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IRE =
based on approximation IC IE
then IC1 = IC2 = IRE/2
therefore, VC1 = VC2 = VCC IC1R1
Modes of Signal Operation:
Single-ended input input signal is applied to
either input with the other input connected to
ground
Differential or double-ended input two
opposite polarity input signals are applied.
Common-mode input same signal is applied to
both inputs.
Single-ended input:
DC Analysis:
Loop 1:
VBE VE = 0
VE = VBE = 0.7V
and IE1 = IE2
since both currents combine in RE,
IE1 = IE2 = IRE/2
Loop 2:
IRERE + VEE + VE = 0
Introduction to Operational Amplifiers (M. LATINA)
p. 1
Differential input:
Differential Gain:
Common-mode input:
Common-mode signal:
signal that drives both inputs of a
differential amplifier equally.
these are interference, static and other
kinds of undesirable signals picked-up by the
circuit.
Common Mode Rejection Ratio(CMRR)
measure of an amplifiers ability to reject
common-mode signals.
RE
p. 2
which makes
ie1 =
do the same to compute for ie2
ie2 =
at the output side:
vout(d) = vc1 vc2
= RC (ic1 ic2)
= RC (ie1 ie2)
= RC
Simplify to obtain
Av(d) =
VE = 0.7V
IRE =
= 1.378mA
Acm =
= 90.95
= 0.2
p. 3
p. 4
Negative Feedback:
Negative feedback is the process whereby a
portion of the output voltage of an amplifier is
returned to the input with a phase angle that
opposes (or subtracts from) the input signal. This
method helps stabilize the gain and reduce
distortion. It can also increase the input resistance.
p. 5
3. Increased/decreased
depending on circuit
4. Decreased distortion
5. Increased bandwidth
input
impedance
I1 = If
Acl (I)
Rf
Ri
I1 + If = 0
V1 V1 Vout
0
Ri
Rf
Acl (NI) 1
Vin ( Ri R f ) Ri Vout
The Inverting Amplifier
The inverting amplifier has the output fed back to
the inverting input for gain control. The gain for the
inverting op-amp can be determined by the
formula below.
V1 = V2 = 0
Introduction to Operational Amplifiers (M. LATINA)
Vout
Ri R f
R
Vin (1
Rf
Ri
) Vin
p. 6
Rf
Ri
ACL =
p. 7
Op-amp Parameters:
Input Bias Current
The input bias current is the dc current required by
the inputs of the amplifier to properly operate the
first stage. By definition, the input bias current is
the average of input currents and is calculated as
follows:
Introduction to Operational Amplifiers (M. LATINA)
p. 8
I OS I1 I 2
Input Offset Voltage (VOS)
It is desired that the dc voltage at the output is
zero with no input voltage. But because of the
unequal amount of current drawn by the input
transistors of the first differential amplifier due to
unbalance in the circuit, the output voltage will not
become zero. Input offset voltage is the voltage
required between the inputs to force the
differential output to zero volts. Typical values are
in the range of 2mV or less.
Input Impedance
Differential input impedance is the total resistance
between the inverting and the non-inverting
inputs. It is measured by determining the change in
bias current for a given change in differential input
voltage.
Output Impedance
The output impedance is the resistance viewed
from the output terminal of the op-amp.
p. 9
CMRR
Av ( d )
Acm
Aol
Acm
Slew Rate
The slew rate of an op-amp is the maximum rate of
change of the output voltage in response to a step
input voltage. It is dependent upon the highfrequency response of the amplifier stages within
the op-amp.
p. 10
Frequency Response
Ideally, an op-amp should have infinite bandwidth.
This means the gain of an op-amp must remain the
same for all frequencies from 0 to infinite. Practical
op-amps however decreases its gain at higher
frequencies. The dependence of gain on frequency
is due primarily to the presence of capacitive
component in the equivalent circuit of the op-amp.
Maximum Operating Temperature. The maximum
temperature is the highest ambient temperature at
which the device will operate according to
specifications with a specified level of reliability.
Minimum Operating Temperature. The lowest
temperature at which the device operates within
specification.
Output Short-Circuit Duration. This is the length of
time the op-amp will safely sustain a short circuit
of the output terminal. Many modern op-amps can
carry short circuit current indefinitely.
Bias Current Compensation:
Effect of an Input Bias Current
Ideally, if the input voltage is zero, there should be
zero current coming into the inverting input of the
op-amp. However, there is a small bias current, I1,
that goes through Rf.
This current creates a voltage at the output equal
to I1Rf known as the error voltage.
p. 11
p. 12
Phase Shift
An RC Network causes a propagation delay from
input to output, thus creating a phase shift
between the input signal and the output signal.
An RC lag (low pass) network such as found in an
op-amp stage causes the output signal voltage to
lag the input.
p. 13
Positive Feedback
With negative feedback , the signal fed back to the
input of an amplifier is out of phase with the input
signal, thus subtracting from it and effectively
reducing the voltage gain. As long as the feedback
is negative, the amplifier is stable.
When the signal fed back from output to input is in
phase with the input signal, a positive feedback
condition exists and the amplifier can oscillate.
Oscillation is an unwanted voltage swing on the
output when there is no signal present on the
input.
Gain-Bandwidth Product
An increase in closed loop gain causes a decrease
in the bandwidth and vice versa, such that product
of gain and bandwidth is constant.
Condition is true as long as the roll-off rate is fixed
at -20dB/decade.
p. 14