FIRST YEAR CALCULUS

W W L CHEN
c

W W L Chen, 1987, 2008.

This chapter originates from material used by the author at Imperial College, University of London, between 1981 and 1990.
It is available free to all individuals, on the understanding that it is not to be used for financial gain,
and may be downloaded and/or photocopied, with or without permission from the author.
However, this document may not be kept on any information storage and retrieval system without permission
from the author, unless such system is not accessible to any individuals other than its owners.

Chapter 18
INTERPOLATION AND APPROXIMATION

18.1. Exact Fitting

Example 18.1.1. We wish to find a polynomial through the points (0, 6), (1, 2) and (5, 6). To do
this, consider a polynomial p(x) = ax2 + bx + c, where we shall determine suitable values for the three
coefficients. Since the polynomial p(x) passes through (0, 6), (1, 2) and (5, 6), we must have p(0) = 6,
p(1) = 2 and p(5) = 6. It follows that we must have
6 = c,
2 = a + b + c,
6 = 25a + 5b + c.
This is a system of 3 linear equations in 3 unknowns. Solving this system, we get a = 1, b = 5 and
c = 6. Hence p(x) = x2 5x + 6.
Example 18.1.2. We wish to find a polynomial through the points (1, 5), (0, 1), (1, 1) and (3, 49).
To do this, consider a polynomial p(x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d, where we shall determine suitable values
for the four coefficients. Since the polynomial p(x) passes through (1, 5), (0, 1), (1, 1) and (3, 49), we
must have p(1) = 5, p(0) = 1, p(1) = 1 and p(3) = 49. It follows that we must have
5 = a + b c + d,
1 = d,
1 = a + b + c + d,
49 = 27a + 9b + 3c + d.
This is a system of 4 linear equations in 4 unknowns. Solving this system, we get a = 2, b = 1, c = 5
and d = 1. Hence p(x) = 2x3 + x2 5x + 1.
Chapter 18 : Interpolation and Approximation

page 1 of 7

First Year Calculus

W W L Chen, 1987, 2008

The two examples above illustrate a very crude technique. When we attempt to fit a polynomial
through k points, we use a polynomial of degree (k 1). We then have to determine the k coefficients
of this polynomial. This amounts to solving a system of k linear equations in the k unknowns. Clearly
it is rather tedious, particularly when k is large.
Let us therefore use a different approach on the same problems.
Example 18.1.3. As in Example 18.1.1, let us find a polynomial through the points (0, 6), (1, 2) and
(5, 6). Try
p(x) = a(x 1)(x 5) + b(x 0)(x 5) + c(x 0)(x 1).
Since p(0) = 6, we must have 6 = a(0 1)(0 5), so that a = 6/5. Since p(1) = 2, we must have
2 = b(1 0)(1 5), so that b = 1/2. Since p(5) = 6, we must have 6 = c(5 0)(5 1), so that c = 3/10.
Hence
p(x) =

6(x 1)(x 5) (x 0)(x 5) 3(x 0)(x 1)

+
= x2 5x + 6.
5
2
10

Example 18.1.4. As in Example 18.1.2, let us find a polynomial through the points (1, 5), (0, 1),
(1, 1) and (3, 49). Try
p(x) = a(x 0)(x 1)(x 3) + b(x + 1)(x 1)(x 3) + c(x + 1)(x 0)(x 3) + d(x + 1)(x 0)(x 1).
Since p(1) = 5, we must have 5 = a(10)(11)(13), so that a = 5/8. Since p(0) = 1, we must
have 1 = b(0+1)(01)(03), so that b = 1/3. Since p(1) = 1, we must have 1 = c(1+1)(10)(13),
so that c = 1/4. Since p(3) = 49, we must have 49 = d(3 + 1)(3 0)(3 1), so that d = 49/24. Hence
5x(x 1)(x 3) (x + 1)(x 1)(x 3) x(x + 1)(x 3) 49x(x + 1)(x 1)
+
+
+
8
3
4
24
= 2x3 + x2 5x + 1.

p(x) =

Let us look at one more example. However, we shall be a little more systematic.
Example 18.1.5. We wish to find a polynomial through the points (1, 3), (3, 3) and (4, 9). Try
p(x) = a(x 3)(x 4) + b(x 1)(x 4) + c(x 1)(x 3).
Substituting x = 1, x = 3, x = 4, we obtain respectively
a=

p(1)
,
(1 3)(1 4)

b=

p(3)
,
(3 1)(3 4)

c=

p(4)
.
(4 1)(4 3)

Hence
p(x) = p(1)

(x 3)(x 4)
(x 1)(x 4)
(x 1)(x 3)
+ p(3)
+ p(4)
.
(1 3)(1 4)
(3 1)(3 4)
(4 1)(4 3)

Since p(1) = 3, p(3) = 3 and p(4) = 9, a little calculation gives p(x) = x2 x 3.

Consider now the general situation. Suppose that we wish to find a polynomial through the points
(x1 , y1 ), . . . , (xk , yk ). Then it is not too difficult to see that the polynomial
k
X


k 
Y
x xj
p(x) =
yi
xi xj
i=1
j=1

(1)

j6=i
Chapter 18 : Interpolation and Approximation

page 2 of 7

First Year Calculus

W W L Chen, 1987, 2008

satisfies the requirements. To see that, note that for every i = 1, . . . , k, we have
 
k 
Y
x xj
1 if x = xi ,
=
0 if x = x1 , . . . , xi1 , xi+1 , . . . , xk .
x

x
i
j
j=1
j6=i

The polynomial (1) is called the Lagrange interpolation polynomial.

18.2. Approximate Fitting

Fitting the points exactly is unsatisfactory from the numerical point of view, particularly so when the
number of points is large. We therefore sometimes attempt to fit all points closely but not exactly. After
all, experimental data are subject to errors anyway!
Consider a given set of n points (x1 , y1 ), . . . , (xn , yn ). We now attempt to fit these points with a
polynomial p(x) = ak1 xk1 + ak2 xk2 + . . . + a0 . Recall that when k n, this can always be done;
for example, simply take p(x) to be the Lagrange interpolation polynomial. However, if k < n, an exact
fit may not be possible; for example, it is not possible to fit a straight line (k = 2) to go through three
non-collinear points (n = 3) exactly.
We therefore consider the errors
i = |p(xi ) yi |,

where i = 1, . . . , n.

The problem now is to choose a0 , . . . , ak1 in such a way in order to make the errors small. There are
many ways to make errors small, and the following are examples:
n
X
(A) Choose a0 , . . . , ak1 to minimize
i .
i=1

(B) Choose a0 , . . . , ak1 to minimize max i minimax approximation.

(C) Choose a0 , . . . , ak1 to minimize

1in
n
X
2i
i=1

least squares approximation.

Remark. It is generally considered that (A) is the best criterion but most awkward, and that (C) is the
least satisfactory criterion but easiest to use.
An analogous problem to that discussed in the previous section is the question of approximating a
function f (x) by a polynomial p(x) = ak1 xk1 + ak2 xk2 + . . . + a0 in an interval a x b. Here we
consider the errors
(x) = |p(x) f (x)|,

where a x b.

The problem now is to choose a0 , . . . , ak1 in such a way in order to make the errors small. There are
many ways to make errors small, and the following are examples:
Z b
(A) Choose a0 , . . . , ak1 to minimize
(x) dx.
a

(B) Choose a0 , . . . , ak1 to minimize max (x) minimax approximation.

axb
Z b
(C) Choose a0 , . . . , ak1 to minimize
2 (x) dx least squares approximation.
a

Remark. As before, it is generally considered that (A) is the best criterion but most awkward, and that
(C) is the least satisfactory criterion but easiest to use.
Chapter 18 : Interpolation and Approximation

page 3 of 7

First Year Calculus

W W L Chen, 1987, 2008

18.3. Minimax Approximation

We shall illustrate the technique by two of the simplest examples.
Example 18.3.1. Consider the points (1, 3), (3, 3) and (4, 9). It was shown in Example 18.1.5 that we
can fit the polynomial x2 x 3 precisely. Suppose now that we wish to find a minimax approximation
by a polynomial of degree 1 (linear minimax approximation). Suppose that p(x) = ax + b. We then
consider the errors
1 = |p(x1 ) y1 | = |a + b + 3|,
2 = |p(x2 ) y2 | = |3a + b 3|,
3 = |p(x3 ) y3 | = |4a + b 9|,
and minimize
max{|a + b + 3|, |3a + b 3|, |4a + b 9|}.
If we take a = 4 and b = 8, then max{|a+b+3|, |3a+b3|, |4a+b9|} = 1. Hence p(x) = 4x8 is a linear
approximation with maximum error 1. It can be shown that this is the best minimax approximation by
a polynomial of degree 1, but demonstrating this point is not so straightforward.
Example 18.3.2. Consider the function f (x) = x2 in the interval 0 x 2. Suppose that we wish to
find a minimax approximation by a polynomial of degree 1 (linear minimax approximation). Suppose
that p(x) = ax + b. We then consider the errors
(x) = |ax + b x2 |,

where 0 x 2.

Consider first of all the function h(x) = ax + b x2 . Then h(x) has a maximum value when dh/dx = 0.
This occurs when x = a/2, and this is in the interval 0 x 2 provided that 0 a 4. Note that
h(a/2) = a2 /4 + b. Also h(0) = b and h(2) = 2a + b 4. We now choose a and b such that
h(0) = h(2) < 0 < h

a
2

= h(0)

(the reader should draw a picture of h(x) in the interval 0 x 2 to illustrate these special requirements). Then we must have
b = 2a + b 4 < 0 <

a2
+ b = b,
4

so that a = 2 and b = 1/2. Hence the linear polynomial p(x) = 2x 1/2 gives
max (x) =

0x2

1
.
2

It should by now be clear that minimax approximations are rather awkward to use, even in the simplest
cases.

18.4. Least Squares Approximation

We shall illustrate the technique by two simple examples.
Chapter 18 : Interpolation and Approximation

page 4 of 7

First Year Calculus

W W L Chen, 1987, 2008

Example 18.4.1. Consider the points (1, 1), (2, 3), (3, 4), (4, 3), (5, 4) and (6, 2). Suppose that we wish
to find a least squares approximation by a polynomial of degree 1 (linear least squares approximation).
Suppose that p(x) = ax + b. We then consider the errors
i = |p(xi ) yi | = |axi + b yi |,

where i = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,

and choose a and b so as to minimize

S(a, b) =

6
X

2i

6
X
=
(axi + b yi )2 .

i=1

i=1

Let us now think of S(a, b) as a function of the two variables a and b. We then must have
6
X
S
=2
xi (axi + b yi ),
0=
a
i=1
6
X
S
=2
(axi + b yi ),
b
i=1

0=
so that
6
X

!
x2i

a+

i=1

6
X

!
xi

b=

i=1

6
X

!
xi

a+

i=1

6
X

xi yi ,

i=1

6
X

!
1 b=

i=1

6
X

yi .

i=1

Substituting for (xi , yi ) for i = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, we have

91a + 21b = 63,
21a + 6b = 17,
so that a = 1/5 and b = 32/15. Hence
p(x) =

32
1
x+
5
15

is the best linear least squares approximation.

Example 18.4.2. As in Example 18.3.2, consider the function f (x) = x2 in the interval 0 x 2.
Suppose that we wish to find a least squares approximation by a polynomial of degree 1 (linear least
squares approximation). Suppose that p(x) = ax + b. We then consider the errors
(x) = |ax + b x2 |,

where 0 x 2,

and choose a and b so as to minimize

2

2 (x) dx =

T (a, b) =
0

(ax + b x2 )2 dx.

Let us now think of T (a, b) as a function of the two variables a and b. We then must have
2


8
a + 2b 4 ,
3
0


Z 2
T
8
2
0=
=2
(ax + b x ) dx = 2 2a + 2b
,
b
3
0
0=

T
=2
a

Chapter 18 : Interpolation and Approximation

x(ax + b x2 ) dx = 2

page 5 of 7

First Year Calculus

W W L Chen, 1987, 2008

so that a = 2 and b = 2/3. Hence

p(x) = 2x

2
3

is the best linear least squares approximation.

In general, if we try to fit a polynomial p(x) = ak xk + . . . + a0 to n points (x1 , y1 ), . . . , (xn , yn ), then
we choose a0 , . . . , ak to minimize
S(a0 , . . . , ak ) =

n
X

(p(xi ) yi )2 .

i=1

The requirement that

S
=0
aj

for every j = 0, . . . , k

gives rise to a system of (k + 1) linear equations in the (k + 1) unknowns a0 , . . . , ak .

If we try to fit a polynomial p(x) = ak xk + . . . + a0 to a given function f (x) in an interval a x b,
then we choose a0 , . . . , ak to minimize
Z
T (a0 , . . . , ak ) =

(p(x) f (x))2 dx.

The requirement that

T
=0
aj

for every j = 0, . . . , k

gives rise to a system of (k + 1) linear equations in the (k + 1) unknowns a0 , . . . , ak .

Hence the determination of the best least squares approximations amounts to nothing more than
solving a system of linear equations. Squaring the errors removes any ambiguity on the sign of the
errors.

Chapter 18 : Interpolation and Approximation

page 6 of 7

First Year Calculus

W W L Chen, 1987, 2008

Problems for Chapter 18

1. Find a polynomial to pass through the points (2, 99), (1, 11), (0, 1), (1, 3) and (2, 47).
2. Find the best linear least squares approximation to the points (2, 99), (1, 11), (0, 1), (1, 3) and
(2, 47).
3. Find the best linear least squares approximation to the function ex in the interval [0, 1].

Chapter 18 : Interpolation and Approximation

page 7 of 7