b, the percent
regulation of the line voltage is approximately 50 percent
greater than the regulation of the individual regulators as shown
vectorially in Fig. 21 and 22.
The load bonus feature which is available on step type
regulators allows the current rating to be increased with a
corresponding reduction in regulating range. Increased capacities
are given in Table 15. The kVA of regulation is based on full
10 percent or load bonus values of regulating range listed in
Table 15 .

~
700

"XlO

2000

XlO

Fig. 14. Dollar< revenue per year recovered by compensati ng for vo lt age drop at yearl y peak toa d

Currant Capac itY tn cr uses

IShown ~5 percen t~ge of
rated curr ent)
Sttlect Desired Regu lating
Ra nge Wi th New
Pos ition Indi cato r

- - --- -,;.

10%
8-3/4%
7-1/2%
6-1/4%

Conte t loco llon lOt

tl9uloto. ,IUd In
oeco,donet .Ith ultimol.
lOad 10 co .. " t p<tnnt
and l uture 10. vo1l09 '

Example: Compensating for a 5-percenr drop at yearly peak load of 600 kVA increases the annual revenuB $f 250.

26

~0Ita9'

;;

No< inhe rent with sw itched capaci tOr< but will give
this eHect by being swllched off ,

NOTE : Neilhe, 'egulerors nor cepacitofs by themselves can fulfill all of these desired funct,ons. However, used as a c~mb",al,on, ,the twO methods of
voltage control can maintain" relati vely flat feeder voltage profile and at the same time reduce system lones and provide for com,derable system load
grOWlh on the feeder.

I~ .,~

<

YES '

Table 15. l oad bonus regulation

Commllnts

YES

raise and lower OUTPUT VOLTAGE .

w.dth,

AS5umpliOM
~16

4. Capable

2. l ocation and Size

Ptrlor med By
Perfor .... d By
Voltage RaTio ConTf o l
Kilo"a. Cont rol
!Voltage RegulaTOf$) )Switched Capaci t o.s!

FI,. nc.tion

5%

-To

Fi g. 1 5. Volt age pro li le lor presen t a nd lu t ure lo ad con ditions

a maximum

of 668 amperes.

M L 32"
lSingie phase )
100%
110%
120%
135%

160%

M L T-32
ITh reo phase )

100%
108%
lt5%

120%
130%

- "Applies ro voltage class 15 k Vand

below to II mallimum of 600 amp.

27

VOLTAGE REGULATING EQUIPMENT

VOLTAGE REGULATING EQUIPMENT

eon....,lon

("""'''''

,
..
~'

)("IC~.u"kV"'1

."'

k VA,ol R...... ' _

,M

R."~I"'S".

,.

8::'
,..... "r

l&l'eu,'k"'''!

,... R.."OIO< HI

looJ5'

OPt<> [)ell.

IX,\ L'''' Voh.,. R.... '."onl

P.. R..",IOI

~"

' X'll.l ..... Volt. R.,OI, .....

kVA 01 R.."., .. "

kVA 01 II ....'.""

~.

~"

IX'I. l ..... Volt. R'9'I0""" 1

ICotcuo, kVAI

\V"" o.R .....' .....

,.

le"..,il kVAI

i(j(1I 31

0.110'.,\

~"-...-.

.:
" .. 200

kVA 01 1109<>''''''''
p" 11"9'>10'0< in

..,

6' .

.. ~ .

IX'lOu ' PII,l .... Vol,. R"""''''''I

Method I

IC"eu.' kVAI

lSO\l1'

fio.:IOb

,,' -;

,- ,,,. <MI,. ____

...._.

10_ ,,,",

,., '"

,C'~,~~

_ . X"II;. - 11 SI ("" .... , R.,.,...,IO<O oIlnd ..""',. R-.,.II'oo)

too" IIPI"v I"
NOTE : T_ ......,'''''''
' .... ,. ..... 0 1 rtl .. ,otIv .....U ' . . . .....,. .. 10 pot~I'"
20".. ....,

'a ...M.t "'

A.
- .:1 ,.,. .

-)I.

ttOU

..,.

100 _ _ _ _ ......

M.tho<! II
. 0 ..........

3. Choice for Three-phase Circui ts

When deciding what scheme shall be used in connecting
regulators into a three-phase circuit some consideration should
be given to the fo llowing facto rs:

(a) One threephase regulator generally occupies less space

than a bank of three single'phase regulators for the same
equ ivalent threephase circuit kVA of regulation .
(b) In general, single'phase regu lators used in banks, provide
!reater fl ex ibility when changes in the system design are made.
(c) l ess spare capacity is requ ired when a system uses banks
of single' phase regulators.
(d) A bank of two regulators connected opendelta can
provide regu lation for all three phases of a threewire, three
phase circuit. On the other hand, the sum of the kVA of
regulating capacity o f the indivi<fual regulators will be greater

than the percent of the range of voltage regulation times the

three phase circuit kVA. This connection results in neutral shift
and is not applicable to fourw ire circu its.
(e) Three single'phase regulators in a delta bank can regulate
a threewire, threephase system. like the open-delta bank , it is
necessary to provide extra kVAofregulation capacity in a
closeddelta bank; however, the percent output line voltage
regulation is 50 percent greater than the percent voltage
regulation of the individual regulators.
(f) Three single' phase regulators in either wye or delta
connection provide individual phase regulation of all phases.
(g) Three singlephase regulators in a wyeconnected bank
require connection to the system neutral for successful
operation.

J.p ulq :>lI n t.o .. 1 1'O~1! . "Iqo,

.IOl-1OPU03-"' QI 01 ~11kI0 IIAjft:> H. q .l
I ""~ OI
J O I'~PUO O

III:> h Og
nd UUOI U .W

.
.-!,

~
-

0_

:; ~"

B. Regul ator Control Settings

1. Regu lator Bandwidth
The bandwidth for wh ich a feeder regu lator is set has a d irect
effect on the amount of load a voltagelim ited feed er can carry.
The voltage spread between first and last customers is used up in
the secondary, distribution transformer and primary circuit
voltage drop as well as in the regulator bandwidt h. The less
voltage used in the bandwidth, the more will be available for the
other components. Voltage taken from the bandwidth can be
added to the permissible primary voltage drop. This permits an
increase in the amount of load which can be carried on the
existing feeder. As an alternative, the feeder length can be
increased in an area of uniform load dlmsity with a resultant
increase in load. These increases will be in accordance with the
fo llowing formu las:

, t ~
,
,
o

o.

go ~

"

VO,

% increase in length "

(.../1+ 9Wo
_ 1) 100
VO ,

BWD volts reduction in the bandwidth

VD l = original value of permissible primary voltd ro p before
the bandwidt h reduction.
In general, regu lators of smaller step size permit the setting
of a smaller bandwidth. In additio n to increased feeder length
and load, t he smaller bandwidth permits a higher average voltage
to be maintained with in t he permissible voltage zone at the
customer locat ion. This higher voltage resu lts in an increase

,.

... ....
---

v._,....,...,..

.o.,
.,!

......c_
......
".-...
, ,
"'--'"

. . ...

,;

",
o

:-

"

c: '0 -.. v

Fig. 21 . Veclor di agrlm for three ten percent regulalors (single phase.
Induction or ne p ) connected In del ta IMethod I)

28

% increase in load . BWD 100

,.

t III"'" I!":IJ!~ ~JDw !Jd JO I

. ,""ufdwo, 01 t.1I !U" ""'OHO'~

"

t. UO~'

.'o....d"' o'I ln'J!'

01

~J ow)Jd

6~ ! 11 ..

J OI
UUOI <!U W

"
i
0

.,
~.

~~

< ,

.~
~

.
=.!

,
2

< ,

1-;;:'

Fill. 22. Veetor diallram for three len percent regulators b ingl e philse,
indu ction or Slepl connected in delta (Method III

29

VOLTAGE REGULATING EQUIPMENT

VOLTAGE REGULATING EQUIPMENT

M'~'

Singl' EI,valor
Hoists
Cron..

,. , ,

T'oo, ,!~;,'~.': Size

Rleiprotall ng
Pumpi
Compr,,,or.
Automalic
Spal_wlld".

(KVA)

25 ~7.5 50 75

10

15

1. 6

1. 72.1

1\

-"- ,'"

1- -

"- ......

"- r"-

"
"
1'/~""'"
'-t

.......

r,

I'

Fig. 25. Flickor c hart

I,

rA

o
'I'

i li""'"1

'0

,-

I ,

, i or :M~o"':1

I'01

I'
I'

"

,
1

'0 "

,'''0'

Solid Lines composi te curves of vol tage f(icker studies by General Electric Company. Gener;)1 Electric Review August 1925; Kansas City
Power & Light Company, Electrical World, May 19, 1934; T. & D. CommiHee, EEl, October 24,1934, Chicago; Detroit Edison Company;

NO. 4

West Pennsylvania Power Company; Public Service Company of Northern Illinois.

NO. 2

DOlled Lines voltage flicker allowed by two utilities, references Electrical World November 3, 1958 and June 26, 1961.
Fig. 24. Relations of voltage fluc tuat ions to frequency of their occurrence iincandescent lamps)

kW-hr consumption corresponding to a given connected load.

The amount of increased revenue resulting from the additional
kilo watthours can be calculated using the following formula:
Annual revenue increase in dollars '"

0.584 Voltagesensitive kWhr Load

3. Volt<lge level
This is the voltage about which the regulator operates, and is
the voltage magnitude held constant at the controlled voltage
point. The voltage level is set in conjunction with the line drop
compensator.

Total kW-hl' load

x voltage reduction in bandwidth x load factor x annual peak
kW x rate in cents per kW-hr.
This equation applies over relatively small values 01 bandwidth
change in the order of one or two volts. A change in revenue
resulting from large voltage changes can be determined by
reference to Fig. 14.
2. Time delay
The time delay should be set so that a proper compromise
exists between the number 01 tap change operations and the
voltage control desired. I I the time delay is too short, the
regulating equipment will operate excessively by responding to
transient voltage changes. It is recommended, then , that the
number of operations be controlled by changing the time delay,
rather than by varying the bandwidth.
When regulators are cascaded on a circuit the regulator
closest to the source should have the shortest time delay setting,
and the time delays should be increased for regulators. located
beyond the first regulator. The longest time delay is set lor the
regulator farthest from the source.

30

4. line-drop compen sator setting ch<lrt

In the majority 01 cases, it will be necessary to use a
linedrop compensator with the regulator in order to obtain at
the regulator terminals an output voltage variation which will
meet system performance requirements. One concept of the
function of the linedrop compensator is that it be used to hold
rated voltage at some point on the feeder other than at the
location of the regulator. In accordance with this concept, the
line-drop compensator setting chart, shown in Fig. 23, provides
an easy method for determining the setting of the linedrop
compensator.
The following information is required for determining the
compensator setting by means of the chart:
1. length of feeder in feetloload center.
2. Size of conductors and equivalent spacing of conductors
in inches.
3. Current-transformer-rated primary current.
4. Potentialtransformer ratio or potentialwinding ratio.
5. Type of circuit connection; single phase, delta or wye
(fourwire).

In general, it is desirable to compensate for the distribution

transformer and secondary drop. Whenever the value of this
drop is known, it should be added to the values of the
compensator settings obtained from the chart. Otherwise, a
reasonable approximation of five volts drop for resistance and
four vol t s drop f or reactance can be used.
It must be remembered that the voltage supplied to any
customer should not exceed approximately 105 percent of the
nominal line rating. Compensator Settings must be periodically
checked and adjusted to compensate for load growth.

At the lOp of Fig. 24 the type equipment which will produce

the indicated voltage dips in the ranges shown is tabulated.
Permissible limits of instantaneous voltage fluctuations are
determined by objectionable light flicker.

,
E
!

2160

C. Light Flicker
Steady-state voltage conditions withi n close limits can be
attained by the use of shunt capacitors and feeder voltage
regulating equipment with properly adjusted line drop compen
sators. However, feeder regulating equipment w i!! not compen
sate for instantaneous voltage fluctuations caused by sudden
applications of low power factor loads, such as produced by
motors during starting. The solid lines in Fig. 24 show curves,
based upon the average of results obtained in several investiga
tions, of visible and irritating voltage fluctuations on lighting
circuits, which are plotted against the frequency of their
occurrence. T hese data were compiled in the 1930's. Since then,
some electr ic power utilities have found that for today's
conditions flicker lim its can be liberalized with success. The
dotted lines in Fig. 24 show the limits set by two utilities.
References are given in the figure. This flicker information is
appropriate for secondar y systems.

"<
lloo

.'"

i. _ 60

.' .'

"

i40

.. 20

,,
<
o

60

80

'Xl

10

II

120

130

140

1!i0

Per coni normal '01 "

Note.- Th(J$e characteristic curves (or large gasfilled Ma~da C lamps. show
the effect of operating a lamp iJt other than its rated voltage. These
charac teristics iJre averages of many lamps.

Fig. 26. Incandescent Mazda C

31

VOLTAGE REGULATING EQUIPMENT

,:,!..-

LU m, n a

Lomp o m p
Lamp . 01 11

Ldft'~o if;

an'lpon.~

VII -

I
mp a m p , r"

co.
I

'" a".
Lu .... n.
I

"'"

80
90
"0
Pr Im or y 011 0", ' - pa r Clnl 01 I roni l o rllle r

" '"

'0

I
"0

'"

I
"0

140

..IIl n",

Fig. 28, Mercury 1400watt,TyP9 H I

Note: Burning lamps may be extinguished if voltage drop$ to appro>:;

rna/ely 75 percent of the ,ated line voltage.

Fig . 27. Fl lIores<:(! n \

T he value of voltage dip caused by a motor load during

starting depends upon the size of the secondary conductor,

upon the size and impedance of the transformer feeding the

load, and the distance of the motor from the transformer . The
chart in Fig. 25 shows an example of the magnitude of voltage
dips caused by starting currents of 50 amperes at 80% power

factor, 120 volts, and 100 amperes at 80% power factor, 240
volts.

light flicker can be reduced either by lIsing larger distribu tion transformers, additional distribution transformers with

APPLICAT ION OF SHUNT CAPAC ITORS

reduced length of circuit, increasing the size of secondary

conductor, adding parallel lines or secondary banking,

D. Lamp Operating Voltage

Lamps are designed to give best allround performance at
rated voltage. F,ig. 26, 27 and 28 show the variation in
performance for three types of lamps operating at other than
rated voltage.

E. Reduction of Light Fli cker by Bank ing

Secondaries
Objectionable light flicker is being eliminated by a number of
utilities by means of the interconnection of secondaries of
adjacent distr ibution transformers, commonly referred to as
"secondary banking," In addition, banking makes possible an
increase in the connected secondary load without an increase in
the peak load on the t ransformers, It has also improved service
continuity.

Ij

A, Bas ic Considerat ions in Apply ing Shu nt Ca pa citors

1, Released Capacity

The shunt capacitor has become increasingly important as a

design tool in the field of distribution. In genera!, capacitors, by
reducing peak-load feeder -voltage drops, allow greater feeder
loads to be carried; or in other words, they increase feeder
capacity. Also capacitors, by reducing kVA loads, release
substation and generation capacity.
The application of a shunt capacitor to a distribution feeder
produces a uniform voltage boost per unit length of line, out to
its point of application. The resulting improved voltage level not
only increases revenue, bu t also creates consumer goodwill by
making the operation of appliances more satisfactory_
Proposed capaci t or applications should be checked to make
sure that the voltage to some customers will not rise too high
during light-load periods. Such investigation is particularly
necessary if the feeder is not regulated. The curves in Fig. 31
can be used to compute voltage rise. The curves in Fig. 32 give
the percent substation or generator capacity released by the
application Df capacitors, and Table 16 gives the factors for
calculating the size of capacitor necessary to raise the power
factor of a given load to a higher value.
The most economic power factor, based on thermal capacity
usage by kVar, is given by the following relation:

The fundamental kVar and kW relations in a circuit when the

power factor is improved are readily portrayed in Fig. 34.
T he following relations define some of the properties of Fig.
34, regarding released capacity in equipment which has a
current magnitude as the limiting facto r .

Resultant kVA at 02
cos 0,
kVA 2 '" kYAt - -0cos 2
Incremental kVA capaci t y released at original po wer factor in
terms of 0 , and 0 2 is
L'lkVA=kVA,
cos 2 0 1 y1 +

CkV

c = capacitor cost in dollars per kVar when supplied in the

load area
s '" cost of system in dollars per kVA
This relation is ploued as Curve A in Fig. 33.

0'

,,

L'lkW = L'lkVA

12.4 1kV

II
4.8kV

!
--

416kV

,,,
/

~ ooe

1/

32

0001

2.4 kV

004

cosO,

ptr 10 00 I I 01 3 p" o~e I,ne

,I

.0 1

Fig, 30 . St raig htlina ty pe

0 is

Y1 - CkVA2 cos20 ]
kVA2,
,

Fig. 29. Grid lY pe

:)and

kVA I

13.8kV

Fuses are inSlalled al sectionalizing poillts between transformers. Blown

fuses wI111hen indicale the location of the faulled section, yet will permit
adjacent transformers to assume a portion of the load from a heavily
loaded section.

tan202 + tan 20I /coS 2 0 1 )

power[f(a~~~; sti:r;~ ~f 1

Where :

Fuses are generally IIsed in the sccondafll leads of the transformer, in

order to disconnect the transformer from the grid in case of a fault
''''thin the Ifansformer.

(cosO, + 5inO, tan0 2 ) +

2 tan 8, tan 02

L'l:::: O:i:::) I

CosO = Y1 _ (c/ s)2

There are two general types of secondary banking: the grid

type and the straightl ine 'type, as shown in Fig, 29 and 30.

T T

(-COSO,

10011 of

480V

3'p~o$e

.N0o/

lin e

216V

1//

/.
~

//
000<

/'

001
004
01
02
04
10
Per ce nl voH~~ @ rise (pMse - 10'P~ost) pe, 100hor
01 copoe.tor S lor " ~e If ~ Q tn o. , ~a,cole<l

'0

<.0

10

These curves give voltage rise per 100 k VA of threephase capacitor per 1000 or 100 feet of three-phase line.
For single-phase lines. the voltage rise per 100 kVA of single'phase capacitor per 7000 feet or 700 feet of line
will be twice the indicated value.

Fi g. 3 1. CUr\lO$ of vo lt age r ise c aused b V ca pac itor applica t ion

33

APPLICATION OF SHUNT CAPACITORS

, .

,,

iJd
f '- -- -~,.
I

Table 16. Power-factor-correctiol' factors

o.illO.-.1

'

APPLICATION OF SHUNT CAPACITORS

"'FKtor in

I
I

P..ct-n,

50

'" I.. I..

0.'"'

B3

<'03,

""
""

53

,,

"

"

"

Ro"o . , Co ,,,. , c." ,. " " ... Vo'"

,.

57

Curve A : $/Ir Var ... CaP/ICl tor Cost .. (clsl

S/lrVA
p., wnll (a pocUot kVA

!!.Y!

Fig. 32. Thermal ca pacity relEtlsed bV application 0 1 ca pa<:ilors

For ready reference, 6 kVA in terms of 0 1 , 2 , and CkVA

are plotted in Fig. 32 in per unit of kVA , _
Based on kW capacity usage by kVar, the most economic
operating power factor in terms of c. capacitor cost in dollars
per kVar when supplied in the load area, and s, cost of system in
dollars per kW, is obtained by the equation:

V1

$!kW

EKl mple: Assume II 5Q()(}--k VA SUbstatiorr has II load power faeror of 0.70
iHId that 2000 k VA of ,,,pacitors IIf. applied. The Pf/funi t capacitof k VA
;s 200015000 - 0.40 for which the feleased capaci tv IH 0.70 power flewr
is 0.24 per unit, or (0.24 x 50001 - 1200 kVA. Also it may be noted
(from rhe dotted lines) {niH the final power faclo r is IIbOUI 0.92.

Value

Curve B: $/1< Vllr .. (cis)

kVA ,

Cos 0

Sy$l~m

economic operating p.1.

+ (c/s)2
This relation is plotted as Curve B in Fig. 33.
To show how this curve can be used, assume that a ponion
of a system is operat ing near rated capacity . For example, let
this portion be worth S100 per kW and determine the most
economical operating facto r when capacitors are installed in the
load area . Capacitors can be installed for approximately S8 per
kVar. This gives a capacitor cost to the system value ratio (e/s)
of O.OS. From Fig. 33. this corresponds to II 0 .995 power factor.
That is, in this example where system capacity is needed, its use
for transportation of kilovars cannot be justified below 99.5
percent power factor.

2. Voltage Rise
The equation of percent voltage rise due to application of a
shunt capacitor, neglecting line resistance is:
CkVA X d
Percent D. E .. ""=-:-~"
10 kV2

"
""
'"
""
63

Fig. 33. Op.aling p ower facto r at whic h system invest m ent usage
b y kilovars equals Ih e COSI o f capacitors

65

56

3. Reduction of Losses
The resistance loss in a circuit is equal to the product of the
resistance and the current squared . The current , in turn, is equal
to the rss (root of the sum of the squares) value of the reactive
and active components of current. As the loss is a function of
the current squared, it follows that the loss due to the two
components of current may be reckoned separately . Thus,
tOlalloss RI( I cos 01 2 0+- (I sin O)2)
'= active'current losses + reactivecurrent losses
This concept in figuring losses is useful, because the
act ivecurrent losses are no t effected by the power factor and
represent the absolute min imum to which the total circuit losses
may be reduced. As the reactivecurrent losses are the only ones
that are effected by power-factor improvement, it is suggested
that these losses be dealt wi th as a separate enti ty, when figu ring
loss reductions from the application of shunt capacitors . This
ignores the loss reduction which accompanies the higher system
voltage caused by capacitors.
In a practical case, the total energy loss - that is, the kWh r
loss over a given period - is the figure that is usually of major
importance. Therefore, the load cycle, the daily load pattern,
must be considered in order to get an accurate pictu re. By
dividing the load-current requi rement into its active and reactive
components, as suggested, the amount of fi xed shunt capacitors
required to reduce the to tal energy loss to a minimum for a
given load pattern can be readily determined. This value turns
out to be the average value of the kVar requirement. These

.w

'ow

1.138

"

Fig. 31 shows the above equation plotted in terms of various

line vo ltages.

1.108
1.079
1.049
1.020

68

69
70

""
"
"

;!: ,,;

eo

:~

7J

75
77

""
"
8J

..".
"
"
...
..
"

I ::: .... :

B5

: : .. 1

92
93

I ..

96

97

99

... I '
1

.. .

... I.... ...

.... I " .. .

.. .. I ....
...

,....

~~:

.... .......... .

I: :::::
I::::

: : I:::

'00

1,39,
030

1:;I~m ,. :;;, I:;:

1000

I ... .:::I
' I:::; I"
1:::: :: : .:::: .... . . :~ 1::;:1

:: I:::

EJI.mpl..

1.2"
1o ".1,.29!
0

::i,
1,'"1'.'''1 .'',1''<10.'''
'7! I ~ "21~ '~ I O"';1'2

.: :

89

O "' I~ ~

11::;*
I..

82

....

.. . .

... , '"

... ....

..

.. . ...

.. ... .. ..
I'"

.. .

::::I:: ... ::: I : ... ::: : .... .

'",3
1

.. .

10 00< 0.041

I ..

.... I' " ... . . .. I.... ... .... . . .. . 1

.. . .
.... 1.. ..
I. . . . . . 1 .. I....... .

n.. SII. of .:.pIlC,fO' ne.:IlUry to , ...e fh. po _

fIlC IO' of .. gr ...n tOld to I h,ghe' Viliv. .:,n bI found ilS 101l0Wl :

Allum. . 500-k ... 'OId.f 60 perl!lnt powe, IKfOr, 500 h , " 0.60 - 300 kw.

If I. dis/red fO ,,/ f"- power fK fOr to 90 ~rc;'r>f.

"PIC/lOr k ... n/ICes"ry is found by multiplying 300 kw by t"- corrflC fion fKfOr fabn f,om
'''' f.b/ """leh ;s 0.85..
.:./Cifor Mellary woul d Ihlr. far. tw 255 h .

n.

n.,

L.I.., auUIl'll furt"', fhlf '''' ".", iii".., Sf.ndit,d elPlCilor 'IIt;n, ;s sl/fed {3OQ k ...l . "",.t would 1M fhe flSulfi",po _ , fllCfar'

Where:

300 b ..r

- - - . r.OD {carTlC fion fle l arl

300'.

Ck VA ., threephase capacitor k VA
X = reactance per phase-to-neutral in ohms per mile
d = length of line in miles
kV = line kilovolts
For singlephase circuits multiply X by two.

R. f""n, /0 Ih. lib/I. we find thll l wi/h lin originlll power (K fO' of 6Qp..-c. rII lind II ,:o"","'on f"'tor ' f r. OO. /he "/limate power fKlor would tw
prletinlly 95 PlTC.nt.

Fig. 34. Fundamental kVA. kVar iln d kW relillions

34

35

APPLICATION OF SHUNT CAPACITORS

APPLICATION OF SHUNT CAPACITORS

Table 17. Application guide for group-fusi ng capacitor banks with Genera l Electric un iversa l cable-type and oil

\VAM _load

cu tout fuse link rati ngs "N," "O IL," "K," and " T" types

'O"tt"

GROUNDEDWVE ANO DEL T A CONNECTIONS

CAPACITOR BANKS WITH l00KVAR UNITS

.

3 -ph..o l( u..

JOO

~OO VOII$
N/ D,I

',00

100/-

600

NID,I

"-

."

NIDi'

50
100/-

Kn"

57/ 60

,.

7200 Vol ..
N/D,I
Kn"

4800 Voln

50
tOO/ -

12470 Vou.
W Oir
Kn"
25

8s/ tOO

"00

25

--~ -

,."

" "

80/ -

100/'001

50

1001-

50

951 100

13200 Volt.
N IOli
Kn"
25

,". "

NID il

."

25

50

41 60 Volts

2400 Vol"

"."
'"

,.

N ID,I

"

,.

"

300

7200
N/Dil

,. 2".

501 501-

50
75/ -

501-

B51-

65/ -

75/ -

501-

7&/60

".

4800 Volls

7131-

'" 2. 2.
50/-

Nl a,1

" "

25

25

JO

525
600

"

" '00"

"
"

50

85/ 100

100/ '001

1.0

In.
h.lor

0 .2 12

o. ~

0 .636

0 .25

0. 333

0.5

l+- ~;:::'
~lc:ilO

100/'00 1

V"II ~

12410 Yolts

." ""

NIO,I

20
25

50
75/ -

501 -

75/ 85/-

50165/-

"

2.

,,..
25

JO

50

13200 Volts
NIOil

,.. ""

"" 2.
2.
"
25

."

13800 VoU,
N/Dil

,.. ""

"" 2.
2. 30
25

."

...
>2

2."

,. ,. ,,.. ,"". ,.
,.
30

25

25

25

25

25
25

SO

'"

'50

50/50/-

SO
75/-

501-

50
50

825
000

75/15/-

501SO/ -

75/75/ -

501501-

75/60
75/-

501501-

925
'050
1115

75/85/-

SO/65/ -

75/ 75/-

501-

75/-

501 -

'51-

50150/-

851 -

65/651-

851-

65165/-

85/85/-

65/65/-

85/-

30

1Sf15f-

>200

t.O

Lon
l oc to<

,. ,.
,.

NID,I

- ""1Tc:~ lo

~""

lou

T
30

50

851100

13800 voru

CAP AC TOR SANKS WI TH 25 ANO 50 KVAR UNITSI

J -p hase 1("3"

P" ~IIU
10 ..
. 1111 Ie

POf

sin T

000

'500
'BOO

.'I~oullc

... 1111..... '"

4160 Valli

- '('T

lOll

Ie 10 gin

AVAIIoABLE SHORr CIRCUIT CURRENT IN AMPERS RMS '

' f<Io- '-. ......... '''"'' ..... '''''...... ...,........._''......_

Fig. 31. 25 ! nd SOkVar u nits rated 24001960 volts

Fo' 100 h .., "'''". /..u/ll;"",'" .,"ould nOf uned SOOO .,.,,,e"!f.
I For 15 ,,,,d 5O 1r~.J' "'''". 111.111 'u"em .hould nOI e Xl;eed 4()(}() "m{Jt'n .

For .",gll1''',"oI'l1 (;""iH:"or b;mlr . mu' l ''''~ Ihe .mgle"ha. e k~a, '041"'9 b~ 3 10 o bI"'" II,,, I1Q ... ~~ll1nr 3","".11 Ir~ar ,."ng. and mul""/l' Ih" ''''9Ie."h"."
by 1. 1310 o m",,, Ihe
,ll1m 3"ha." ~oll~gtI 'al,n9_ SeIe<:1 Ih" I"." lin k r""'ommended "nde, Ih" (;0"eSl1Ondm9 3"h"." *~a, "lid 3"hju e Ime'lo,
I",. -01'''9<1 '''''''g 110m Ih e Idbl~ 1o, ,he g,oumMd'Wjle 01 della -conllec;red banlrs.
NOle

~oll.,ge

nJ,,, ..

points become more important when capacitors are being

applied primarily fo r loss reductions. Additional reduction in
losses can be made by using switched capacitors which can be
switched on during peak kilovar load and off at light load.
The base, or minimum value, of kVar in a given load pa~tern
can be supplied by capacitors which correspond to that amount,
with no fu rt her consideration. because this provides approxi
mately unitypowerfactor operation at the light load periods.
The variable portion remaining will likewise have, as in the
general case, its minimum rms value when capacitors
corresponding to its average value are applied . What th is may
mean for a few chosen types of load patterns, and the
corresponding loss reductions accruing, are shown in Fig. 35.
These data indicate that, in the general case, approximatel y 0.50
to 0.80 of the toss due to the varia ble portion of the kVar
requirement can be eliminated with unswitc hed capacitors. For
purposes of comparison, and as a guide in arrivi ng at a solution ,
the loss and load factors are also listed for the various patterns
in Fig. 35.
When it is desirable to put in more CkVA than can be done
with unswi tched capacitors, automatically switched capacitor
banks are available in distribu tion ra tings.

36

4. Protection
Tables 17, 18, 19 and 20 can be used to assure that the
proper fuse protection is provided the installed capacitor bank.
Figures 36, 37 and 38 are case rupture curves for the indicated
capacitor sizes.

5. Additional Benefits

,
0
0

The foregoing benefits do not take into account any change

which might be made in turn ratios of transformers and voltage
regulators loca ted be'tween the generator and load after
capacitors are applied. When original voltage conditions are
satisfactory, transformer taps could be changed after appl ying
capacitors which would result in a reductio n in both the active
and reactive components of current. This add itional reduction
in current would give additional system benefits ' on the Sl:)urce
side of the transformer where the tap change is made.

AlEE TrlmS8C t ion Paper 55711 " DC Circuit Gives Easy Method of
Determin ing Vg/ue of C8pacitors in Reducing /2 R Losses," R. A.
Schmidt, AlEE Power Apparatus and SyHems, Number 26, page 840.

" RIt " ...... h~''', '!>on 0.. cycl 0. ooymmll,;col

"rI, O"'PI'II

Fig. 36. 1 OOk Va r units rated 24001960

~ol tl

' For 1i..... . ""'I.,

'I"IOn ..... c~l. uM o.ym ....!t>OO, , .... 0"'".'"

Fig. 38. Pro posed characlerislil;S 01 150, 200, and 3OOkVar u nits
rated 24001960 ~ol!s

37

APPLICATION OF SHUNT CAPACITORS

Table 18. Application guide for group-fusing capacitor banks with General Electric universal cab le-type and oil
cutout fuse link ratings "N," "OIL," "K," and "T" types
FlOA.TING WYE CONNEC TION
CAPACITOR BANKS WITIi 25. 50 OR l00 KVAR UNITSIt
4160 Volt.

J."h ... Ky. "

NIO,I

"
""
'"

"

75160

'"
.'"
..,

,. -

4800 Voh.
"1/0,1

'"

"" '""
""
"- "

40130

4 5140

~I-

85175

'"
'""
"'"
~

45/50

75/60

'",
'""
"
'""
'""
""- "'"
" ,.'"
"'-

85/-

951-

'"

7200 Voh.
NIOil

85/ 95/-

""
''''
'"
"'"
'"

951-

8320 Vol ..

'"

N{Oil

"
""
""

'"
"""'"
"
~

12470 Volts
NIOil

'"

"
'""

'"

"'"
"'"
"",
'"'"

40/ 451.0
~

"85/-

~I'"

,.-

75/60
151-

,., ~-

1215

"
"" '""
'"'" """" "" "
"'" ""00
'"'" "" '" "
"
"' ,."',.-

'""'"

45/40

45150

'"

45150
~

75/60

151_

75/-

851 -

1425

13800 V"II>
"1, 0,\

851 851-

1125

'"

"

"'"
,"'"
"'"
,"'"

'"
"'''''
,." "' ,."'- ,." ,.-

~IOO

95/_

"
"" ""

'"'" "
"'"
"'-

~""

75160

13200 Vol ..

NIOil

851-

95/ -

,
""
""
""
'"
"'"
'"
'"'"
'"'"
""
-

VIII -

A. Primary Distribution Systems

Continual research in the laboratory and in the field on

lightning and its effects on circuits and apparatus has established

the fundamentals of lightning protection so well that the careful
selection and application of modern arresters will provide
distribution systems with a high degree of immunity from
lightning troubles.
Adequate lightning protection of distribution systems
depends upon three major considerations:

Table 19 - Application guide for group-fusing capacitor banks with General Electric universal cable-type and oi l
cutout fuse link ratings "N," "OIL," "K," and "TH types
GROUNDEDWVE AND DELTA CONNECTIONS
CAPAC I TOR BANI{S WITH 150-, 200 AND 300I( VAR UNITS

"

..,
"'"
"""

100/ _

''''''

200 ' / -

1!>1 15
25/25
4(1/40

85/100

200'/-

"""
"'''''

,,~
,~

65/65
95/95

"'"

'"""
"""
""'"
,..,
"''''
."'"

125/125/150/-

,,~

ZOml

150/-

2-

R. f~,.o

100/ '00
100/ 100
100/100
140/ 1401
140/1401
200'/ -

c ... ,up",... ch. '*" r~", ,,c, .

TZ_::I _ a/xl .. 25()(}ampe.....hOrf circulr curren!.

Table 20 - Application guide for group-fusing capacitor banks with General Electric universal cable-t ype and oil
cutout fuse link ratings "N," "OIL," "K," and "T" types
FLOATtN GWVE CONNECTI ONS
CAPACITOR SA NKS WITH 150-

3pIo_
K

.'"
"'"
,"'"
"'"
"'"
"""
38

4160 Votu
N/o;l
951100

zoo. ANa 3 00
4800 VolU
N/o;l

'" ,."'''''
-

",.

65/65

I{VAR UNITS

7200 Vot ..
N/o;l

""'"
75175
100/100

'"

40140
~I'"

12.410 Vol"
N/o;l

8320 Vol "

N/o;l

13.200 Vott.
NfOil

13.900 Vol ..
N/o;l

..

'" ""~ '" ""- '"

'"
"'''' .,,'" ,.'"
,.- ,.'" "'" ""'" ,.'" "'''' "',.,.,.- ""'"
,.""'" 7510

;ro/20

25125

40140

45140

:1()/30

40/40

25125

8!>1100
951100

65165

65165
65165

1001100

10011 00

20120
2!>125
40/40

6!>165

LIGHTNING PROTECTION OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

1. The selection of distribution transformers and other

distribution equipment that have an insulation strength to
lightning voltages not less than presentday basic insula
tion levels.
2. The selection of arrester ra t ings which will limit the
lightning stress to a value well below the standard
impulse-withstand level of apparatus .
3. The effective application of the arresters, by mounting
them in close shunt relation with the apparatus to be
protected and, whenever possible, interconnecting the
primary arrester ground to transformer secondary neutral.
1. I mpulse Withstand Level to be Protected
ANSI basic insulation levels and withstand test values for
electrical apparatus are shown in Table 21. For example, this
table shows that the primary winding of a 15kV voltage class
distribution transformer must wit hstand a 1.2 x 50 tlS impulse
full wave test of 95-kV crest and a choppedwave test of 11OkV
crest.
Conservative protection for a distribution transformer
throughout its service life generally requires that the repeated
lightning stresses be limited to approximately 70 percent of the
standard ANSI Impulse Test Level (Bll). This takes into
account the effect of repeated lightning stresses on solid, or
composite solidandoil, insulation as well as operating conditions to which distribution transformers are subjected
(possible depreciating effects on new insulation by overloads,
moisture effects, absence of periodic maintenance, filtering of
oil, etc.).
The tests shown in Table 21 for distribution-class trans
formers , 500 kVA or less, apply also to:
Oiltype instrument transformers and constant-current
transformers.
Step-vol tage and induction regulators 250 kVA Of less,
single-phase .
Refer to AlEE paper, The Protection of Solid Insulation by Lightning
Arreuers, by D. D. MscCarthy lind T. J. Carpenter, E/ectriCIII
Engineering, October 7941.

Stepvoltage and induction regulators 750 kVA or less,

three-phase.
Cable potheads for distribution-class cables.
Insulation thickness used on modern cables provides impulse
breakdown levels well above the BIL's established for
correspording voltage classes of apparatus.
The tests shown in Table 21 for power class transformers
over 500 kVA apply also to:
Oiltype currentlim iting reactors.
Stepvoltage and induction regulators over 250 kVA, singlephase.
Stepvoltage and induction regulators over 750 kVA, three
phase .
Outdoor capacitor units and equipment should be capable of
withstanding a 1.2 x 50 p.s full -wave voltage impulse test
equivaleni: to the test voltage shown for the corresponding
voltage class of distribution transformers. Impulse tests, how
ever, are not applied to capacitor units from terminalto
terminal or from terminaltocase when one electrode is can
nected to the case. This is because the capacitance of the
capacitor being tested would greatly alter the ,test wave. The
60hertz hipot test of capacitors from linetoground is the
same as that shown for distribution transforme rs, except that it
is applied to capacitors for only ten seconds.
2. Selection of Arrester
Arrester voltage ratings are established by design test and
provide the basis for arrester selection and insulation coordina
tion. Basically , this invol ves a balance between the protection
the arrester will provide to connected apparatus and the ability
of the arrester to reseal against system voltages. These unique
requi rements make the arrester the only device on the power
system which is designed to spark over rather than to withstand
transient voltages.
The highest voltage an arrester will normally experience has
traditionally been computed by considering the voltage on an
unfaulted phase during a single line-toground fault which could
be caused, for instance, by the same lightning stroke which
causes one of the arresters on another phase to spark over.
In actual practice, the selection of surge arrester ratings on
multigrounded neutral distribution systems usually is made on
the basis of past experience or by reference to industry tables.
Based on an evaluation of the circuit parameters , operating
voltage limits, type of construction, and distribution trans
former magnetizing reactance, a proposal for the selection of
voltage ratings of distribution-type surge arresters has been
made by an IEEE working group and in Transaction Paper
71 1P542PWA.

39

LIGHTNING PROTECTION OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

LIGHTNING PROTECTION OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

Table 21. Basic impulse insulatio n levels (BI Ls ) and withsta nd tests
.. S wilChes,
I 1,,",l al o ' Un il$ & Bus

SuPPO"" - T, nlllli".
IEEE St d Wi l l.nand Tests

I Su nct..d
Bao,e Impulse
...."I.I;on

SVI . l m
Voll

Ll v<ll 8 I L kV

Impulse

a~

i,

o.,

an.
"-

15.0
25.0

AMS

k V CresT

95

115'

--

95

J()

95

200

., ,"

"

'50

3<5

AMS

J5
50

60

S.'

o. Neg

60

' 50

BO

200

No ! s 1imd,ud bu l l;lccepled by ,,,dUS B y .

Dill

a
"-

Di,1

.....

0. 0
1.25
0.5
, ,6

69

26
3<
50

26
3<
50

69
BB
.. 0
" 5

.. 0
"0

"5

230

Maxi mum dynamic overvoltages and minimum arrester

rat ings for fou r -wire multigrounded neutral distribut ion

systems, extracted from the IEEE paper, are shown in Table 22.
Maximum Discharge Volrage

In order to determine whether the arrester will protect the

dist ri bution system, it is necessary to determine the maximum
d ischarge vol tage due to lightning current which may be
enco untered.
Extensive f ield measurements of lightning disc harge currents
in urban and rura l areas have est ablished the relative f requency

Diu

4 160Y / 2400
8320Y14800
12000Y 16930
12470YI7200
13200YI7620
13800Y f7970
20780 Y !I2OOQ
2 2860Y/13200
249 40/ 14400
34500Y"9920

kV Arr est . r Rat ing

Usuall y Appl i ed On
Openwire Li nes

3
6
9
9

"

..

10, 12
18
18,21

27

Mal(i mum Dynamic Lin e

loGround Overvolt~ge
for Openw ire Lines

30
6.0
8.6
90
9.S
10.0
15.Q
16.5
18.0
24.8

DiU

.....
-60

30

20

125 '

' 50

60

20

.. 0
"0

35

200

95

J5
50

95

30

95

95

30
60

95

95

ALUGARO
MAGNE VALVE Form 28

'.S

MAGNE VA L VE form 28

AL UGARD
M A GNE VALVE Form 28

7.S

M A GNE VALVE For m 28

" 0

" 0

200

200

"
"
"

.
"

With
o;sc on nec tor

"

"
"

"

28

,,
,, , , ,
,,

'
"
I"

:;

'0

15

2.0

,
2!1

30

"l5 40

,
45

50 55

I'-..
60

65 10

Litlhtnif19 c.. ra"'k~oompe ..s _crHI

11) Currents t hrough d istribu t ion arrest ers on urban circu its having 0IIet'

12 customers per mile.

12) Cu rrentS Throu gh diStribution an eslers on semi'rural circu i l$ having
flO! more t han 12 cuuome,., per mile.
(3) Cu rrents Ihrough distribu t ion arresters on rural circui t s having an
average o f twO cUllome,., per mile.
14 ) Cu rrents through t ransmission li ne towers.
Fig. 39. Lightni ngcurrentllC pectancy curves com piled fro m
aC lu al f ield m eas urem ents

10.000

20,000

Am"

Am"

Am"

,
"

9S

""

."
"

""

13.5

"

19

2J

22
22

24
26

30

23.5

28

J2

38

30
28

JJ
J2

J6
39

40
45
40
53

"

19

20

"

"

27

39
J2

28
26

ALUGARD
MAGNE VALVE Form 28

64

28

JO

J2

29

32.5

JJ
J8

J6
45

37

40
37

43.5

48

53.5

43

""

46
46

53
53

"

60

63
63

74
74

50
50

53.5
53.5

53
53

75

90
90

58

62

73

87

64

43

ALUGARD
MAGNE VALVE form 28

39.S

MAGNEVALVE
MAGNE VALVE Form 28

76

"-

MAGN EVALVE
MAGNE VALVE Form 28

9,
54.S

77

46

",-

,"

".

M
:!in 01

5000

Am"

ALUGA RD
MAGNE VALVE Form 28

",
>

'-

SPO t"o.. '

> o 6 4 kV
60

Sparkove,

39W

2500

Am"

MAGNEVALVE

'5 10 0
V

1500

26.5

,,

E"tBfnaUy
Gap ped

"

14.5

0
0

Nominal
Voltag.

0;"

rYIodel No .

Ap p..

graphically d isplayed in Fig. 40 whe re typical voltti me

characteristics for a 9kV Aluga rd arreste r are plotted with t he
timeim pulse strength of a modern, 7200volt dist ribution
transfo rmer (95k V BIL ).
Fro m t his example, it wi1l be no ted that a li beral margin can
be provided at which t he A)ugard arrester protec tion level is
below onehalf of t he d emonstra ble im pulse kV test strength of
these tra nsfo rmers. Si milar margi ns of pro tec tion can be
o btained in the o ther d istr ibut ion voltage classes.

Protec tive characteris tics o f distributiolJ arresters

Ta ble 22. Arrester rati ngs vs. max imu m overvoltages

95

95

3.0

Volttime im pulse coordi nation and margin of protect ion are

..........

60

LS

curren t d uty on dis tr ibution arresters, as shown in Fig. 39.

Margins of protection

"-

60

of discharge current magnit udes and the range of discharge

The needed margin of pro tect ion sho uld be based u pon the
lightning d ischarge curre nts whi ch may be expec ted on distr i
bution circu its. The protect ive characteristics of d istributi o nty pe arres ters are shown in Table 23.

Dil'

30

2,0
3.0

2.2

kV RMS

Ap~'

"-

Arres ter
Rati ng kV

" "" """ "" " " " "

" " " ,"
"
"
"
'"
" "

0.5
,,5
0.6

"" "" " "88

" "
,S
..
,
'"
" "
36

a~

.....

Dill

Wet Tn l

Dry T ..,
kV RMS

1.2_ SOjd
Cr n ! kV

Min T i .... 'o

Flu hover
Mtc'OSOJCOnds

1.2 _50..F..II _ . ...

kV Crn ,

,,-

l -m;n
Cresl k V

Mu. Oisc harga Voltage IkV crestl U Indica ted

8 " 20 M icroseco nd Impu lse Cu rrent

I m PIIIs. Tel

F u Il W. ...

Tn'
AMS

Mal(. ANS I F ro n t ofw~ve

Sparkover I k V c rest )

Low Frequency Tes..

Ch o p pt'd W. ...

>v

PR OTECTI VE CHARACTE RI STICS

Sunct"d Withstand Tau,

Im P'll.. Tesl'

L
f' l q
' -m in

,... Full
w .... Po$

>v

60

" 95""
" ,"
'"
'50

Tn'
1.2. 50

.V

--

JO

2.5
5.0

,,w..

l .m in

Ci,.

'-'

L
Fr. q

Fr. q

Oush ingalOt O.nOOO. Appara ' ",

OiHype Tra nsfo rml"

SUnm,d Wilh"and Te u

! O .lI doo. Ai,

Table 23. Pe rformance characteristics of Ge neral Electric distribution arresters

, , , , , ,

,.

Ti m. - M iCfolicon'"

Fig. 4 0 . Ma"imum voltage . Uowed b y 9kV Alu~ rd distr ibu tion

compar ed with t he basic insu lati on ' ...., o f I 7200volt
dist ri bu t ion t rilOdo, mer

" ' "181'

3. Effect ive Location of Arresters

The light ning arreste rs should limi t the ligh t ning stresses to
t he lowest pract icable value. This req uires t hat the I A dro p in
t he connecti ng leads be kept to a minimum. Best protect ion for
an y gi ve n protect ive device will be obtained by intercon necticin
of the primary a rrester gro und to t he grounded secondary
ne utral. This interconnect ion el im inates t he I R dr o p of t he

"

3<

"

'"

ground lead and ground circui t . T he to tal length of the

interconnection lead (from primary bushing of the transfo r mer
t hrou gh the ar rester and interconnection circuit to secondary
neutra l) shoul d be ke pt to a mi ni mu m and preferably should
not exceed ten feet.
Fo r pro tection of o ther apparat us, ar resters should also be
located in close sh unt re latio n to t he appara tus to be protected
{except sectionalizing fuses - see pa ra gra ph below!. For
exa mple, ar resters protecting metal-sheathed cable should be
installed at t he cable pothead with t he arrester ground tied into
the cable sheath (right a t the pothead ). and t hence connected to
grou nd at the base o f t he pole.
It is desira ble to connect the dis t ribu tion ar rester on t he line
side of t he pri mary fus.e so that the lightningdischarge currents
can pass thro ugh t he ar rester to ground without having to pass
t hrough the fuse.
Furt her more, consideration should be given to posit ion of
t he transformer connection leads so as not to lower t he. basic
im pulse strength of t he transfor mer below t hat which t he
arrester can protect. Fo r example, "d ri p loops" too c lose to t he
transformer tan k . This has been cause for unnecessary fuse
blowing.
To li mit t he impulse curren t's passing th rou gh and possibly
causing the blowing of sectionalizing fuses, d istri bution arreste rs
sho uld be connec ted one o r t wo po le spa ns away fr o m , and on
ei ther side of. t he sectionalizi ng fu se.

40
41

LIGHTNING PROTECTION OF OISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

LIGHTNING PROTECTION OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

Tabl e 24. Dielectric tests for dry-type transformers
and dryt ype shunt reactors

4. Special Applications
Switchgear connected to overhead lines through continuous
metal-sheath cable
Where the lightning exposure is from an overhead circuit
wit h a section of continuous metal-sheath cable between it and

the metal -clad switchgear, the surge protection requires that:

Surge arresters should be installed at the ;unction of cable

Basic
Lo w
Insul a Fre
Nominal Im pu lse
quency
Sy$lem
Insulation
tion
Voltage Level (B IL ) Class
TM'
Col. t

Col. 2

CoI.3

Impulse Tests
Chopped Wave

Full Wave

OVERHEAD PR IMARY CIRCUIT

Fuu

S.A.

Shitlded

Cable
Col. 6

Col. 4

CoI.5

Col. 7

kV

Min. Time
to Flash .
kV Cre$! over Micro- kV Crest
seconds

S.A.

and overhead line.

These ar resters are required primarily for the protection of

the cable. They should be connected to ground. the ar rester

kV

kV

kV

ground bonded t o t he cable sheath, and the cable sheath bonded

to the metaklad switchgear structure. This reduces or

eliminates the influence of the arrester ground impedance.
Arresters should be installed in the metal-clad switchgear if

1.2
2.4

the arresters at the cable junction do nor provide the required

impulse sparkover protective level for the switchgear_

4.8
8.32
14.4

The arresters at the cable junction will limit the surge voltage
level at tha t point to the protective level of the arresters, but the
su rge passing the arresters at the cable junction can doub le at
the switchgear under certain conditions unless the length of
cable between the cable junction and the switchgear is
sufficiently short to limit it to some lower value_ Attenuation
and disto rtion of the surge voltage wave in the cables is
negligible for most of the cable lengths used _
The curves in Fig_ 4 1 show the maximum permissible cable
lengths between the cable junction and the metal -clad switchgear for different values of front-of-wave impulse sparkover
voltage at the equipment sufficiently below the insulation
strength of the switchgear to allow omission of the arresters in
the metal-clad equipment. These curves are based on a travelingwave analysis assuming a wave front of 500 kilovolts per
microsecond arriving at the junction of the overhead line (surge
impedance of 400 ohms) and the continuous-metallic-sheath
cable (surge impedance of 30 ohms!. The velocity of propagation of the surge in the cable is assumed to be 500 feet per
microsecond. The maximum surge voltage at the switchgear is
determined by the arrester sparkover value rather than by the
I A dro p. This is the case for modern arresters and for the
discharge currents encountered in practice as shown in Table 23.
Drytype Insulation

10
20
25
35
50

1.2
2.5
5
8.7
15

10
12
19
31

10
20
25
35
50

1.0
1.0
1.0
'.0
1.25

Drytype transformers.
Small ac rotating machines (1000 kVA and smaller).
Distribution systems for such as mines and quarries where
adequate protection is not always available with the standard
distribution arrester.
This arrester has lower sparkover characteristics than
s ta ndard distribution arresters. The impu lse protective
characteristics are shown in Table 23.
Table 24 is a tabulation of dielectric tests for drytype
transformers and drytype shunt reactors .
Voltage ratings 120600 volts, inclusive, are placed in the
1.2 kV insulation class. Voltage ratings between the nominal
system voltage are placed in an insulation class corresponding to
'L ightning Protection of Meta/oC/ad Switchgear Connected to Overhead
Lines, GE R-1323.

42

u, , a

>

Norm olly Optn

Tie SWItch

Fig. 42. Schematic di agram of UO sys tem

~6 a

~
4a

20
"
25
35
50

the nearest higher nominal system voltage unless otherwise

specified. The insulation class of windings reconnectable for
either b.or Y operation is determined by the Y rating.
For series windings in apparatus such as regulating trans
formers, the test values to ground are determined by the
insulation class (Col. 3) of the series windings rather than by the
rated voltage between terminals of the series windings.
V-connected apparatus for operation with neutral solidly
grounded or grounded through an impedance may have reduced
insulation at the neutral as specified in ANS I C57 ,12 .00 .
Single phase distribution, power and regulating transformers
for voltage ratings of 8.7 kV and below are designed for both Y
and b. connection and are insulated for the test voltages
corresponding to the Y connection, so that a single line of
apparatus serves for the Y and b. applications. The test voltages
for such transformers when operated delta connected are,
therefore, one step higher than consistent with their voltage
ratings. The 2.5-kV insulation class is used for threephase
transformers only.

>

,
">

Thyrite Magnevalve Form 28 arresters were developed to

provide lightning and surge voltage protection for the following
appara t us and systems:'

\"

8.

~
6

5. Lightning Protection of UD Systems

Most of the problems associated with lightning protection of
UD systems are related to the fact that the lightning arrester
often is located remote from the transformer or equipment to
be protected. Th is separation distance, plus the fact that UD
systems are usually looped circuits with an open tie point,
introduces the factor of traveling wave reflect ions and voltage
doubling. This usually is not a consideration on overhead
systems because of the close physical coupling of arrester and
protected equi pment.
Figure 42 shows a UD system with a lightning arrester
installed at the junction pole between the overhead and
underground circuit. The question immediately arises as to
whether this arres te r will provide adequate protection to the
entire system. The main point to consider here is the doubled
magnitude of voltage which is impressed upon every transformer, switch, and cable in the circuit. However, if the
insulation wi thstand capability of these equipments is greater
than the doubled magnitude of voltage, there will be no need
for arresters at the intermediate or open switch points.
There is an addi ti onal consideration: namely, the length of
lead from the phase wire to the arrester to p and the length of
lead betwee n the arrester ground connection and the metallic
sheath of the cable. These leads produce an inductive voltage
drop. This voltage must be added to the I R drop through the
arrester in order to establish the magnitude of d ischarge voltage
impressed upon the system . A frequently used number is two
kV per foot of lead length based upon an inductance of 0.4
micro henries per foot and 5000 amps per microsecond rate of
rise of ar rester current.
Figure 43 shows the insulation coordination plot for a
distribution transformer when the arrester is located remote
from the transformer. This indicates that 95kV BI L equipment
can be protected by a directconnected 9kV distribution
arrester located only at the riser pate.

1;

Protectioll of Higher Voltage Equipmenr

Coble lenglh (Ll bel.....een switchgear and coble junclion- II

Fig. 41 . Curves s howing ma JOC imum permissible length 01 cable for which
arresters are not requ ire d in the switchgear vs. a rreste r sparkover voltage
at th e cable juncti on for different values of switchgear Btl

An examination of higher distribution system Voltages, such

as 24.9kV grd Y/ 14.4 and 34 .5 kV gri:! Y/ 19 .9 would indicate
that 18 and 27kV arresters, respectively, would be req uired at
the riser pole and also at the terminal or open tie point in the
loop circuit.
Table 25 shows the protective characteristics of arresters as
related to the insulation withstand characteristics of trans
formers for each of the listed system Voltages. In addition,
Column 8 indicates protection by direct-connected arresters at

110 kY Chopped Wove

willi Siondord Te lf

1
7St\' SpOrkgve r
Rellecte d

95kV Full Woye

with Stgndg rd
Tn !

1--

Moroin gf Proleclign

-+1

--

72kV-Rellecl.d

39 ~v F,onlolWgYl
Spor koyer
36t\' IR@l IOkA

,a

2345618910
Time - Mi crosecond.

60-

Fi g. 43. UO insulation coordination plot

the riser pole only , or the need for arresters at the riser pole,
plus arresters at the open tie point.
By comparison of Column 3 with Column 7 and comparison
of Column 4 with Column 6, this table shows how a 7.2kV
transformer having 95 kV BI L and 110kV chopped wave
strength can be protected by installing a 9kV di rectconnected
arrester at the riser pole only.
When the system operating voltage is 24.9kV (or two times
12.47kV) an 18-kV arrester is required. The table indicates that
the arrester spark over voltage and discharge voltage charac
teristics of this arres ter are also doubled, but the transformer
BI L has only increased from 95 kV to 125 kV and the chopped
wave strength has increased from 100 kV to 144 kV. Thus , for
distribution systems above 13 .0 kV, a distributiontype arrester
is required both at the riser pote and at the end of the line.
These additional arresters can be eliminated by selection of
an intermediate or stationclass arrester for the overhead
junction which has a spark over value such that ; even doubled, it
will be within the safe withstand capabilities of the equipment
on the ci rcuit. These lowsparkover arresters are available and
their characteristics are compared to those of conventional
dis t ribution arresters in Table 25. This tabulation shows that ,
while conventional arresters' provide adequate protection in
most cases, 10w-1;parkover arresters provide better protection in
some instances, and a more acceptable margin of safety in
others_
Intermediate and station arresters are included in the
tabulation because equipment withstand levels are threatened
by surges passed by conventional and even low spark over
arresters at very high discharge currents. In these cases, station
or intermediate class arresters are necessary to hold the
sparkover and discharge voltages to a doubled wave level below
the equi pment and cable BIL.
6. Overhead Line Protectio n
Increased attention is being given to the protect ion of
overhead distribution li nes against insulator flashover. This can
be markedly reduced by locati ng GE distribution arresters at
strategic points along the line . Surge arresters minimize system

43


LIGHTNING PROTECTION OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

LIGHTNING PROTECTION OF OISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

Table 25. UD transformer-arreste r protection

F. O.W.

Discharge
Vol tage

Voltage

Arrester
Rating

~r kover

ill 20 k A

kV

kV

kV

System

4.16/2.4

8.3/4.8

3\aJ
3\b)

14.5

lie)
lid)

11
12

61al
6~b)

Sic)
61d)
12.517.2

13.217.6

9(bl
Olc)
91dJ

31
30

10(a)

"

lQ(d)

32
35
35

18(a')

91

181b)
ISlc)
IBid)

55

tOlc)

34.5119.9

(a)
(/I"

28
21
21
20

39
32

9(a)

10lbl

24.9/14.4

"

271cl
271d)

X2
28
22
22

"
""

56

'0

78
64
62
60
86
64
70
70

kV
13.5
15
9.5
8.3

X2
27
30
19
16.6

27
30
18.5
16.3

5<1
60
37

'0

80
90

"

27
24.3

'0
53
31.5

29

59
57

182
110
'18

,,.

90
90
5<1.8
47.8

as

176

82

86

172

72

For mer
Rati n \l

kV
2'-

'.8

. Ol

Chopped

F.W.

Wave

Arreue Loca t ion

Riser
OpllnPo le
Tie

kV

kV

65

75

75

86

X
X
7.2

95

110

X
X
X

7.6

95

110

63
58

..

14.4

,,,

125

'08

95.6
19.9

,,,

125

(1) The

X
X
X
X

'06

,,,,

Adequate lightning protection of secondary distribution

systems depends upon three major considerations:

48.6

selection of transformers and other secondary

distribution equipment that have an insulation strength preferabl y not less than presentday ANSI insulation levels. Trans
former s for singlephase circuits in the less than 650volt and
three-phase Y or delta circuits in the voltage range up to 1.2-kV
would normally be insulated for the 1.2kV insulation class.

X
X
X
X

X
X

X
X

X
X

IProtectmg Meter Equipment from LIghtning. by E. J.

Allen. GET t ooJ.

(2) Select arresters to limit the lightning stresses to the

lowest practicable levels. The impulse protective characteristics
of the seconda ry Thyrite arrester and home lightning protector
are as follows:
IR D;Khi!r ge Voltage

Im pulse
Spark
over
Vo ltage

' 500 5000 10,000

kV

Amp

A.

. . ..

Rati ng

Typ e of
Secondary
Arrester

0-650

650 volts

Thyrite arrester 2.9

2.6

3.5

' .2

1201240

175 volts

Home Lt. Prot. 2.0

'.6

2.0

2.2

Arrester

Circuit
Vol tage

Amp

A mp

( 3) Adequate protection also involves installation of

arresters directly at, or close to, the apparatus terminals.
Apparatus to be protected may include the following:

(a) Fractiona l kVA transformers on 440 or 550-volt railway

signal -line ci rcuits.
(b) The secondary terminals of dis t ribution transformers
supplying secondary voltage power to industrial or residential
consumers.
(c) Street-lighting control devices.
Id) Watt hour meters and demand meters.
Ie) Secondary circuit cable, terminals and conduit service
entrances to industrial or residential consumers.

Alwprd d"Uibufion arrester

fbI

Magne-valve (/istflbution arrestllr

Magne-vilive Form 28 distribution arrester

fe)
(d)

Alugard infermediSfe arrester

Alugard $Iation arrl!fter

outages by eliminating the operation of overcurrent protective

devices to clear temporary faults caused by lightning surges.
I EEE Transaction papers' describe studies ou tlining the
application of surge arresters for line protection and the benefits
obtained. Figure 44 illustrates graphically the improved line
protection available using three arresters as compared to a single
arrester or an overhead ground wire.
A study of this appl ication has shown a need for an arrester
thermal capability greatly exceeding the minimum discharge
capabil ity required to meet ANSI standards.

B. Secondary Distribution Systems

exceed the insulation flashover or breakdown strength of the

connected low-voltage apparatus.
Because secondary distribution lines or services are usually
supported on pin type or rack insulators mounted on wooden
poles or crossarms, the lineto ground flashover level of the
COMPAR'SON OF !"WTECflVE IoI ETlfQOS

'IEEE Tr/lIlS/lctiom, 69TP91PWR /Inri 69TP92PWR, Vol. PASBB, No.

B, PP/2.121239. jlnvestiga tion lind Evaluption of Lightning Protective

MethOds for Distribu tion Circuits, Parts I and Ill.

.""'"

'"

10-100 n I'ooli"9
R.. lltonn
\--Su'Qt

All"',,' on
P~ ..

;(,4;"""
'Iof

aU nr."

Lightn ing protection o f lowvoltage ac power circuits or

secondary distribution services in the less than 650volt range
involves the same fundamental considerations which apply to
protection of primary distribution systems. While the length and
exposure of these lowvoltage power circuits is usually consider
ably less than that of primary power circuits, they are
nevertheless subject to lightning voltages which may greatly

44

X
X

"

'80
'80

The frequency and extent of such damage and service

interrupt ions, the resulting operating and maintenance costs,
and the importance of powerservice cont inuity must be
considered in determining the economic justification for protec
tion in any individual case. However, with the presentday effort
toward greatly increased efficiency and reliability of electric
power distribution, adequate protection of the secondary
distribution circuits and services is receiving increasing
recognition. t

X
X
X
X

32.6

80

exposed circuits is many times greater than the insulation level

of the connected apparatus. Hence, the relief of lightning
voltages on such unprotected circuits will usually occur at or
within the apparatus, frequently resulting in damage and service
interruptions that necessitate apparatus replacements and
maintenance costs.

1/1

f- h/

<6b

o.',hlOOd

Gtound
Wi, . .

,..Ion

- -, -J"""

1'00'1009 R.,il' onci

A".. ,...

on

Top PlIo 0rI1,

"

'"

<00

6 0

800

1000

LINE INSUl ATION - oV

Fi g, 44, Com pari$on of lightn in g pro tec tio n method~ all owi ng fou r outages
per yea r p er 100 m iles o f lin e - wit h 12 inches o f wood insu lation

45

I
OVERCURRENT PROTECTION OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
Relays equipped with all instantaneous attachment can be
connected in the breaker control circuit to provide one
instantaneo us trip and then subsequent tripping in accordance
with the setting of the inverse. veryinverse or extremely inverse
time-delay characteristics.
The initial instantaneous operation of the breaker will
prevent damage to fuses during transient faults wi th a resulting
improvement in service continuity and elimination of restoration expense. With a permanent fault beyond the fuse, however,
the time-delay opening of the circuit breaker will cause the fuse
to blow and isolate the faulted section before the breaker
operates the second time or locks open.

LOCK-OPEN OPERATION

Recloser

IX - OVERCURRENT PROTECTION OF
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
Overcurren! protection of distribution systems serves three
major purposes:

To reduce consumer minutes outage.

To protect apparatus from damage during faults.
To save time and expense in locating faults and restoring
service.
Proper application of equipment 10 achieve these results on

of three ratings : voltage rating, continuous current rating, and

interrupting rating.

lines.

2. Selection of the type. rating. and location of equipment

to provide overcurrent protection .
3. Coordination of the equipment selected.

A.

Primary Circui ts

Every primary distribution circuit shoul d be provided with

an overcurrent protective de vice at its source, at intermediate
points along the main line, at every branch or sub-branch tapof!
point, and at all points of connected apparatus.
Automatic tripping and reclosing provides the greatest
improvement in service reliability when applied to the whole
system. It is economically feasible to employ such automatic
reclOSing protection by coordinating reclosing and single
element devices so the combined overlapping protection
provides operating benefits that neither one can provide alone.
In the modern concept of primary overcunent protection, the
automatic tripping and reclosing equipmen t at the source, along
the main line and on long branches, is coordinated with branch
fuses. The reclosing equipment clears aU transient faults before
fuses in series are damaged or blown. Permanent fault protection can be obtained by using relay-controlled substation
breakers, automatic circuit reclosers or fuse cutouts.

Ra tings of Primary Protection Devices

Selection of primary protective devices is made on the basis

46

0060J 0.2 0:4 0.8 to 2

4 68 10 20 4060 100

TIMES RATO CURRENT

Vo/rageraring. In most instances, the use of a protective

device which has a maximum design voltage rating equal
to or larger than the system vo h age will provide ample
insulation strength and will function to properly clear
faults.

primary and secondary circuits requires :

1. Determination of short -ci rcuit currents on distribution

0.01 0.02

Continuous curren t raring. The normal peak load current

Fig_ 45. Time-current curves for 280'amp&re recloser

2. Selection of Ove rcunent Protecti ve Equipment

lmerrupring raring. The maximum faul t current at the

Automatic circuit reclosing devices should be applied to

protect the entire circuit agai nst temporary faults . In order to
provide this protection, a recloser, or a power circuit breaker
equ ipped with overcurrent and reclosing relays, should be
installed on the main feede r at the substation.

point of installation must be kno wn and the equipment

selected must have an interrupting rating at least equal to
this value. (The low current interrupting rating also should
be considered since it can be a major source of improper
operation. )

Where power circuit breakers are applied at the SUbstation.

overcurren! relays will be used for tripping this circuit breake r
when faults OCCUI. These relays have either inverse time, very
inve rse time, or extremely inverse time-current characteristics
wit h an instantaneous tripping attachment.

should not exceed the continuous current rating of the

device. Provisions for toad growth are generally made
when making the original installat ion_

1. Calculating Short-circuit Currents of Distributio n line!

In order properly to apply overcurrent protective equipment
to a system it is necessary to know by calculation the highest
and the lowest (maximum three-phase and minimum tine-to!1ound or line-tO-line) values of short-circuit currents which can
flow if a fault occurs: (1) where the feeder leaves the substation,
(2) at each branch junction point , and (3) at each sub-branch
junction point.
It is also necessary to know the minimum (line-toground)
shortcirc uit current which woul d flow if a faul t occurred at the
extreme end of any of the branches or subbranches. See
Section IV for methods of calculating these short-circuit
currents. (GES-3261, Calculator Nomograph, provides a quick,
easy, and accurate method for determining short-circuit current
at any point.)

The inverse time relay has a relatively flat time-current

characteristic (TC Curve GES700 1) which provides for clearing
of low fault currents. Thus it is usable where the short ci rcuit
current magnitude varies with connected generation. However,
the flat characteristic creates problems of coordination wit h
fuses located both on the source and load sides of the relay.
The very inverse time relay has a longer time delay (TC
Curve GES7002) than the inverse time relay in the low current
range and a faster characterist ic in the high current range. This
provides for better coordination with both source and load side
fuses.

The extremely inverse time relay has characteristics approximating source and load side fuses (GE$-7005). It is particularly
suitable for coordination wit h slow fuse links on the load side.
Also, this type of rela y provides a means for picking up load
after an extended outage where the inrush currents may cause
other types to trip.

Automati c circuit reclosers are generally used on su burban

and rural lines where wide exposure to natural hazard may cause
frequent outages_ Where the source sect ion of the circuit is
protected by substat ion relays, reclosers are appli ed to provide
overlapping protecti on at the limits of the relay protective zone
and transient fa ul t protection beyond the scope of the relays.
Reclosers are designed for coordination between reclosers in
series and between reclosers and sectionalizers, sectionalizing
fuses, branch fuses, f .. d external or internal transformer fuses.
The rating of the recloser to be used is based primarily on
normal load and maximum short-circuit current at the point of
application. The continuous current rating (the amount of
current which will flow at the point of installation under
fullload conditions) should not exceed the manufacturer's
rating for the recloser. It is preferable to select a rati ng about
one-third higher than the load current to allow for future load
growth_ Reclosers have no overload rating and should not be
applied beyond their continuous-current rati ng.
The interrupt ing rat ing of the GE Type HR recloser is given
in terms of symmetrical short -circuit current, simplify ing the
application by permitting use of data fr om a conventional
short-circuit study. All Type HR reclosers have an asymmetrical
rating of 1.4 times the sy mmetrical value.
Rec!osers are availabl e wi th different time-dela y charac
teristics, providing a choice for coordinating wi th reclosers of
other manufacture, or other protective devices. All GE Type HR
reclosers are calibrated on multiple tripping curves. Figure 45
gives the time-current cu rves for a standard 280 -ampere recloser
and Table 26 lists the timecurrent curves for other H R recloser
ratings.
Table 26. Time-cu rrent curves for HR reclosers
Re.;:loser Rating
4.8 end 14.4kV

Type of Curve

Publication

Instantaneous end Standerd

InstanlaneOUS end Extended

GES-6400A
GES-642 1

ampere Frome

IrlSlantaneous and Stendard

Instenteneous and EXlended
Inslantaneous and Modi fied
Extended

GES-64 15A
GES-64 18
GES-64 19

14.4 kV
5O-ampere Frame

Instantaneous and Standard

Instantaneous and Extended

GES-64 13A
GES-6420

24.9 kV
tOO-ampere Frame

Instantaneous and Siandard

Instantaneous and Extended

GES-6417A
GES-6434

lao-ampere Freme

200- and 280-

47

.
DVERCURRENT PROTECTIDN OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTE.MS

OVERCURRENT PROTECTIDN OF OISTRIBUTIDN SYSTEMS

1000
700
500

Open Dropout Fuse Cutouts

Every piece of equipment con nected to the primary distribution circuit (exce pt a surge arresterl should be connected
through an overcurrent protective device to disconnect it
automatical ly if it becomes faulted_ This overcu rrent device also
will give a positive indication as to the location of the faulted
equ ipment. Fuse cutouts usually are used on the source side of
distribution transformers, capacitors, regulators , etc. The fuse
cutout also can be used to provide protection to the transformer
against secondary faults.
Where branches are tapped off the main line, it is considered
good practice to use the fuse cutout for isolating each branch
and sub-branch.
Fuse cutouts may be used in the main feeder as sectionalizing
points in order to minimize the extent of feeder outage and to
simplify fault location. This, however, is not common practice
due to the possibil ity of single-phasing three-phase motors and
creating ferro resonance problems_ Loadbreak cutouts with a
solid blade in place of the fuse tube are ava ilable for switching
or disconnecting at these sectionalizing points.
DURABUTE open cutouts are avai lable in ratings listed:

300

100
70
50

S tmptl fled illu strati on ()f

,
,

Relay zone-

---1 t:- __

~ &1~~

==c
~F
,

8.3
15.0
21.0

14.4Y
26.0Y

Continuous

eo"

0.07

8.3
15.0

14.4Y
26.0Y
15.0

Test Voll<lge
kV

15
15
21.0
26

Power
Fact<lT

0.0
0.7
0.7
0.7

Lead
lag
lag
Lag

Continuous
CUrrent Ratin.g
Amp

Interrupting Rating
Amp
IAsym)

100 & 200

100
200

5000 to 24000
4000 to 16000
10000 to 20000

Loa d br"eak CUrren t

I Am peres I
100
200
80
25

Number of

Operations
25
200
25
25

They can be used for switching grounded-wye capacitor

banks and primary grounded-wye transformer banks, and may
also be used for sectional izing three-phase ci rcuits whe re all the
kVA on the load side of the loadbreake rs is connected
li ne-to-grounded neutral.

5ectionalizer
The sect ionali zer is used in conjunction wi th fuses and
automatic li ne redosers (oil or electronic!. or reclosing circu it

48

..

!J)

I I

, '

0.8"

rrrr

~L

IT

It
ni l

I
!I

.,

II

,
,

:
I

Fig. 48. " Fuselink-protects-fuse-link" cur\'es

0.03

,,

"

,
,

II
,

100

,
I

Current in Amperes

TC = Toral Dearing
MM = M inImum Melt

ol'\toneous

IllS

1---_ _ _---"e:.:c.:..1"':.:.ce_r -,o.!Cp-,-e_",_nq."-s_--*_+-""-'\k~_---''--+---I O.l

II

I I

50

I I

I I I

100
500 1000
Cun ent in Amperes

500010,000

A. Time-current Characteristic of one inslDntane'Ou.s reclose,. opening

Time-currenl characteristic of oneexrended ,;me-delay recloser

open;ng

...
"u

c'r-

5 0c

I II

B.

10

0.05

I A

DURABUTE load breaker cutouts are ava ilable with the

following ratings fo r maximum voltage, continu ous current,
interrupting current and loadbreak ratings listed:

Maximum Voltage Rating

kV
l -ph. L-G
3 -ph. ll

5000 10 24000
4000 to 20000
12000

FH T o, K
Recloser Fuse

25K Fuse,TC

I I I

O. I

--{}------v'-

;::

IAsyml

j j

10

Interrupting Rat ing

Amp

100 & 200

100 & 200
100

I
CurTeJ1t Rating
Amp,

~---------------t-------r-J----~~IOO

25 T Fuse ,TC
~

.~

,!

30

35A

tj::

L J

Maximum Voltage Rating

kV
l-ph, L-G
3-<ph, LL

-.

t=

coorcilno tlon of 35Amp-Hr

rec\oser WI h T ~nd K
-+--~L--!-~---.L----i200
f1.Jse Imks

Fig. 47. Coordination: of Type 35A Type HR re_closer with

Type T and Type K f use l inks

2. A sectionalizer may be used to replace latera l reclosers on

new lightly loaded laterals close to a substation where the fault
current level is higher than the interrupting capability of a
recloser.
3. A sectionalizer may be used to provide an additional
sectionalizing point o n an existing lateral resulting in improved
service continuity without the time and expense of adding
another level of overcurrent coordination.

Time<urrenr characteristic of the lAC rela."

Fig.. 46. Relay-recloser coordination

breakers. It is not a fa ult interrupti ng device and therefore

cannot be used alone.
The sectional izer isolates permanent faults and confines
outages to small sections of line. Located on the load side of a
recloser or Dircuit breaker, the sectionalizer opens the ci rcuit
when the recloser or breaker is open. Basically, it counts recloser or breaker operations and drops open after one, two, o r
three predetermi ned counts. When it is in its open position, it
provides a visible break. A coil bypass gap provides surge
protection .
A sectionalizer has functions and features which make its use
advantageous in the fo llowing areas of application:
I. A sectional izer may be used to replace a lateral sectionalizing fuse where loa d growth requi res fuse uprating and
recoordination. Since the sectionalizer has '10 time-current
characteristic (such as a fuse or recloserl. it eliminates a step of
overcurr ent coordination_

The Durab ute sectionalizer ca n also be obtained with a

load breaker. The load break ratings are the same as those
previously listed for the Ourabute cutout loadbreaker.
For appl ication information, see G ET-3463.

3. Coordinatio n Requirements
Characteristics of branch or feeder sectionali zing devices
should be determined by coordination with the next protective
device farther out on the line . Based on the short-circuit current
at the location of the protective device farther out Dn the line,
the mini mum size of the source protective device can be
determined by a comparison of the time-current curves or from
published coordination charts for the particular devices being
used.
Publication GET 1751 , Application Manual for Overcurrent
Protection for Distribution Systems, tells how to select and
coordinate overcurrent protecti ve devices and gives necessary
data including coordination charts and GET numbers for the
time-current characteristic curves for GE primary fuses, auto
matic drcuit reclosers, and circuit breaker relays.

Recloser-relay Coordination
Relays of each feeder should be adjusted so they can protect
the circuit to a point beyond the first recloser in the main
feeder, but with enough time delay to be selective with the
recloser during any or all of the operations within the complete
recloser cycle, as illustrated in Fig. 46.
It is a good rule-of-thumb that there will be a possible lack of
selectivity if the operating time of the relay at any current is less
than twice the time-delay characteristic of the recloser. The
method of calculating the selectivity is fully described in
G ET1751.

Recloser-fuse Coordinatjon
When a correctly rated fuse link is applied and properly
coordinated with a recloser it should not be melted or even
damaged by a temporary fault beyond it, i.e ., the recloser
should open the circuit on instantaneous operations one, two,
ar three times, depending on its adjustment, without damaging
the fuse li nk. On a permanent fault, the fuse link on the source
side of the fault should blow on the third or fourth (time-delay)
operation of the recloser. The fault will be isolated by the fuse,
and the recloser will reset automatically, restoring service
everywhere except beyond the blown fuse. Figure 47 illustrates
these principles.
The recloser should never lock out on a permanent fault
beyond the fuse if the fuse has been properly coordinated with
the recloser.

Fuse Link-to--link Coordination

Fuselinktofuselink coordination is illustrated in Fig. 48.
Published total clearing time-current (Curve AI of a protecting fuse link is plotted to maximum values so all manufac
turing varia bles ",ill be minus and thus out of the range o f
comparison wi th curves to the right.
Published melting time-current (Curves Band B') of
protected fuse links are plotted to minimum values so all
manufacturing variables will be plus and thus out of the range of
comparison with curves to the left.
Curves C and C' are plotted for 75 percent of the t ime of
Curves B and B', respecti,ely, to provide for such operating

49

I
OVER CURRENT PROTECTION OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
variables as preheating by load and to avoid melting of the
fusible wire, but not the strain wire of the fuse link.
The maximum current to which the fuse link of Curve A will
protect the fuse link of Curve B is indicated at D, the current at
which Curve A crosses Curve C.
The maximum current to which the fuse link of Curve A will
protect the fuse link of Curve B' is shown as E. This is the

current at which Curve C' crosses the 0.8 cycle line indicating
that it will be melted at this and ilt higher currents before a
smaller fuse link can protect it.

B. Secondary Circuits
When the impedance of iI secondary circuit extending from a
distribution transformer limits the fault current to a value at
which the primary fuse does not afford the desired protection,
the use of a fuse in the secondary circuit may be advisable.
Secondary faults, however, are considered rare and are usually
self-clearing, hence fault protection is usually provided by the
transfor mer primary link or the secondary breaker in a
self-protected transformer.

x-

SYSTEM DES IGN - LOADING DATA

A. Estimat ing Load

One of the first considerations in planning a system is to
determine how much load can be expected from the proposed
pro ject. Where the load to be served is chiefly of an industrial
nature the problem is relatively simple; for the magnitudes of
the concentrated loads to be served can be readily determined,
and the system planned accordingly. Where the load to be
served is primarily residential, the problem of toad estimation
becomes more complex. Individual loads may var y from a few
hundred watts to several kilowatts, as ranges, heaters, and
refrigerators are inst alled. Hence, previous experience must be
used as a basis for the planning of residential systems.
Fig. 49 shows estimated diversified demands of various
classes of residential consumers. Because of differences in living
habits, geographical locations, temperatures, and summer and
w inter peak loads, these demands can vary considerably
bet ween utilities. These curves merely represent the kind of
information which can be derived by uti lities and are not
necessarily accurate for any specific utility . T he 1.5 kVA curve
represents the calculated average residential consumer and the
2.4 curve is the diversified demand for a consumer with range

K VA

40

and water heater. The curves designat ed 4.8 and 7.2 kVA
represent homes with different degrees of air conditioning. The
remain ing curves correspond to homes with electric heati ng.

B. Load Factor
The load fact or is defined as the ratio of average power
demand over a stipulated period of time, to the peak or
maximum demand for that same interval. One convenient and
frequently used method for det er mining load fac t or is to use a
kilowatt-hour meter w it h a 3Dminute max imumdemand
attachment. The kilowatthours and t he max imum demand for
any particular period are noted, and the load factor calculated
from these readings is simply the average number of kilowatts
divided by the m;Jximum demand.
Analysis of fie ld data obtained during 1962 from 55 electr ic
util.ities indicates t hat average load facto r measured at the
distribution transformer is 26.6%. Results relating to loss factor,
power facto r and other load characteri stics have also been
obtained from this basic data. *
Distribution TranHormer Load Characteristics, IEEE paper 31 TP-6550,
M. W. Gangel and R. F. Propst

0[",,,10, ,JJ . . -.,. ,,oil

30

Hom..

24.0 K IIA

.20
E
o
r
, 10
~

>

t:::: ::::--

14.4 k VA

I
9. 6KVA

7. 2 KVA

......

4 . e KVA

----

.......... ......

...............

2 .4 KVA
1.5K VA

I
I

4 0 60 eo 100
5 00 1000 200 0
Nu m b.r o f Hom u
MOl imu m Oev trsifi. d O. mond p.r Hom. v.r,U 5 Vo riou s Nu mb.r Of Ho mu

10

20

6 000

Fig. 49. Probable ma ximu m diversifi ed demands of various numbers of res idential customers and
a pplia nces at tim e o f dis tributioncircuit pea k demand ~5:45 p.m. '

50

5,


SYSTEM DESIGN AND LOADING DATA

SYSTEM DESIGN AND LOADING DATA

P.a~

LO

1 MB - Soil Ambltnl al
8udal (l.op lh

---'" ---- ---

"'~

"-

0,30

----

~~ '

C
B

'0

'"

~ OBj

'0

""

SOIIL
'MB

"'"
W,

30e AM8

~~ ~

DB-4

'"

50
Numb" nf consumers

12

12

12

11M

AM

PM

PM

AMe
AMB

,,~
OB-'

"
30

05060

"

AMB
AMB

l\

"
"

]0 40 50 60 70 eo 90

]0 40 50 60 70 80 90

oe
10C
20e
30C

,\

oe AM8
loe AMB

20C AMB

'~~lEI l"T'tH

0.10

l~M~
roc

'MB

"

"
"

SOIL

SOIL

30 40 50 60 70 80

C - Oomeslic - Wi lh a ir ,ond il ioninO from Mr lL WIlson, Oklahomo Go, ond Eleclric 0.

08-3

~~

~,

DOmulie - Wil~oul electric fa~O' } From "coincidence feCIO, ,elolion$hiD of elee l '" se rv ice loa d
B - DOm'5l ie - Wi III ele ctr ic r onO o
eho,ec te'istics" Conslonline Ba,y, Eleclrical EnOmeerinQ, SeDt 1945

,.,
~"
~~

II. -

0.20 _

1\

50

'05

'"

'0

~ .......
0.90
0.80

, vA .. lin No Lo In Lo f .

'"
'"
,

0800

1\'
~\

OC AMB

IOC AIdS

20C
rI -+--P'\~
:\rY%30C

AMS
AM8

'I<l'1.\ .
1\ 1\1\
,0-0 \ \
1\

"

"
"
"

Fig. 52. Loading guide for GE direct buried

30 40 50 60 70 80 90

transfor m e~

Fig. 50. Domestic consumer coincidence factor curves

C. Coin cidence or Diversity Factor

The coincidence factor is defined as the ratio of the.
maximum demand of the load as a whole, measured at its
supply point. to the sum of the maximum demands of the

component parts of a load. The diversity factor is the reciprocal

of the coincidence factor. Coincidence factors can be applied to
known consumer demands for estimating the loading of
distribution transformers, lines and other facilities. Coincidence
factors for domestic consumers can vary over a wide range for
different types of consumers. Fig. 50 shows representative
coincidence factor curves for low use and high use consumers.

D. Distribution Transformer Size

Transformer loads can be estimated from the various data
and curves as described. The kVA rating of the transformer
selected will depend on the practice of the particular electricservice company.
The normal load cycle of distr ibution transformers is
characterized by a relatively low load during the greater part of
the day, with on&or more peaks lasting for a few hours. Such a
characteristic permits the operation of the transformer at loads
in excess of its continuous selfcooled rating during short time
peaks following light loads, since the heat-storage capacity of
the transformer insures a relatively slow increase of internal
temperatures. Furthermore, since the deteriorating effects of
heat encountered under ordinary operating conditions is
cumulative rather than critical, it is possible to obtain satis
factory life from transformer insulation with temperatures
much in excess of those permitted for continuous loading,
provided the duration of these temperatures is sufficiently
restricted.
In operating General Electric distribution transformers,
advantage can be taken of the shorttime overload capability
given by American National Standards C57 .91, entitled Guide

52

for Loading Mineral Oil Immersed Overhead- Type Distribution

Transformers with 55G or 65C Average Winding Rise. This guide
includes tables of data on loading based on ambient temper
ature, oil temperature, and average winding temperature rise.
The loading profile was chosen as a representative daily cycle.
Loss of life was determined by computer computation of the
actual hottest -spot profile for the load cycle and ambient
conditions. The assumed transformer characteristics were ob
tained by a concensus of users and manufacturers as being the
best typical characteristics for modern transformers.
I n connection wi th overcurrent protection, the short-time
loads, following fullload, to which oi l-immersed transformers
can be subjected is given in ANSI C57.92. This is shown in
Figure 51.
General Electric pad mounted transformers can be sized and
operated the same as overhead type transformers. General
Electric subsurface transformers are designed in accordance with
ANSI C57 .12.23 ~ 1969 so that when installed according to GE

0
0
0
B

E 2

4681020
Seconds

40

4 6 8 10
Minutes

20

Fill. 51. Shorllim e loads (followi nll fuliload) for oi limmersed

transformers tANS I C57.921

recommendations, they can be operated in the same manner as

outlined above for overhead-type distribution transformers.
The sizing of directburied transformers is different then
outlined above. The reason for this is that:
A. Thermal capability of directburied transformers is
directly rel ated to their environment.
B. Their environment is dramatically different from that
nQfmally experienced by other residential distribution
transformers.
C. Proper sizing for directburied transformers is more nearly
assured when utility engineers relate transformers thermal
capability to factors such as soil resistivity and soil
ambient.
Therefore, for General Electric directburied transformers a new
rating system has been devised. The ratings for these directburied units are designated as OB-l, OB2, OB-3, OB4, DB5,
and OB6. The thermal capability of these ratings was
determined by relating the continuous loading capability of the
unit as a funct ion of its environment. Thus, with a selected soil
resistivity {RHO) and ambient, the continuous kVA load which
will give a 65C average winding rise may be determined. The
direct-buried environment must be used as a basis for applying
directburied transformers and not some thermal rating which
might be given the transformer.
A computer program is available which uses the thermal
equation and transient load calculating procedures to determine
loading guides for GE directburied transformers under var ious
load cycles, soil resistivities, and soil ambients. An example of
the peak kVA outputs with no loss of life of these directburied
transformers when loaded according with a specific load cycle
are shown in Fig. 52.
Sometimes it is desirable to estimate the amount of
singlephase load which can be taken from an isolated Y delta

transformer bank which is carrying a threephase load. Fig. 53,

54 and 55 will give this for combined loads of unity-power
factor, single phase load and threephase load at 100 percent, SO
percent, and 60 percent power factors, respectively. These
figures may also be used regardless of the actual magnitude of
power factor whenever the power factor angle of the three
phase load is more lagging than that of the singlephase load by
0,36.9, and 53.1 degrees, respectively. tn these curves, units B
and C are assumed to be the same size, and unit A , across which
the single-phase load is connected, is of equal, or greater, kVA
capacity. R in the curves is the ratio of the kVA capacity of unit
A to t he kVA capacity of unit B.
Fig . 56 can be used to estimate the kVA capacity of the
transformer of an isolated Y delta bank necessary to carry a
specific combined singlephase and threephase load .
Examples:
1. Assume kVA ratings of transformers A, B, and Care 15, 10,
and 10, respectively. Threephase load is 10 kVA at SO percent
power factor. Find the maximum single phase, unity-powerfactor load which can be supplied without overloading any
transformers

R '" 15/ 10 '" 1.5

3J kVA in percent of kVA b '" 10/ 10 x 100 = 100 percent
Foitowing vertical dotted line in Fig. 54 to line R = 1.5.
Singlephase load is lS2 percent x 10 kVA -; 18.2 kVA
2. Assume a 20kVA single-phase load and a 27kVA three phase load both at BO percent power factor. Find the size of
transformers needed to carry the load.
Ratio T/ S '" 27 / 20 " 1.35
Following vertical dotted line , in Fig. 56, transformer A =
1.11 x20kVA = 22.2kVA
Transformers Band C (each) '" 6B percent of 20 kVA = , 3.6
kVA

53

,
SYSTEM DESIGN AND LOADING DATA

,""
~
~

SYSTEM DESIGN AND LOADING DATA

,
",
,.",
,
"

,
,.,
,
"
,.,
"

J1d=

Three- phose logd {p' O.8J

"im"~
thru -

phase

R2.0

2':..

Single - phase lood

(p,,1.0)

R1.9

!i,,1]'o~

o~
fi /. s

Ii.i':;-

~J

"o~
o lio"
",
",
"
"'",
,,
,,,
"

Lim~

Fi'fO

lo

"H--+-I-++-l"+2H24~~>J-+-H

"e-e-~~-+-+-+-f~~~'h~+-+-1
"H-l-+-+++-l-l--IH""i.~~i'--f"I-+--1

"H--+-I-+++-I-l-IH-I--+""'~-H

~"".,,, - -- - -------Fig. 53. Estimated .ingleph ase load which can be taken from
an isolated Yde lta transformer carrying a thrH,phase load at

unity powe r factor.

",
," ,."" ,,

"
~

"1< =,

< <
~ ~ 26

I I

Th'oe-phose load Ip- I. O.6)

'~~ \ld=
Ih' ee-

phose e

R.2 .0
R- IS

Singl e-phose load

(p- I'I .OI

R- I,S

<u..,

"-

E. Thermal Loading of Underground Cables

The ther mal loading capability (ampilcity) of underground
cables is given in two volumes of Power Cable Ampacities, a
joint IPCEA-AIEE publ ication, Caution should be observed in
using these tables for other than the intended use in 3 balanced
circuit loading. For example, singlephase concentric neutral
cables having full conductivity in the neutral are not included,
nor are the capabilities of single conductor cables having high
conductivity shielding, operated bonded and grounded,
Typical ampacities of singlephase concentric neutral cables
are given in Table 6, Section II.
A preliminary calculation of ampacities of singleconductor
cables with honded and grounded shields was made by the Cable
Characterist ics Subcommittee (No , 3) of the I EEE I nsulated
Conductors Committee. It shows that ampacity may be reduced
as much as 35% below that w hich would be possible by
neglecting circulating currents in the shields.

F. Design of the Secondary System

ro 40 60 90 KlO 120 140

160180200220240~02aO:W0320

Three _pho .. kVA in po. conI ~I kVA ,."ng 01 Unl . 6 ' oVA l~ 100
kVA b

Fig, 54. Estimated sin gleph ase load which can be taken from
an iSOla ted V-della t ransformer carrying a threephase load at
0 .8 po wer factor.

If delta connection is to be used, there are two choices: the

closed delta, using t hree transformers with the one on the
single phase load larger than th e other two , and open delta,
using one large transformer on the single'phase load and a
sc.naller one on one of the other phases. When the singlephase
load does not exceed approximately one-half the threephase
load , it is usually more economical in transformer capacity to
use the closed delta. However, where the singlephase load
becomes more th an onehalf the value of the threephase load
the open delta is more economical. The use of open delta may
be limited by the voltage regulation imposed on the single'phase
load by the threephase load. This should be checked for a
particular installation be fore using an open delta connection.

The starting point in making an act ual secondary layout is

the determination of the load density per 1000 feet . A number
of different, methods are used in estimating the load density.
One method is to use demand curves like those shown in Fig.
49. The diversified demand per cust omer , as obtained from
thasc curves, multiplied by the numbe r of cus t omers per 1000
feet, provides the necessary estimate of t he load density ,
Having the load density, the transformer spacing may be
deter mined, based on the w ire size selected , Numerous studies
have shown the advantage of using secondary conductors sized
between No. 4 and 2/0 copper or between No. 2 and 4/ 0
aluminum. The economic conductor size for a given set of
conditions is best deter mined by means of generalized planning
studies of the secondary system. Such a study could also
indicate distribution transformer economic si ze and changeout
practice as is discussed in the follo w ing paragraphs.
The next st ep involves the practice of transformer loadings.
The ratio of the final over the in itial transformer load is applied
to the esti mated load density to determine t he load density
which will exist when the load approximates the distribution
transformer capacity. Assuming a threepercent drop, the curve
in Fig. 57 can be used to determine th e secondary length fro m
the transformer which would be 50 perc ent of the actual

transformer spacing. The distribution transformer size would

then be equal to the transformer spacing in thousands of feet.
multiplied by the load density per 1000 feet, mul t iplied by 100,
and divided by the percent initial load on the trans for mer.
For example, if th e spacing came out to be 600 f t, the
present load density were calculated at 40 kW per 1000 ft; the
initial loading of the transformer is 90 percent; and the final
loading 180 percent; then the required distribution transformer
size wouldbe 26.6 kVA. and a 25kVA transformer would be
installed.
If a distribution t ransfo rmer is loaded up to capacity, and it
is desired to determine whether to replace it with a larger
transformer or to interspace additional transformers, the same
procedure is followed; except in this case the load density could
be figured from the transformer load, rather than estimated by
some other method.
The curves, of Fig. 57 are based on an assumed imbalance of
15 percent in the secondary loads. the percent imbalance being
defined as the percentage which the neu tral current is of the
sum of currents in the two other conductors. The amount of
imbalance in the secondaries has a very marked eff ect on the
voltage drop, and is frequently the cause of low customer
voltage.
For the 15' percent imbalance assumed, the secondary drop
on the side of the secondary w hich carr ies the most load is 45
percent greater than if the secondary load were balanced, based
on full neutral drop. Similarly, for a 25' percent imbalance, the
drop would be 75 percent greater than for balanced secondary
load, If the neutral is grounded at various points throughout its
entire length, the extra drop due to imbalance may be

1000
500
300

V
>-

~
,
~

o
o

0,5

~~
Empiricol dolo

!
,

.,,

0;

1,<
l6
Thr ee -phas e kVPdood T
Ratto'
,S,nQle -pha.e kVA 1000 S

54

30

'h

0.6 power factor.

Lood foclor

50 - 0 , 1 . / 0 , 2 66

10

" O, ... . d S. ,ondo " ..

Fig. 55. Estimated singl e-phase load wh ic h can be lake .. from

an iso lated V-delta t ransl ormer carrying a th ree-phase load at

100

18

20

'" --

[qu , lto,

'. PPt ,
";:
, "''''",'0 0 co;,~~C' O(

'"

2.2

Fig. 56. Estimated ca pacity neGessary to carry combined

single-phase an d t hreephase load.

y= 7. 3+ 3.523X -

~~
3

0.022 X2

a' ronge-4

10

I IIIII

30

50

100

Peok month mWh (X)

loo d

O t n. ,'Y ~ ~w ~,

Fig , 57. Load density

VI

' 0 00 F,

length of secondary.

Fig, 58. Empirical relationship for th e monito ring of distri

bu t ion transformer loading by the kilowatt hour method.

55

SYSTEM DESIGN AND LOADING DATA

20

I.~-~

~
E

~

XI -

LOSSES AND ECONOMIC DATA

The economic problems of distribution systems involve so

many variables, and ~iffer so widely in objectives from one
system to anot her, that it is impossible to set any ru les that can
be applied to aU of them. The most economical is not always
the one which is lowest in f irst cost.
More important than first cost can be any of the various

,W.
Peak monfh con su mption

per consu m

Fig. 59. Consumer kW VI/'SUJ kWh

operating costs - total annual carrying charges, cost o f losses, or

consumer satisfaction.
When determinIng the cost of losses, care should be taken to
use the proper methods of calculation.

A.
somewhat less (75 percent to 80 percent) t han the value given
above, because of the effect of the ground return in parallel
with the neutral conductor.
Secondaries for underground systems can be designed in a
manner similar to tha t outlined above, except of course, using
cable charac teristics for making calcu tations rather than open
w ire. Many utilities are finding i t less compl icated and more
convenien t to omit the use of secondaries in underground
systems and use instead individual service drops from the
t ransformer to consumer served by the distribution transformer.

G. Monitorin g Transformer Load ing

There are several methods of monitoring transformer loading.
One method which has wide acceptance in the utility industry

relates the peak load at the tran sformer to accumulated kWhrs

supplied by the transformer during the month in which peak
load occurs. Each user of t his method generally prefers to
develop his own empirical relationship between these vari ables.
Fig. 58 illustrates one empirical relationship which was obtained
from the results of an industrywide investigation . This
particular relationship should not be used beyond t he 2a range
in w hich most of the data points appeared. Within this range,
the equation yields statistically accurate results.
Fig. 59 gives the consumer kW versus kWh relation and the
range of convers;on factor determ ined by this utility for their
summer peak condition. Their coincidence factor is shown as
Curve C in Fig. 50. With these values the consumer demand and
transformer load can be estimated.

Line Loss

Line losses, which are the sum of the l 2A, Of resistance

losses, can be found easily w hen the currents at peak load are
known. Simplifying assumptions can often be made. For
instance, if the load can be considered as being uniformly
distributed along the feeder, t he losses are the same as if the
total load were concentrated at a point one t hird o f t he way out
on the feeder. This is mathematically correct for a very large
number of loads. This and other simplificat ions are shown in
Fig. 60. However, for a small number of distributed loads the
error may be large and the loss in each section between loads
should be calcul ated. When the load can be divided into a
number of large concentrated loads distributed along the lines,
the line can be divided into the sections between loads, and the
12A loss of each section can be calculated.

Table 29 is an example which gives correction factors which

apply to transformers of certain specific rat ed voltages when
operated at certain other voltages. The same resul t s will be
obtain~d by the use of either table, but Table 29 will be found
more convenient for the voltages to which it applies.

C.

Evaluation of Energy Losses

The evaluat ion of energy losses is of prime importance, for it

represents the loss of a real, salable product . The problem of
converting k ilowatt-hours of energy 1051, into dollars and cents,
has resulted in considerable controversy among system
operators, because of the difficulty of determining the value of
this energy. For these reasons, Ihe economic data given herein
are of very general nature, and -represent a cross s.ection of
generally accepted practices.
If the peak conductor losses of line and transformer have
been calculated, as exptained above, it will still be necessar y to
know the loss factor or percent equivalent hours before it is
possi ble to calculate the actual conductor losses over a period of
ti me. The term equivalent hoors is defined as the number of
hou rs of peak load necessary to produce the same conductor
loss that is actually produced by the load over the select ed
period of time. In Fig. 61, Curve A shows the maximum percent
equivalent hours possible for the range of values of load fac t or.
Curve 8 shows the minimum possible values, and Curve C shows
values w hich have been computed from typical feeder load
curves.

B. Transformer Losses
For a aiven voltage, the transformer no load loss is independent of load. The load loss wil l vary as the square of the
current. The load loss (corrected to ANSI reference temperature
of 8SC) corresponding to fullload currerit is obtained from
Table 27 as the difference between total and no!oad losses.
When a transformer is operating at rated load and voltage,
the load loss and noload loss can be easily determined.
Occasionally, it is necessary to estimate these losses w hen the
transformer is operating above or below rated voltage. To
determine approximately the losses of a 60hertz transformer
when operating at other than ra t ed voltage, the losses at rated
voltage should be multiplied by the factors given i n Table 28. It
should be borne in mind that these correction factors are only
appro ximate, because the variation with the varying volta.ge
~pends largely upon the quality of steel and the density at
which the transfor mers are operat ed.

56

,5'
Source

~"i

15

2i

length
{ A I Unitot fl"l ly distributed lood

I-I-- - L,

Source

--~''''
I ''~-- L,

'" [5

(B) Uniformly distr i buted lood over port of lin.

Fig. 60. Assumptions tor distributed e nd concent rated

IOllds - po we r loIS

51

"'

r
LOSSES AND ECONOMIC DATA

LOSSES AND ECONOMIC DATA

,o :mtttmffit

Table 27. Distribu t io n transfo rme r losses

240 0/41 60Y

4800f8320V

120 /240 Vol ts

'0
120/240 Vo lts

Watts Loss

Watts Loss

'"

<VA

No loa d Total

No Loa d Tot a l

36

125

36

<0

59
76
109
158

180
232
380
495

59

15
25
37.5

50
75
'00

166
274

611
916

319

1192

'67

530

2085

242
370

'58

521

'66

250

625
800
1100

Watts Loss

WalU Loss

No Loa d Tot al

No Load Total

No Load Total

36
59

<38
184
255
404
550

76
'09
'58

2085

2800

625

3400

SOO

2800
3400

800

4850

1100

4850

1100

625

5S

202

76

290

109

432

158

557

166
274

717

166

714

1024

1200

319
530

<300
2085

274
319
510

981
1247
2035

671

2085

240 f480

240 /480

76
'09
158

240 f480

2800
3400
4850

625

SOO
1100

",=t=t=t=t=t=t=t:j
~ 40 r=t=t=t=j=j==t=tt,~

<f.

The following empirical relationship between load factor and

ls F = 0.15 Ld F + 0.85 Ld F2
The cost of conductor losses per year = (percent equi .... alent
hours) (kW loss at peak load) (cost per kWhr) (87.6).
Transformer core losses, while relati .... ely small in comparison
with the total conductor losses, should not be neglected, and
should, of course, be e.... aluated on the basis of 100percent loss
factor or equi .... alent hours.

Load

R~ted

Vo ltage

Loss and Rated

Reg.
Vol t age

Nol oad
Loss

2800
3400
4850

2800
3400
4850

6 25
800
1.100

Fig. 62 can be used as an aid in e.... aluating the cost per

kilowatthour for losses. This curve gi .... es the a.... erage energy
costs for loads of different load factors, and is based on a.... erage
generation and transmission costs and a.... erage costs of coal .
Ob .... iously, these .... alues will .... ary considerably throughout the
country; therefore. this curve should be used only as a guide. It
does not apply to hydro systems, and, moreover, includes the
assumption that the peak of the losses under consideration
coincides with the system peak. If this is not the case, lower
values should be used. As an example of its use, t ransformer
core losses ha.... e a loss factor of 100 percent, and. as such, ha .... e
an a.... erage evaluation of 0.64 cents per kilowatt hour. Con
ductor losses of transformers and lines constitute an additional

100
101
102

1.00
1.03
1.06

1.00
0.98
0.96

83

0.66
0.67
0.69

1.45
1.41
1,37

1.08
1.12
1.15

0.94
0.93
0.91

2000

No Load
Load

1,00 0.90 0.88

1.00 1.08 1.10

0.79
1.21

0.72
1.32

0.64
1.44

2080

0.71
0 .72
0.74

1.36
1.32
1.28

<03
<04
<05
<06
<07
<08

1.18
1.21
1.25

0.89
0.88
0.86

No Load
Load

1.12
0.93

1.00
1.00

0.98
1.02

0.86
1.12

0.78
1.22

0.72 0,66
1.33 1.44

2100

No Load
L oad

1.15
0.91

1.03
0.98

1.00
1.00

0.89
1.10

0.80 0.73 0.67

1.20' 1.30 1.42

0.62

1.25
1.24
1.2 1

109

1.28

1.32
1.36

0.84
0.83
0.81

No Load

'<0

1.14

1.00

0.89

0.68

91

0.76
0.77
0,79

L_

92
93
94

0.81
0.83
0.85

1.18
1.15
1.13

112

1.39
1.44
1.48

0.80
0.79
0.77

95

0,88
0.90
0.92

1.11
'.09
1.07

115
116

0.76
0.75
0.73

0.95
0.98

1.04
1.02

1.52
1.56
'.60
1.65
1.74

90

96
97

98
99

'"

'13
114

'"

'"
120

0.72
0.70

10

12
14
Ho ur s

16

18

20

22

24

20
0/0

load on the system. This loss factor can be estimated from the
a.... erage curve given in Fig. 61. Thus, for a load factor of the
load of 50 percent, the loss factor, as computed from typical
load curves. w ill be approximately 33 percent (see Fig. 61), and,
as such, an average evaluation Would be 1.4 cents per kilowatt
hour (see Fig. 62).
Where it is desirable to take into account both conductor and
core losses of transformers. the total loss factor (i.e., percent
load factor of the totaf losses) can be determined from Fig . 63,
when tile load factor of the load is known , The se .... eral cUlVes
show the manner in which the total loss factor .... aries for .... ar ious
ratios of copper loss to core loss.

D. Increased Revenue fro m Increased Voltage

When the average .... oltage on a feeder is increased, the
kilowatt hour consumption is also increased, Straight resistance
loads. such as ranges and appliances. increase as the square of
the .... oltage; but because of the increased speed of heating. they
do not exist for as great a length of time. The input to

eo

4 0 60
Lood _lo cto r

100

incandescent lamps varies approximat ely as the 1.6 power of the

....oltage, while the input to refri gerator motors and to motorized
appliances does not vary any appreciab le amount . All these
factors have been taken into account in arriving at the curves in
Fig. 64, which indicate the increased revenue for correcting the
voltage on a representative load to normal value.

E. Present Value of $ 1.00

In the design or expansion of any system w here money is to
be invested in equipment,. there usually arises the problem of
comparing in .... estments for alternati.... e plans, each requiring
expenditures at various intervals over a period of years. In order
to bring all t hese expend itures to the same basis fo r a
comparison, it has been found con .... enient to use the "Present
Value of $1.00" shown in Table 30. By using this table,
expenditures made at any time dur ing a f ifteenyear period can
be reduced to presentday equi .... alent s by simpl y applying the
factors t hat correspond to t he t ime at w hich t he expend iture is
to be made and the interest rate on the in .... est ment.

Table 30. Prese nt va lues (V n) of $ 1.00 in vestments to be made in years (n) from now, based on
certain rates of inte rest (j)

Rated Vo ltage

1.56
1.52
1.47

89

Table 29. Losses for di stributi on transformers

operatin g at other than rated voltages

Loa d
Loss an d
Reg.

0.61
0 .62
0.64

88

Fig. 61. Relation be t ween load f actor and eq uivalent h ou r'

80
81
82

85
86
87

240f480

Oper.
ating
Voltage

8<

58

Noload
Loss

Equivalent hours - The number of hours of peak load to product the same conductor 100s as is produced by the actua/lcad throughout a year
Loss in kWhr/Yr - (% EQuiv Hr) (87.6) (Loss at Peak Load)

Table 28. Distribution t ransf ormer losses at other

than rated .... oltages
%

2:'t:-=t=-=-=~-~~"=t=t-=tC~'f'~ f'=B- 'I=7==-=t=t-=t=t=t=-~~j

o

125 k V 81L

loss factor at the dist ribution transformer has been determined

and is shown as Curve D in Fig. 52 :

"
~ 60+-H - f - + + ++>+-+-H-++++-l

142

200
263
420
565

Curve A

,37

'66
274

319
530

36
59

'

80

Watts Loss

613

319
530

19920'

1 20/240 Volts

'18
1146

274

GRD.Y

'0
1 20/240 Vo lts

183

76

34500 GRD .VI

'0
120/240 Volts

'"

<09

240/480

333
500

7200112470Y
'0

14400/24940

2200
2300

2000 [2080 2100 2200 2300 12400 12500 12600

Losses

Vn _ {1 +i)"n

U' 1m '.'0 '"

'3 'M

1.30
0.83

\.13
0.91

1.00
1.00

0.90
1.09

0.81
1.19

0.75
1.28

1.54
0.75

1.49
0.77

1,29
0.84

1.12
0.92

1,00
1.00

0.90
1.09

0.82
1.17

1.69
0.71

1.47
0.77

1.27 1.12
0.85 0.92

1.00
1.00

0.90
1.08

1.65
0.72

1.44
0.78

1.12
0.93

1.00
1.00

No Load
Load

2500

No Load
Load

2600

No Load
Load

1.26
0.85

0.74

1.~ 1

1.32 1.17
=~
No Load 1.52 1.34
Load
0.76 0.82

2400

0.80

"

,%

3%

4%

5%

6%

7%

8%

9%

10%

1
2
3

$0.9901
0.9803
0.9706

$0.9804
0.9612
0.9423

$0.9709
0.9426
0.9151

$0.961 5
0.9246
0.8890

$0.9524
0.9070
0.8638

$0.9434
0.8900
0.8396

$0.9346
0.8734
0.8163

$0.9259
0.8573
0.7938

$0.9174
0 .8417
0.7722

$0.9091
0.8264
0.7513

4
5
6

0.9610
0.9515
0.9420

0.9238
0.9057
0.8880

0.8885
0.8626
0.8375

0.8548
0.8219
0.7903

0.8227
0.7835
0.7462

0.7921
0 .7473
0.7050

0,7629
0.7130
0.6663

0 .7350
0.6806
0.6302

0.7084
0.6499
0.5963

0.6830
0.6209
0.5545

7
8
9

0.9327
0.9235
0.9143

0.8706
0.8535
0.8368

0.8131
0.7894
0.7664

0 .7599
0.7307
0.7026

0.7107
0.6768
0.6446

0.6651
0.6274
0.5919

0.6227
0 .5820
0.5439

0.5835
0.5403
Q...5OO2

0.5470
0 .5019
0.4604

0.5132
0.4665
0.4241

10
11
12

0.9053
0.8963
0.8874

0.8203
0.8043
0.7885

0.7441
0.7224
0.701:4

0.6756
0.6496
0.6246

0 .6139
0.5847
0.5568

0.5584
0.5268
0.4970

0.5083
0 .4751
0.4440

0.4632
0.4289
0.3971

0.4224
0.3875
0.3555

0.3855
0.3505
0 .3186

13
14
15

0.8787
0.8700
0 .8613

0.7730
0.7579
0.7430

0.6810
0.6611
0.6419

0.600G
0.5775
0.5553

0.5303
0.5051
0.4810

0.4688
0.4423
0.4173

0.4150
0 .3878
0.3624

0.3677
0.3405
0.3152

0.3262
0.2992
0.2745

0.2897
0.2633
0,2394

59

LOSSES AND ECONOMIC DATA

1

,
,

: ,

<
o

.,
Fig_62. Energv eosu for var ious loss factor,

'0 ,
011

'0
iO

uO,
10

20

:J)

40

60 70

eo

90 100

P,. c ... , 1011 loti O'

,.

bF+

o.

,
0
o

~
-:%

~~ ?' ~
0

~~

Standard variations of Condu ctor loss

Core loss

".

Fo rcedoil, sel f., and waler cooled

138 kV Bod below

La ..
COf. Lo..

Cond~cto,

0.'

0.'

0.'

. . 1.52.75

. . 1.252.0
... 2.53.5

Note: Conductor loss weighting taken fro m Curve C. Fig. 61 .

Fig. 63. T OII I loss fRIO"OI' transformers fD' .... rious ratios of conductor
to iron lOIS

o ,f::::

00

138 kV lind above.

Distribution transfor mers

0.8

'.0

Load FaciO.

... .... "'O l l o~.

h,de' lood 'aciD, . 0 .30,

EJtamp JI'1: Compensating for oil 5 percent drop

at yearly peak load of 600 kVA increal'S rhflll"nual rtJ~nutJ $1250.

<
Fig. 64. Dol1a" rll"lenU e per yea Kovered by
compensating tor voltage drop U yearly peak
load

60

o l .O . ~

LiqMin9 load ~O"l.. at ' 0 101

'0'01109 ' drop Dilut inG all IIQM lnQ
IOOG 10% at drop 01 OM~ol p,o' .
R ,n ... Iro", ;ftcroaUd , ood 0'
3 c o.. kW ~