1.

Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass.

2.

The particle theory of matter states that matter is made up of a large number of tiny and
discrete particles.

Particle Theory of Matter:

Matter is made up of a large number of tiny and discrete particles.

Types of Particles

1.

Particles can exist as atoms, molecules or ions.

2.

Atom is the smallest, indivisible particle of an element.

3.

Molecules are particles that made up of two or more atoms.

4.

Ions are particles that carry charge.

a.

Positive ion Cation

b.

Negative ion - Anion

In SPM, you need to know

1.

diffusion is one of the proof of the particle theory of matter.

2.

the definition of diffusion.

3.

diffusion in solid, liquid and gas

4.

factors that affect the rate of diffusion and the related experiments.

What is Diffusion?
1.

Diffusion is a process of spreading of a substance from a region of high concentration to a

region of low concentration.

2.

It occurs when the particles of the substance move through the space between the particles
of another substance.

3.

Figure below shows how the bromine particles diffuse into the air.

4.

Diffusion occurs in solid, liquid and gas.

5.

The rate of diffusion is highest in gas and lowest in solid.

6.

Diffusion is the proof of the particle theory of matter.

MUST KNOW!

The rate of diffusion is highest in gas and lowest in solid.

Diffusion is the proof of the particle theory of matter.

Diffusion in Solid

Diffusion in Solid

Observation

The blue colour of copper(II) sulphate fills up the entire test tube after a few days

Copper(II) sulphate crystals are made of copper(II) ions and sulphate ions which are tiny and discrete.

The particles in the copper(II) sulphate crystal will separate to become ions and diffuse randomly
upwards until the whole agar turns blue.

Diffusion in Liquid

(Diffusion in Liquid)

Observation
The purple colour of potassium manganate(VII) fills up the entire test tube after a few hours

Diffusion has taken place in the liquid.

The rate of diffusion of the particles in water is faster than the diffusion rate of particles in
solid.

The occurrence of diffusion proves that potassium permanganate(VII) consist of tiny and
discrete particles.

Diffusion in Gas

(Diffusion in Gas)

Observation
The brown colour bromine vapour spreads evenly throughout the gas jar in a few minutes

Bromine vapour is made of tiny and discrete molecules that move randomly to fill up space.

Bromine vapour moves randomly and diffuses in all directions in air from areas of higher
concentration to areas of lower concentration.

Conclusion
The rate of diffusion is highest in gas and lowest in solid.

Brownian Motion

1.

Brownian motion is the physical phenomenon that tiny particles immersed in a fluid move
about randomly.

2.

A fluid can be a liquid or a gas.

3.

Brownian movement, an example of diffusion, supports the kinetic theory of matter.

4.

Examples of Brownian movement are

a.

movement of smoke particles in air

b.

movement of pollen grains in water

Matter can be divided into elements and compounds.

Elements
1.

An element is a substance that consists of only one type of atom.

2.
Element can be either atoms or molecules.
Example:

(Both the iron and oxygen are element because they consist of only one type of atoms)

Compounds
1.

A compound is a substance composed of molecules made up of atoms of two or more

elements.

2.

A compound is made up of either molecules or ions.

Example:

(Both the sodium chloride and carbon dioxide are compound because they consist of more than one
type of atoms)

A symbol of element is the chemical symbol written in short form to represent a particular
element. Some elements are represented by the first letter of its name.

Examples:
Element

Symbol

Element

Symbol

Fluorine

Phosphorus

Hydrogen

Sulphur

Iodine

Carbon

Nitrogen

Vanadium

Oxygen

If there are two or more elements that have mane start with the same alphabet letter, a second letter
is added to differentiate between these elements. The second letter used is always lowercase.
Examples:
Elements

Symbol

Elements

Symbol

Bromine

Br

Nickel

Ni

Calcium

Ca

Silicon

Si

Chlorine

Cl

Helium

He

Chromium

Cr

Argon

Ar

Magnesium

Mg

Aluminium

Al

Manganese

Mn

Zinc

Zn

Neon

Ne

Platinum

Pt

Some elements are represented by their Latin names.

Example:
Elements

Latin Name

Symbol

Copper

Cuprum

Cu

Iron

Ferrum

Fe

Lead

Plumbum

Pb

Mercury

Hydrargyrum

Hg

Potassium

Kalium

Silver

Argentum

Ag

Sodium

Natrium

Na

Tin

Stannum

Sn

(Notes: You MUST Memorise the symbol for all these 31 elements)

Matter exists in 3 states of matter, namely, solid state, liquid state and gaseous state.

Characteristics of Matter in Solid, Liquid and Gaseous State

Characteristics

Solid

Liquid

Gas

Arrangement

Particles are arranged inorderly Particles are not arranged in

The particles are very far apart

of Particles

manner and close to one

order. The space between

and randomly arrange.

another.

particles is moderately large.

Movement of

Particles vibrate at fixed

Particles move randomly and

The particles move randomly in all

Particles

positions.

slowly and sometimes will

directions at great speed.

collide against each other.

Force of

very strong

Attraction

Strong but weaker than in the

very weak

solid state.

between
particles
Ability to be

Very difficult to be compressed

Not easily compressed

Easily compressed because the

compressed

because the particles are

because the particles are

particles are very far apart.

packed closely.

packed quite closely.

Volume

Fixed

Fixed

Follows the container

Heat Energy

Lowest Energy Content

Moderate energy content.

Highest

content
Shape

energy content
Fixed

Follows the container

Fills the whole container

Change in Heat and Kinetic Energy of Particles

1.

The change in temperature will influences the kinetic energy or the speed of the motion of the
particles.

2.

When a substance is heated, the kinetic energy of the particles in the substance increases.
This causes the particles to move or vibrate faster.

3.

Likewise, when a substance is cooled, the kinetic energy of the particles in the substance
decreases. This causes the particles to move or vibrate slower.

4.

The kinetic energy of the particles in a substance is directly proportional to the temperature of
the substance.

Inter-conversion between States of Matter

Melting

Definition
Melting is the process where a solid changes to its liquid state at a certain temperature
(called the melting point) and pressure when it is heated.

Notes

When a solid is heated, the particles obtain energy and vibrate at a faster rate.

As the temperature increases, the vibration of the particles increases until they reach
the melting point where the particles obtain enough energy to overcome the forces that
hold them in their fixed positions.The solid then changes into a liquid.

During melting, the temperature remains constant. This is because the heat energy is
taken in by the particles to overcome forces between them instead of being used to
raise the temperature.

Freezing

The freezing and melting points of a pure substance are the same.

Definition
Freezing is the process where a liquid changes to its solid state at a certain temperature
(called freezing point) and pressure when it is cooled.

Notes

When a liquid is cooled, the temperature drops as heat energy is released to the

surroundings.
As heat energy is released, the kinetic energy of the particles in the liquid decreases,

causing a slower movement of particles.

The particles lose their energy and are pulled closer by the strong forces between the

particles.
As the temperature keep on dropping until it reach the freezing point, the liquid start

changing into solid.

The temperature stays constant while the liquid freezes because heat energy is

released when the particles slow down to take up fixed and orderly positions in the solid.
Vaporization

Definition

(Evaporation)

Vaporization, also called evaporation is the process whereby atoms or molecules in a liquid
state gain sufficient energy to enter the gaseous state.
Boiling is the rapid vaporization of a liquid at a certain temperature (the boiling point) and
pressure when heat is applied to it.

Notes
Evaporation

Evaporation occurs below the boiling point of the liquid.

The particles escape from the surface of the liquid to form gas.

Evaporation differs from boiling in that it only takes place at the surface of the liquid
and it is very slow.

On the other hand, boiling takes place throughout the liquid and is very fast.

Factors influencing rate of evaporation

Humidity of the air.

Temperature of the substance.

Flow rate of air.

Inter-molecular forces. The stronger the forces keeping the molecules together in
the liquid or solid state the more energy that must be input in order to evaporate them.
If conditions allow the formation of vapour bubbles within a liquid, the vaporization

process is called boiling.

Boiling

When a liquid is heated, the particles gain energy and move faster.

As heat energy is keep on supplying to the liquid, the particles will eventually obtain
enough energy to completely break the forces in between molecule.
The liquid then changes into a gas and particles are now able to move freely and are

far apart.

The temperature at which this happens is called the boiling point.

The temperature remains constant during boiling because heat energy that is
absorbed by the particles is used to break the forces holding them together.

condensation

Definition
Condensation is the process by which a gas or vapor changes to liquid state at certain
temperature and pressure when it is cooled.

Notes

When a gas is cooled, the particles lose kinetic energy.

As a result they move slower and this will cause the forces between them grow
stronger.

sublimation

At this point, the gas changes into liquid.

During condensation, heat is given out to the surroundings.

Condensation can occur at or below the boiling point of the substance

Definition
Sublimation is a process of conversion of a substance from the solid to the vapour state
without its becoming liquid.

Notes

Some solids change directly into gas without becoming a liquid.

This process is called sublimation.

When heated, the particles of the solid gain enough energy to break the forces
between them and move freely as a gas.

When cooled, the gas changes straight back to solid.

Examples of substances which sublime are solid carbon dioxide (dry ice), ammonium
chloride and iodine.

Naphthalene is in solid state at any temperature below its melting point.

The particles are very closely packed together in an orderly manner.

The forces between the particles are very strong. The particles can only vibrate at a fixed
position.

A-B

As the naphthalene is heated, heat energy is converted to kinetic energy.

Kinetic energy increases and the molecules vibrate faster about their fixed positions and
the temperature increases.

Naphthalene is still in solid state.

Naphthalene molecules have received enough energy to overcome the forces of attraction
between them.

B-C

Some of the particles that gain enough energy begin to move freely.

Naphthalene starts to melt and changes into a liquid.

Naphthalene exists in both solid and liquid states.

The temperature remains constant because the heat that supplied to naphthalene is used
to overcome the forces of attraction that hold the particles together.

The constant temperature is called the melting point.

The heat energy that absorbed to overcome the intermolecular forces is named as
the latent heat of fusion.

C-D

All the naphthalene has completely melted.

Solid naphthalene has turned into liquid.

Naphthalene is in liquid state.

As the liquid naphthalene is heated, the molecules gain more heat energy and the

temperature continues to increase.

The particles move faster and faster because their kinetic energy is increasing.

Naphthalene still exists in liquid state.

Naphthalene molecules have received enough energy to overcome the forces of attraction
between the particles in the liquid.

Some of the naphthalene molecules start to move freely and liquid naphthalene begin to
change into gas.

D-E

Naphthalene exists in both liquid and gaseous states.

The temperature remains unchanged.

The is because the heat energy absorbed is used to overcome the intermolecular forces
between the particles of the liquid rather than increase the temperature of the liquid.

This constant temperature is the boiling point.

All the naphthalene has turn into gas.

E-F

The gas particles continue to absorb more energy and move faster.

The temperature increases as heating continues.

The graph above shows the cooling curve of a substance.

P

P-Q

The substance exists in gaseous state.

The particles have very high energy and are moving randomly.

The intermolecular forces between the particles are very weak and can be ignored.

The substance is in gaseous state.

The particles lose kinetic energy during cooling, the particles getting closer to each other
and the temperature drops.

The substance still exists as a gas.

As the molecules are close enough, stronger forces of attraction result in forming of
intermolecular bonds.

Q-R

The gas begins to condense and become liquid.

The process of condensation going on.

Stronger bonds form as gas changes into liquid.

The substance exists in both gaseous and liquid states.

The temperature remains unchanged.

This is because the energy produced during the formation of bonds is equal to the heat
energy released to the surroundings during cooling.

This constant temperature is the boiling point.

The heat energy that releases during this condensation process is called the latent heat of
vaporization.

The substance exists only in liquid state as all the gas particles have condensed into liquid.

R-S

The substance exists as a liquid.

As the temperature falls, the naphthalene molecules lose heat energy. Their movement

shows down and they move closer to each other.

S

The substance still in liquid state.

The particles have very little energy and begin to move closer towards one another as it
starts to freeze into solid.

S-T

The liquid is changing into solid form.

Molecules rearrange to form the molecular arrangement of a solid.

The substance exists as both liquid and solid.

The temperature remains constant until all the liquid changes to solid.

This is because the energy released is the same as the energy lost to the surroundings
during cooling.

This constant temperature is the freezing point.

The heat energy that releases during this freezing process is called the latent heat of
fusion.

All the liquid freezes into solid. The particles are now closely packed in an orderly manner.

T-U

Once all the liquid has become solid, the temperature falls once again until it reaches room
temperature. The substance is in the solid state here.

The substance reaches room temperature and remain at this temperature as long as the
room temperature remain the same.

1.

The physical state of a substance at a certain temperature and pressure depends on the
values of its melting and boiling points.

2.

A substance is in solid state if it exists at a temperature below its melting point.

3.

A substance is in liquid state if it exists at a temperature above its melting point but below its
boiling point.

4.

A substance is in gaseous state if it exists at a temperature above its boiling point.

Table below shows the scientists that contribute to the development of the Model of Atom.
John Dalton

Five main points of Dalton's Atomic Theory

All matter is composed of extremely small particles called

atoms.

All atoms of a given element are identical, having the

same size, mass, and chemical properties. Atoms of a
specific element are different from those of any other
element.

Atoms cannot be created, divided into smaller particles,

or destroyed.

Different atoms combine in simple whole-number ratios

to form compounds.

In a chemical reaction, atoms are separated, combined,

or rearranged.
Weakness

Atoms consist of even smaller particles called electrons,

protons and neutrons.

Atoms can be created and destroyed in the nuclear

reactions such as nuclear fusion and nuclear fission..

Atoms of the same element can have different physical

properties, for example, isotopes of hydrogen.

The electrons were positioned uniformly throughout the atom.

J.J. Thomson
Ernest Rutherford

the atom is mostly empty space,

most of the atom's mass concentrated in a tiny center,

the nucleus and electrons being held in orbit around it by
electrostatic attraction.

The nucleus was around 10-15 meters in diameter, in the

centre of a 10-10 metre diameter atom.

Those alpha particles that had come into close proximity

with the nucleus had been strongly deflected whereas the
majority had passed at a relatively great distance to it.

Neils Bohr

Electrons in an atom of an element are not randomly

distributed around the atomic nucleus.

Electrons move around the nucleus in fixed orbits.

Each orbit forms a circle and has a fixed distance from

the nucleus.

James Chadwick

Chadwick discovered the presence of neutrons in the

nucleus.

He concluded that the nucleus contains another tiny

particle known as a neutron that has no charge.

The neutron mass is almost similar to the proton mass.

All nuclei contain protons and neutrons, except for the

hydrogen which contains protons. only

According to the modern atomic model,

1.

The central nucleus consists of protons and neutrons. It containing almost all the mass of the
atom.

2.

the nucleus of an atom is very small compared to the size of the atom

3.

the electrons are orbiting outside the nucleus in the electron shells

4.

the electrons are moving in electron shells at a very high speed and we cannot determine the
position of the electrons at a particular time

1.

Atoms are made up of tiny particles called subatomic particles.

2.

An atom contains three types of subatomic particles:

a.

proton,

b.

neutron and

c.

electron,

2. The proton and neutron form the nucleus at the centre of an atom. They are also called the
nucleon of an atom.
3. The electron moves around the nucleus at a very high speed.
4. The nucleus is positively charged because of the presence of protons, which are positively
charged. The neutrons are neutral.
5. The symbols, charge and relative masses of proton, neutron and electron are as below.

Particle
Proton
Neutron
Electron

Symbol
p
n
e

Relative charge Relative mass

+1
1
0
1
-1
1/1840

1.

A neutral atom contains the same number of electrons as the protons.

2.

The positive and negative charges of the protons and electrons respectively neutralise each
other, for example, (+4) + (-4) = 0

3.

If the number of protons is greater than the number of electron, the particle is positively
charge.

4.

If the number of protons is greater than the number of electron, the particle is positively

charge.
Example:

Number of proton
3
5
9
11
16
17
20

Number of electron
3
2
10
10
18
18
18

Charge
0
+3
-1
+3
-2
-1
+3

1.

Proton number = the number of protons

2.

Nucleon number = Number of protons + Number of neutrons

Proton Number
1.

The proton number (Z) represent the number of protons found in the nucleus of an atom.

2.

Proton number = the number of protons

3.

The proton number is also known as the atomic number.

4.

In an atom of neutral charge, the number of electrons also equals the atomic number.

5.

Hence, the proton number of an atom can also represent the number of electrons.

Nucleon Number
1.

The nucleon number (A), also called atomic mass number or mass number, is the number of
protons plus the number of neutrons in an atomic nucleus. (Nucleon number = Number of
protons + Number of neutrons)

2.

The nucleon number of an atom is about the same as the mass of the atom because the
mass of an electron is very small and can be ignored.

Atom
Helium
Oxygen
Sodium
Chlorine

Proton
Number
2
8
11
17

Nucleon
Number
4
16
23
35

Amount of
Proton
2
8
11
17

Amount of
electron
2
8
11
17

Amount of
Neutron
2
8
12
18

[Notes: In ion, the amount of protons IS NOT equal to the amount of electrons]

Isotopes are atoms of certain elements which have the same number of protons but
different number of neutrons in the nucleus of the atoms.
It can also be defined as atoms of certain elements with the same proton numbers but with different
nucleon numbers.

Properties of Isotope
Number of proton
equal
Number of neutron
difference
Chemical properties
same
Physical properties
difference
Example:

Element

Name

Hydrogen

Hydrogen
Deuterium
Tritium
Oxygen-16
Oxygen-17
Oxygen-18

Oxygen

Symbol
H
H
3
H
16
O
17
O
18
O
1

Proton
Number
1
1
1
8
8
8

Nucleon
Number
1
12
23
16
17
18

Number of Number of
proton
neutron
1
0
1
1
1
2
8
8
8
9
8
10

Carbon

Chlorine
Sodium

1.

Carbon-12
Carbon-13
Carbon-14
Chlorine-35
Chlorine-37
Sodium-23
Sodium-24

C
C
14
C
35
Cl
37
Cl
23
Na
24
Na
12

13

17

17

11

11

6
6
6
17
17
11
11

12
13
14
35
37
23
24

6
6
6
17
17
11
11

We have learnt that electrons occupy orbits with definite energy level of an atom, as
suggested by Neils Bohr.

2.

These orbits with definite energy level are known as the shell.

3.

Every single shell is capable of holding up to certain amount of electrons.

4.

The first shell can hold up to two electrons. This is called a duplet.

5.

The second shell can hold up to eight electrons. This is called an octet.

6.

The third shell can hold up to eighteen electrons.

6
7
8
18
20
12
13

7.

However, with the third shell, when eight electrons are present, extra stability is gained. The
additional electrons go into the fourth shell before the third shell is completely filled.

8.

The way in which the electrons are distributed in the shells of an atom is called the electron
arrangement of the atom

9.

The examples below show the electron arrangement of some elements:

Atom

Notes
1.

Electrons Arrangement

Lithium has 3 protons and 3 neutrons and

three electrons as well.

2.

All the three electrons are arrange as

follows:

Two electrons are filled in the first shell.

One electron is filled in the second shell.

The electron arrangement of carbon is 2.1

1.

Chlorine has 17 protons and 18 neutrons

2.1

and 17 electrons.
2.

All the three electrons are arrange as

follows:

Two electrons are filled in the first shell.

Eight electrons are filled in the second

2.8.7

shell.

Seven electrons are filled in the third shell.

The electron arrangement of chlorine is

2.8.7.

1.

Calcium has 20 protons and 20 neutrons

and 20 electrons.

2.

All the three electrons are arrange as

follows:

Two electrons are filled in the first shell.

Eight electrons are filled in the second

2.8.8.2

shell.

Eight electrons are filled in the third shell.

Two electrons are filled in the forth shell.

The electron arrangement of carbon is

2.8.8.2.

Table below shows the arrangement of electrons of the first 20 elements in the periodic table. We

shall learn periodic table in chapter 4.

Element

Proton

Number of

Number

Electron

Number of electron in
1st shell

2nd shell

3rd shell

Electron
4th shell

Arrangement

Hydrogen

Helium

Lithium

2.1

Beryllium

2.2

Boron

2.3

Carbon

2.4

Nitrogen

2.5

Oxygen

2.6

Fluorine

2.7

Neon

10

10

2.8

Sodium

11

11

2.8.1

Magnesium

12

12

2.8.2

Aluminium

13

13

2.8.3

Silicon

14

14

2.8.4

Phosphorus

15

15

2.8.5

Sulphur

16

16

2.8.6

Chlorine

17

17

2.8.7

Argon

18

18

2.8.8

Potassium

19

19

2.8.8.1

Calcium

20

20

2.8.8.2

Valence electrons are the electrons in the outermost shell.

1.

The electrons in the outermost shell of an atom are called valence electrons.

2.

The valence electrons have great significance in determining the chemical properties of an
atom.

3.

Elements with the same number of valence electron have the same chemical properties.

Example:
Given that a sodium atom has 11 protons 12 neutrons. Find the number of valence electron in a
sodium atom.

Answer:
For an atom,

Number of electrons = number of protons = 11

Electron arrangement of sodium = 2.8.1

Therefore, sodium has 1 valence electron.