Mapua Institute of Technology

School of Mechanical Engineering

LECTURE
ON
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE

OTTO CYCLE
Process 2-3: isometric heat addition
I.

Diagrams

T3 P3

rp
T2 P2
T2 T1 rk

k 1

T3 T2 rp T1 rp rk

k 1

W2 3 0

Q23 mCv T3 T2

Process 3-4: isentropic expansion

T4 P4

T3 P3

k 1
k

V
3
V4

T3 T2 rp T1 rp rk

k 1

1

rk

k 1

k 1

1
T4 T3 k 1 T1 rp
rk
W3 4 mCv T4 T3
Q3 4 0

Process 4-1: isometric heat rejection

II.

PVT Relations
Process 1-2: isentropic compression
T2 P2

T1 P1
T2 T1 rk

k 1
k

V
1
V2

k 1

W1 2 mCv T2 T1
Q1 2 0

k 1

rk

k 1

T1
P
1
T4
P4

IV.

QR Q41

W4 1 0

mCv T1 T4

Q 4 1 mCv T1 T4

mCv T1 T1 rp
mCv T1 1 rp

ratio :
V
rk 1 compression
V2
rp

Heat Rejected, QR

V.

P3
pressure
P2

Work net, WKnet

Wknet Q A QR

VC V2 V3 clearance

th

VC cVD

1
V1 V2
V2

Wknet
100%
QA

VII.

VD
rk 1
cVD

Mean Effective Pressure, PMEP

PMEP

Therefore,

rk

III.

1 c
c

Heat Added, QA

Q A Q2 3

mCv T3 T2

mCv T1 rp rk
mCv T1 rk

k 1

k 1

T1 rk
1

1
1 k 1 100%
rk

since VD V1 V2

then

k 1

Thermal Efficiency, th

VI.

Where: c is the percent clearance

VD

mCvT1 rp 1 rk

V
rk 4 exp ansion
V3

k 1

Wknet
Vd

P1 rk rp 1 rk

k 1

k 1rk 1

Sample Problem:
An air std. Otto cycle uses 0.1 kg of air and
has a 17% clearance. The initial conditions
are 98 kPa and 37 C, and the energy
release during combustion is 1600 KJ/kg.
Determine the (a) compression ratio, rk, (b)
pressure, volume and temperature, PVT at
the
four
cycle
state
points,
(c)
displacement volume, Vd and mean
effective pressure, PMEP, (d) Work net,
WKnet, and (e) cycle efficiency, th .

(a) compression ratio, rk

rk

1 c
c
1 0.17
0.17

6.8824
(b) PVT at the four cycle state points

V4 V1

mRT1
P1

KJ
37 273K
0.1kg 0.287
kg K

98kPa
0.0908m 3

V3 V2

V1
rk

0.0908m 3
6.8824

0.0132m 3

T2 T1rk

k 1

310 K 6.8824
670.6 K
397.6C

1.4 1

since QA = Cv (T3-T2)

T3

qA
T2
Cv

KJ
kg

670.6 K
KJ
0.7176
kg K
1600

2900.25 K
rP

T3
T2
2900.25 K
670.6 K

4.325

1
T4 T3
rk

Vd V1 V2

k 1

1
2900.25 K

6.8824

0.0908 0.0132m 3

1.4 1

1340.72 K

0.0776m 3

PMEP

Wknet
Vd

86.03KJ
0.0776m 3
1108.7 kPa

P2

mRT2
V2

KJ
670.6 K
0.1kg 0.287
kg K

0.0132m 3
1458.05kPa

(d) Work net, Wknet

Wknet mCv T1 T2 T3 T4
86.03KJ
(e) cycle efficiency, th

P3

mRT3
V3

KJ
2900.25K
0.1kg 0.287
kg K

0.0132m 3
6305.85kPa
mRT4
P4
V4

KJ
1340.72 K
0.1kg 0.287
kg K

0.0908m 3
423.77kPa

(c) displacement volume, Vd and mean

effective pressure, PMEP

th 1

1
100%
k 1
rk

1
1
100%
1.4 1
6.8824
53.7%

Process 2-3: isobaric heat addition

DIESEL CYCLE

I.

T3 V3

rc
T2 V2

Diagrams

T2 T1 rk

k 1

T3 T2 rc T1 rc rk

k 1

W23 PV3 V2 mRT3 T2

Q23 mC p T3 T2

Process 3-4: isentropic expansion

T4 P4

T3 P3

k 1
k

V
3
V4

T3 T2 rc T1 rc rk
T4 T1 rc

k 1

rV
c 2
V1

k 1

r
c
rk

k 1

W3 4 mCv T4 T3
Q3 4 0

Process 4-1: isometric heat rejection

II.

T1 P1

T4 P4

PVT Relations
Process 1-2: isentropic compression
T2 P2

T1 P1
T2 T1 rk

k 1
k

V
1
V2

k 1

W1 2 mCv T2 T1
Q1 2 0

k 1

rk

k 1

W41 0

Q41 mCv T1 T4
ratio :
V
V
rk 1 4 compression
V2 V2
rc

V3
V2

rk

V4 V1

exp ansion
V3 V3

cut off

k 1

III.

Heat Added, QA

Q A Q2 3

mC p T3 T2
mC p T1 rk

IV.

k 1

rc 1

Heat Rejected, QR

QR Q41

mCv T1 T4

mCv T1 T1 rc

mCv T1 1 rc

Sample Problem:
A one cylinder Diesel engine operates on
the air-standard cycle and receives 27
Btu/rev. The inlet pressure is 14.7 psia, the
inlet temperature is 90F, and the volume
at the bottom dead center is 1.5 ft3. At the
end of compression the pressure is 500
psia.
Determine:
(a) the cycle efficiency
(b) the power if the engine runs at 300RPM
(c) the mean effective pressure

Solution:
V.

Work net, Wknet

Wknet Q A QR

mCvT1 krk

k 1

rc 1 rc k 1

Thermal Efficiency, th

VI.

th

Wknet
100%
QA

1 r 1
1 k 1 c
100%
rk k rc 1

VII.

Mean Effective Pressure, PMEP

PMEP

Wknet
Vd

P1rk krk

rc 1 rc k 1
k 1rk 1
k 1

(a) the cycle efficiency

P1 14.7 psia , T1 550 R , V1 V4 1.5 ft 3

P2 500 psia

and

Q A 27 BTU

1
k

rev

P
V
500 1.4
rk 1 2
12.4176
V2 P1
14.7

PV
m 1 1
RT1

T2 T1rk
T3

lb
in 2

1.5 ft 3
144
2
2
in
ft
0.1082 lb
ft lb
550R
53.34
lb R

14.7

k 1

55012.41761.41 1506.53R

QA
T2
mC P

27 Btu
1506.53
Btu

0.1082lb 0.24

lb R

T3 2546.27 R

rC

DUAL COMBUSTION CYCLE

V3 T3
2546.27

1.6902
V2 T2
1506.53
I.

Diagrams

II.

PVT Relations

1 r 1
100%
TH 1 k 1 C

k
r

1
rk C

k

TH 1

1.69021.4 1
1

100% 59%
12.41761.41 1.41.6902 1

(b) the power if the engine runs at 300RPM

WNET QA TH 27

Btu
0.59 15.93 Btu or 12,396.09 ft lb
rev
rev
rev

Power WNET N 12,396.09

ft lb
rev min HP

300

rev
min 33,000 ft lb

Power 112.7 HP
(c) the mean effective pressure

PMEP

PMEP

P1 rk krk k 1 rC 1 rC k 1

k 1rk 1

Process 1-2: isentropic compression

12.42 1.4 12.421.41 1.69 1 1.691.4 1

14.7 psia
1.4 112.42 1

PMEP 62.4 psi

P2

P1

k T2 k 1 V1

rk
V2

T1

Process 2-3: isometric heat addition

T3 P3

rp
T2 P2

Process 3-4: isobaric heat addition

T4 V4

rc
T3 V3

Process 4-5: isentropic expansion

1

P5 k T5 k 1 V4

V5
P4
T4

where :
T2 T1 rk

Process 5-1: isometric heat rejection

T1 P1

T5 P5

III.

Heat Added, QA

T5 T1
100%
T3 T2 k T4 T3

k 1

T3 T2 rp T1 rk

k 1

T4 T3 rc T1 rk

k 1

T5

rp

rp rc

T4
V5

V4

k 1

V5 V5 V4

V3 V4 V3

but,

Q A Q23 Q34

mCv T3 T2 mC p T4 T3
mCv T3 T2 k T4 T3

IV.

Heat Rejected, QR

V5
V1
V5
V4
V2 rk
then,

V 3 V4
rc
rc
V3

so that

QR Q51
V.

mCv T1 T5
Work net, Wknet

T5 rc rpT1
k

and

Wknet Q A QR

mCv T3 T2 k T4 T3 T1 T5

k
1

rc rp 1

100%

th 1 k 1
rk r p 1 krp rc 1

Thermal Efficiency, th

VI.

th

Wknet
100%
QA
mCv T3 T2 k T4 T3 T1 T5
mCv T3 T2 k T4 T3

VII.

Mean Effective Pressure, PMEP

PMEP

Wknet
Vd

T1 300 K

Sample Problem

T2 300 K 13

1.4 1

Given:
P1 = 100kPa
T1 = 300K
rk = 13
T4 = 2750K
P4 = 6894kPa
Cv (air) = 0.7174
Required:

T 3 836.948 K 1.9 1590.202 K

T 4 1590.202 K 1.73 2751.049 K
T 5 300 K 1.9 1.73 1227.833K
1590.202 836.948

Wknet mCv 1.42751.049 1590.202

300 1227.833

WKnet

Solution:

P4 6894kPa P3
So

rp

P3
6894kPa

1.9
P2 3626.78kPa

rc

V4
V3

Also,
; V2 V3

Then

mRT4
V
P4
rc \ 4
mRT2
V3
P2

P2 T4

P4 T2

3626.78kPa2750 K
6894kPa300 K 131.41

1.73

836.948 K

BRAYTON CYCLE
Diagrams
QA
2

P=C

s=C
1

s=C
WC

QR

WT

(Open cycle)

QA
2

3
P=C

s=C
1

s=C
WC

QR

WT
4

P=C

(Closed cycle)

I.

PVT Relations
Process 1-2: isentropic compression
P2

P1

k T2 k 1 V1

rk
V2

T1

Process 2-3: isobaric heat addition

T3 V3

T2 V2

Process 3-4: isentropic expansion

P4

P3

1
k

T
4

T3

1
k 1

PMEP

Wknet
Vd

Wknet
V4 V2

V3
V4

Process 5-1: isometric heat rejection

T1 V1

T4 V4

II.

Heat Added, QA

QA mC p T3 T2

III.

Heat Rejected, QR

QR mC p T1 T4

IV.

Work net, Wknet

Wknet Q A QR

mC p T3 T2 T1 T4

Thermal Efficiency, th

V.

th

Wknet
100%
QA

T T
1 4 1 100%
T3 T2

1
1 k 1 100%
rk

Problem:
There are required 2238KN net from a gas
turbine unit for pumping of crude oil. Air
enters the compressor section at 99.975
kPa and 278K. The pressure ratio rp=10.
The turbine section receives the hot gases
at 1111K. Assume a closed Brayton cycle,
and find (a) required air flow, and (b)
thermal efficiency.

Given:
Wknet = 2238KN
P1 = 99.975kPa
T1 = 278K
T3 = 1111K
rp = 10 = P2/P1
Required:
(a) mass flowrate, m
(b) thermal efficiency, th

Solution:
(a) mass flowrate, m
T
from 2
T1

k 1
P k
rk 2

P1

T2 T1 rp k

k 1

1.4 1

278 K 10 1.4
536.73K

VIII.

Mean Effective Pressure, PMEP

1
k

P3
T
3
also P
4
T4

(b) thermal efficiency, th

1
k 1

where : P3 P2
P4 P1

T4

so,

1111K
1.4 1
1.4

10

575.44 K

Wknet mC p T3 T2 T1 T4

2238 KJ s m1.0047 574.27 297.44

m 8.046 kg s

1
100%
k 1
rk

1 k 1 100%

rp k

th 1

1
100%
1
1.4 1
10 1.4

48.21%

ENGINE TYPES IN TERMS OF CHARGING

1st stroke (Intake):

The piston sucks in the fuel-airmixture from the carburetor into
the cylinder.
2nd stroke (Compression):
The piston compresses the
mixture.
3rd stroke (Combustion):
The spark from the spark plug
inflames the mixture. The
following explosion presses the
piston to the bottom, the gas is
operating on the piston.

4-stroke engine

4th stroke (Exhaust): The

piston presses the exhaust out
of the cylinder.

2-stroke engine
1st stroke
The compressed fuel-air mixture ignites and
thereby the piston is pressed down. At the same
time the intake port I is covered by the piston.
Now the new mixture in the crankcase becomes
pre-compressed. Shortly before the piston
approaches the lower dead centre, the exhaust
port and the overflow conduit are uncovered.
Being pressurized in the crankcase the mixture
rushes into the cylinder displacing the consumed
mixture (exhaust now).

By means of a crank shaft the up and down motion is converted

into a rotational motion.

2nd stroke
The piston is moving up. The overflow conduit
and the exhaust port are covered, the mixture in
the cylinder is compressed. At the same time
new fuel-air mixture is sucked into the crankcase.

COMPARISON OF GASOLINE AND DIESEL ENGINES

Diesel Engine
Advantages
Lower fuel cost
Higher efficiency
Readily available for a wide range of sizes and application
Lower running speed
Disadvantages
Maintenance is more expensive
Heavier and bulkier for a given power
Higher capital cost
Pollution

Gasoline Engine
Advantages
Light hence more portable
Lower capital costs
Cheaper to maintain
Higher running speeds
Disadvantages
Not so durable especially under continuous long term usage
Lower efficiency for equivalent power
Fuel is more expensive
Narrow range of off-the-shelf engines available smaller engines more readily
available
Pollution

COMBUSTION
A chemical reaction in which fuel combines with oxygen; liberation of a large amount of
heat energy.
Combustion of Solid Fuel
H2
C
N2
O2

Facts:
- when C is burned, it becomes flue gas
- mole (a unit of volume)
- all products of combustion should be released ion the stock
- hot molecules are lighter

a. combustion of Carbon, C

C O2 CO2
1moleC 1moleO2 1moleCO2
lb
lb

2O2 1mole44 lb CO2

1mole 12
C 1mole 16

mole
mole
mole
12lbC 32lbO 2 44lbCO 2
(12lbC 32lbO 2 44lbCO 2 )1 12
1 lb of C requires 2

2
2
lbs of O2 to produce 3 lbs of CO2
3
3

b. combustion of Hydrogen, H2

2H 2 O2 2H 2 O
2molesH 2 1moleO2 2molesH 2 O
lb
2H 2 1mole 16 lb 2O2 2mole 18 lb H 2 O
2moles 1

mole
mole
mole
4lbH 2 32lbO 2 36lbH 2 O
(4lbH 2 32lbO 2 36lbH 2 O)1 4
1 lb of H2 requires 8 lbs of O2 to produce 9 lbs of H2O

c. combustion of Sulfur, S

S O2 SO2
1moleS 1moleO2 1moleSO2
lb
lb
lb

2 O2 1mole64
1mole32
S 1mole16
SO2

mole
mole
mole
32lbS 32lbO2 64lbCO2
( 32lbS 32lbO2 64lbCO2 ) 1 32
1 lb of S requires 1 lb of O2 to produce 2 lbs of SO2
Generalization:

lbO2
lbO2
O
2 lbO 2
8
1
(oxygen-fuel ratio) = 2
3 lbC
lbH 2
lbS
F

for a given gravimetric analysis of coal

lbC
lbO 2
lbH 2 lbO 2
C
8
H 2
1
lbH 2
lbfuel
lbS
lbfuel
lbO 2
O lbO 2
2 lbO 2
8 H 2 2

2 C
1 S
3 lbfuel
8 lbfuel lbfuel

O
2 lbO 2
2
F
3 lbC

lbS
S
lbfuel

instead of supplying pure O2, supply air

<gravimetric>
Air
= 23.1% O2 + 76.9% N2

<volumetric>
Air
= 21%

O2

then

A O lbO 2
1

lbO 2
F F lbfuel
0.231
lbair

2 lbO 2
lbO 2
O2 lbO 2
1
8 H 2

2 C
1 S

lbO 2
8 lbfuel lbfuel
3 lbfuel
0.231
lbair

O lbair
lbair
lbair

11.5C
34.63 H 2 2
4.33S
lbfuel
8 lbfuel
lbfuel

79%

N2

Problem: Given the ultimate/gravimetric analysis of coal as follows:

S = 4.79%; H2 = 5.39%; C = 62.36%; N2 = 1.28%; O2 = 15.5%
Calculate the following:
(a) Theoretical oxygen-fuel ratio
(b) Actual air-fuel ratio at 20% excess
(c) Gravimetric analysis of dry and wet flue gas

Solution:
(a) theoretical oxygen-fuel ratio,

lbC
0.6236
lbfuel

lbO 2
1.988
lbfuel

O
2 lbO 2
2
F
3 lbC

(b) actual air-fuel ratio,

O
F

lbO 2
lbO 2
0.155 lbH 2
lbS
8
0.0479
1
0.0539

lbH 2
8 lbfuel
lbS
lbfuel

A
Fa

A
A
1 e

Fa Ft
A
1 0.2

Ft

A
O
1
where :

lbO2
Ft F
0.231
lbair

then,

A
A
1 e

Fa Ft
lbair
8.606
1.20
lbfuel
lbair
10.338
lbfuel

1.998 lbO2

lbair
lbfuel

8.606
lbfuel
0.231 lbO2

lbair

(c) gravimetric analysis of dry gas

mdg mCO2 mSO2 m N 2 mO2

mwg mdg mH 2O

mCO2 3

mO 2

lbCO 2

lbC
0.6236
2.287
lbfuel
lbfuel

lbSO 2

lbS
0.0479
0.0958
lbfuel
lbfuel

lbN 2
lbN 2
lbN 2
lbair
0.0128
10.33
0.769
7.9564
lbfuel
lbfuel
lbair
lbfuel
lbO 2
O
0.2 0.3976 lbO 2
excess 1.988
F
lbfuel
lbfuel

m SO2 2
mN2

2 lbCO 2
3 lbC
lbSO 2
lbS

mdg 2.287 0.0958 7.9564 0.3976 10.73

2.287
100% 21.3141%
10.73
0.0958
%G SO2
100% 0.8928%
10.73
7.9564
%G N 2
100% 74.1509%
10.73
0.3976
%GO2
100% 3.705%
10.73
%GCO2

for wet flue gas

m H 2O 9

lbH 2 O
lbH 2
0.0539
lbH 2
lbfuel

lbH 2 O

0.4851
lbfuel

m wg 10.73 0.4851 11.2151

lbwg
lbfuel

lbdg
lbfuel

2.287
100% 20.3921%
11.2151
0.0958
%G SO2
100% 0.8542%
11.2151
7.9564
%G N 2
100% 70.9436%
11.2151
0.3976
%GO2
100% 3.5452%
11.2151
0.4851
%G H 2O
100% 4.3259%
11.2151
%GCO2

Example 2 : Given the ultimate/gravimetric analysis of coal as follows:

S = 0.55%; H2 = 4.5%; C = 84.02%; N2 = 1.17%; O2 = 6.03%
Calculate : (a)Theoretical oxygen-fuel ratio
(b) Actual air-fuel ratio at 20% excess
(c) Gravimetric analysis of wet flue gas

Solution:
(a) theoretical oxygen-fuel ratio,

O
F

lbC
0.8402
lbfuel

lbO 2
2.546
lbfuel

O
2 lbO 2
2
F
3 lbC

(b) actual air-fuel ratio,

lbO 2
8
lbH 2

lbO 2
0.0603 lbH 2

1
0.045

8 lbfuel
lbS

A
Fa

A
A
1 e

Fa Ft
A
1 0.2

Ft

A
O
1
where :

lbO 2
Ft F
0.231
lbair

2.546 lbO 2

lbfuel
lbair

11.0216
lbO 2

lbfuel
0.231
lbair

lbS
0.0055
lbfuel

then,

A
A
1 e

Fa Ft
lbair
11.0216
1.20
lbfuel
lbair
13.2260
lbfuel

(c) gravimetric analysis of wet gas

mwg mCO2 mSO2 mN2 mO2 mH 2O

mCO2 3

mO 2

lbCO 2

lbC
0.8402
3.081
lbfuel
lbfuel

lbSO 2

lbS
0.0055
0.011
lbfuel
lbfuel

lbN 2
lbN 2
lbN 2
lbair
0.0117
13.26
0.769
10.182
lbfuel
lbfuel
lbair
lbfuel
lbO 2
O
0.2 0.5092 lbO 2
excess 2.546
F
lbfuel
lbfuel

m SO2 2
mN2

2 lbCO 2
3 lbC

m H 2O 9

lbSO 2
lbS

lbH 2O
lbH 2
lbH 2O
0.0539
0.4851
lbH 2
lbfuel
lbfuel

m wg 3.081 0.011 10.182 0.5092 0.405 14.1882

3.081
100% 21.715% 21.7354%
14.1882
0.011
%G SO2
100% 0.0775% 0.0776%
14.1882
10.182
%G N 2
100% 71.764% 71.7827%
14.1882
0.5092
%GO2
100% 3.589% 3.5908%
14.1882
0.405
%G H 2O
100% 2.854% 2.8571%
14.1882
%GCO2

lbwg
lbfuel

Calculating for the volumetric analysis of wet flue gas

solution:

%VCO2

VCO2
Vwg

nCO2
nwg

mCO2

%VCO2

nCO2

MWwg
MWCO2
GCO2
MWCO
mwg
2

MWwg

mCO2
MWCO2

where:

MWwg

m wg
n wg
m wg

mCO2
MWCO2

m SO2
MWSO2

mCO2
m wg MWCO2

GCO2
MWCO2

1
mN2
MW N 2

m SO2
m wg MWSO2

G SO2
MWSO2

1
GN2
MW N 2

mO2
MWO2

1
mN2
m wg MW N 2

GO2
MWO2

m H 2O
MWH 2O

mO2
m wg MWO2

m H 2O
m wg MWH 2O

G H 2O
MWH 2O

1
0.217354 0.000776 0.717827 0.035908 0.028571

44
64
28
32
18

MWwg 29.6113

lb
lbmole

 29.6113
%VCO2 21.7354
14.6276%
44
29.6113
%VSO2 0.0776
0.034%
64
29.6113
%V N 2 71.7827
75.9135%
28
29.6113
%VO2 3.5908
3.3327%
32
29.6113
%V H 2O 2.8571
4.7001%
18
Heating Value quantity of heat produced by the combustion of fuel under specified condition per
unit weight or unit of volume.
HHV (Higher Heating Value) accounts for the energy carried by the superheated water
vapor. The products of combustion of fuel with H2 content producing vapor in
superheated state and will usually leaves the system, thus carrying with it the energy
represented by the superheated water vapor.
LHV (Lower Heating Value) is found by deducting the heat needed to vaporize the
mechanical moisture and the moisture found when fuel burns from HHV.
HHV for Coal: Dulongs Formula
HHV = 14,600 C + 62, 000 (H2 O2/8) + 4050 S

BTU/lb

HHV = 33,820 C + 144,212 (H2 O2/8) + 9,304 S

kJ/kg

Combustion of Liquid Fuels

Properties of Liquid Fuels
1. Specific Gravity

141.5
131.5
60 0
S .G. @ 0
60

API

BAUME

140
130
600
S .G. @ 0
60

2. Calorific or Heating Value

HHV = 18,440 + 40 (0 API - 10)

BTU/lb for kerosene

HHV = 18,650 + 40 (0 API 10)

BTU/lb for gas fuels, oil or distillate light oils

Faragher Marrel & Essax Equation:

HHV = 17,645 + 54 (0 API )

BTU/lb

for heavy cracked fuel oil.

Naval Boiler Laboratory Formula:

HHV = 18,250 + 40 (0 Be 10) BTU/lb

for all petroleum products.

Bureau of Standard
HHV = 22,230 3,780 (S.G.)2

BTU/lb

3. Viscosity the measure of the resistance of oil to flow.

4. Flash Point the maximum temperature of which an oil emit vapor that will ignite.
5. Pour Point the lowest temperature at which the fuel will flow when it is chilled without
disturbance.
6. Fire point the temperature at which oil burns.
7. Ignition Quality the ability of a fuel to ignite spontaneously

a. If Chemical composition is given:

CH 4 air

products of combustion

where:

air = 21% O2 + 79% N2

= 1 volume of O2 + 3.76 volume of N2

CH 4 xO2 3.76N 2

yCO 2 zH 2 O x 3.76N 2

Carbon balance:

1 y

Hydrogen balance:

4 2z
z2

Oxygen balance:

2x 2 y z
21 z
x
2
2

1 vol. CH4 + 2 vol. [O2 + 3.76N2] 1 vol. CO2 + 2 vol. H2O + 2 [3.76N2](1+e)
1 mol CH4 + 2 mol [O2 + 3.76N2] 1 mol CO2 + 2 mol H2O + 2 mol [3.76N2](1+e)
lb

Weight of fuel, CH4 1mol 16

16 lb
lbmol
lb
lb

Weight of air 2mol 32

3.7628
274.56 lb
lbmol
lbmol

Therefore

Air
274.56lb
lbair

17.16
Fuel
16lb
lbfuel

Combustion of Gaseous Fuel

Given the volumetric analysis of a gaseous fuel is given:

CO2 2.4%
N 2 1.8%
CH 4 64.1%
C 2 H 2 31.7%

2.4CO2 1.8N2 64.1CH4 31.7C2H2 xO2 3.76N2 yCO2 zH2O [( x )(1 e )3.76N2 N2 in the fuel ]
Carbon balance:

2.4 64.1 231.7 y y 129.9

Hydrogen balance: 464.1 231.7 2 z z 159.9

Oxygen balance:

22.4 2 x 2129.9 159.9 x 207.45

Weight of fuel 2.412 32 1.828 64.112 4 31.724 2 2005.8

Weight of air 207.4532 3.76 28 28,478.44
Therefore

lb
Air
lbmol 14.2 lbair or kgair

lb
Fuel
lbfuel kgfuel
2005.8
lbmol
28,478.44

INCOMPLETE COMBUSTION

Given the volumetric analysis of fuel:

CO2 2.4%
N 2 1.8%
CH 4 64.1%
C 2 H 2 31.7%
assumption:

CO = 20% of CO2

Solution:

2.4CO2 1.8N 2 64.1CH 4 31.7C2 H 2 xO2 3.76N 2 yCO2 0.2 yCO zH 2O 3.76N 2

Carbon balance:

2.4 64.1 231.7 y 0.2 y

y 108.25 CO2 moles
0.2 y 21.65 COmoles

Hydrogen balance:

464.1 231.7 2 z
z 159.9

Oxygen balance:

22.4 2 x 2108.25 0.2 108.25 159.9

x 196.625

Weight of fuel 2.412 32 1.828 64.112 4 31.724 2 2005.8

Weight of air 196.62532 3.76 28 26,992.68

Therefore

lb
Air
lbmol 13.4573 lbair or kgair

lb
Fuel
lbfuel kgfuel
2005.8
lbmol
26,992.68

if gravimetric analysis of the products of combustion is required

2005.8 lbs fuel requires 26,992.68 lbs air to produce (108.25 x MW CO2) + (21.65 x MW CO) +
(159.9 x MW H2O) + { 196.625 [3.76(MW N2)+1.8(MW N2)] }

Thus, 1 lb fuel requires 13.4573 lbs air to produce 2.3856

mCO2 2.3856

lbCO 2
lbfuel

lbCO 2
lbfuel

m products of combustion, mPC = mCO2 mCO mO2 mH 2O

%GCO2

mCO2
mPC

100%

CHEMICAL FORMULA OF SOME LIQUID AND GASEOUS FUEL

Gaseous Fuel
1) Methane, CH4
2) Ethane, C2H6
3) Propane, C3H8
4) Butane, C4H20

Liquid Fuel
5) Gasoline, C8H18
6) Dodecane, C12H26
7) Diesoline, C16H32

ENGINE PERFORMANCE
Source of Energy:
Ec = mf x HV

ma/f

mexhaust

IP

FP

BP

where:

EC = energy chargeable
mf = mass flow rate of fuel
IP = indicated power
BP = brake power
EP = electrical power

A. Indicated Power power done in the cylinder; measured by an indicator.

so that, PmI

, m 2 s.s., kPa

, m
where: AC = area of the indicator card
s.s. = scale of indicator spring
= length of indicator card

therefore, IP PmI A L N S
where:

in KW
2

A = area of the bore cylinder, m =

D 2
4

L = length of stroke

c a
Ns = power cycles per second =

n
2
60
s

c no. of cylinders
a no. acting
n rpm
s stroke
PmI = indicated mean effective pressure

B. Brake Power / Shaft Power / Developed Power power delivered to the shaft
*measured by (a) for low speed prony brake, and (b) for high speed dynamometer

A. Toledo Scale
B. Hydraulic Scale
C. Arm

Standard Prony Brake Arrangement

where: Brake Tare (Tare wt.) is the effective weight of the brake arm when brake band in
loose
so that, Torque(T) = net scale x arm, KN-m
Pn L GW TW L

Therefore,
2Tn Tn

60
30
PmB A L N S

BP

where:

, in kW

PmB = brake mean effective pressure

C. Mechanical Efficiency

BP
100%
IP
Pm B A L N S

Pm B

so,

now,

PmI A L N S
PmI

100%

100%

IP = FP + BP
BP = IP FP

IP FP
100%
IP
FP

1
100%
IP

D. Generator Efficiency

EP
100%
BP

E. Combined Mechanical and Electrical Efficiency

ME m m
Example 1: An engine has 14 cylinders, with a 13.6cm bore, and a 15.2cm stroke, and
develops 2850KW at 250 rpm. The clearance volume of each cylinder is 350cm 3. Determine
(a) compression ratio, and (b) brake mean effective pressure.
Given:
c = 14
D = 13.6cm
L = 15.2cm
Required:
(a) compression ratio, rk
(b) brake mean effective pressure, PmB

BP = 2850KW
n = 250rpm
V2 = 380cm3

Solution:
Wknet PmB VD

BP PmB A L N S
(a) compression ratio, rk

rk

V1
V2

; V1 V2 VD

VD A L N S
13.6 2

15.2
4

2208.062cm 3

then
V1 380 2208.062 2588.062cm 3
2588.062cm 3
rk
6.81
380cm 3

(b) brake mean effective pressure, PmB

BP PmB A L N S

thus, PmB

BP
A L NS

KN m
s

250

0.136m 2 14 1 60 2

0.152m

4
4

2850

PmB

44,253.41kPa

Example 2: Calculate the bore and stroke of a six cylinder engine that delivers 22.4KW at
1800rpm with a ratio of bore to stroke of 0.71. Assume the mean effective pressure in the
cylinder is 620kPa, and the mechanical efficiency is 85%
Given:
c=6
D/L = 0.71
BP = 22.4 KW

n = 1800 rpm
Pmi = 620 kPa
Mech. Eff. = 85 %

Solution:

BP PmB A L NS
where:

nm

PmB
PmI

100%

PmB 0.85620kPa 527kPa

L A

Also,

L D

BP
PmB N S
22.4 KW
1800

6 1 60 2
527kPa

0.0004722m 3
4

But,

D
0.71

Therefore
2
D D

0.71 4

0.0004722m 3

D 3 1.0619 0.0004722m 3
D 0.0753m 7.53cm
L 0.10606m 10.61cm

F. Specific Fuel Consumption amount of fuel needed to perform a unit of power

SFC

= amount of fuel
Power

m f , kg

kg
hr
P, KW
KW hr

(1) Indicated Specific fuel Consumption, ISFC

ISFC

mf
IP

(2) Brake Specific fuel Consumption, BSFC

BSFC

mf
BP

mf
IP m

(3) Combined Specific fuel Consumption, CSFC

CSFC

mf
EP

mf
BP g

mf
IP m g

mf
IP ME

G. Heat Rate is the amount of heat needed to perform a unit of power.

HR

= Energy Changeable
Power

EC , KJ

KJ
hr
P, KW
KW hr

(1) Indicated Heat Rate, IHR

IHR

EC m f HV

ISFC HV
IP
IP

(2) Brake Heat Rate, BHR

BHR

EC m f HV
ISFC HV IHR

BSFC HV

BP
BP
m
m

(3) Combined Heat Rate, CHR

CHR

m f HV
EC m f HV m f HV

EP
EP
BP g
IP m g
BSFC HV

ISFC HV

CSFC HV

H. Thermal Efficiency ratio of heat converted to useful power and heat supplied.

th

Power
Energy Changeable

KJ
KW hr 100%
KJ
EC ,
hr

P, KW 3600

(1) Indicated Thermal Efficiency, th I

th I

IP 3600
100%
EC

IP 3600
100%
m f HV

3600
100%
ISFC HV
3600

100%
IHR

x 100%

(2) Brake Thermal Efficiency, th B

th B

BP 3600
100%
EC

BP 3600
100%
m f HV

3600
3600
100%
100%
BSFC HV
BHR

(3) Combined Thermal Efficiency, th C

th C

EP 3600
100%
EC

EP 3600
100%
m f HV

3600
3600
100%
100%
CSFC HV
CHR

I. Engine Efficiency ratio of the actual performance of the engine to the ideal.

Actual Power
Ideal Power

(1) Indicated Engine Efficiency, e I

eI

IP
100%
Pi

(2) Brake Engine Efficiency, e B

eB

BP
100%
Pi

(3) Combined Engine Efficiency, eC

eC

EP
100%
Pi

x 100%

Example:
Given c = 6
s=4
rk = 9.5
IP = 67.1KW
T = 194 N-m
m = 78%
HV=43,970 kJ/kg

Required:

PmB = 550 kPa

P1 = 101 kPa
T1 = 308 K
k = 1.32
ISFC = 0.353 kg KW hr
D = 1.1L

a. bore and stroke

b. thermal efficiency, th I
c. engine efficiency, e B

Solution:
(a) L and D = ?
BP PmB A L N S eq.1
BP

2Tn
eq.2
60

equate equation 1 to equation 2

2Tn
60
2T
L A
c a 2
PmB

PmB A L N S

2
D D

1.1 4

1KN
2 194 N m
1000 N

6 1 2

550kPa

D 0.1011m 10.11cm
L 0.0919m 9.19cm
where : L

D
1.1

(b) th I = ?

th I

IP 3600
100%
EC

IP 3600
100%
m f HV

3600
100%
ISFC HV
3600

100%
0.35343,970
23.19%

(c) em = ?
em

BP
100%
Pi

where:

BP
100%
IP

BP 0.7867.1KW 52.338KW

Also,

th

From,

ISFC

Also,

ideal

Pi
100%
EC

mf
IP

; EC = mf x HV

; mf = IP x ISFC

 th

id ea l

1
1 k 1 100%
rk
1

1 1.321 100%
9.5

51.345%

Therefore,
Pi 0.51345IP ISFC HV

43,970 KJ 1hr
0.5134567.1KW 0.353 kg
KW

hr
kg
3600s

148.54 KW

Finally,
52.338KW
100%
148.54 KW
35.23%

em

J. Volumetric Efficiency

Actual amount of air taken in, m3/s

Volumetric or piston displacement, m3/s

100%

Va
100%
VD

Where:

if wet bulb temperature,tw is not given, then use the general gas law equation:
PaVa ma Ra Ta
Va

ma Ra Ta m 3
;
Pa
s

if dry bulb temperature,ta and wet bulb temperature, tw, or relative humidity, RH
are given, then use the psychrometric chart

Va ma spec.vol, va
VD A L N S

K. Effect on Engines when operated on Higher Altitudes

(1) Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) correction formula:

For spark-ignition engines

P T 0.5
BPS BPO S O
PO TS
For compression-ignition engines

P T 0.7
BPS BPO S O
PO TS

where:

BPS , PS , TS std. rating of engine

BPO , PO , TO rating at observed conditions

Approximations to be used as temperature and pressure changes at a given altitude:

Pressure: barometric pressure decreases by 1Hg absolute (83.3mmHg abs) for
every 1000 ft (1000 m) increase in altitude based on 29.92Hg absolute
(760mmHg abs) sea level.
Temperature: temperature decreases by 3.57F (6.5C) for every 1000 ft (1000
m) increase in altitude based on a standard temperature of 60F (15C).

(2) Diesel Engine Manufactures Association (DEMA) standard rating

2.1) Rated power may not be corrected for altitude up to 1500ft (457.5m).
2.2) For altitudes greater than 1500ft (457.5m), use the following:
Subtract from std. rating 2% for every 1000ft (305m) above 1500ft
(457.5m) for supercharged engines.
Subtract from std. rating 4% for every 1000ft (305m) above 1500ft
(457.5m) for naturally aspirated engines.

Example: An engine has the following data when operated at an altitude of 1524ft, with a
temperature of 15C:
BPo = 500KW

v = 75%

kg
BSFCo = 0.28
KW hr

A:Fo = 23

when the engine is brought to sea level having a pressure of 101.325kPa, and temperature
of 20C. Calculate (a) BPs, (b) BSFCs, and (c)) Pm
considering
84.86%
mechanical
efficiency
Is

Given
BPo = 500KW

kg
KW hr

BSFCo = 0.28

m = 84.86%

To = 15C + 273 = 288 K

TS = 20C + 273 = 293 K
PS = 101.325kPa
A:Fo = 23

Required:
(a) BPs
(b) BSFCs
(c) PmI
s

Solution:
(a) BPS = ?

101.325kPa 1524 ft
96.164kPa
PO 101.325kPa 1" Hg

29.92" Hg 1000 ft

101.325kPa 288 0.7

BPS 500 KW

96
.
164
kPa
293

520.56 KW

Then,

(b) BSFCS = ?

BSFC S

Therefore,

mf
BP

; m f m f s m fo

BPO BSFC O BPs BSFC s

 500 KW
BSFC S 0.28

520.56 KW
kg
0.269
KW hr

(c) PmIs = ?

PmI s

where:

Also,

IPS
VD

; PmI s VD IP

BPS

IPS

520.56 KW
613.434KW
0.8486

VD A L N S ?

But,

Va
VD

Then,

VD

Va

Va
0.75

; PaVa = mRTa

A : Fo
BSFCS

So,

m fS
BPS

ma o
23
m fo

kg
1hr
m f s 520.560.269
0.0389
s
3600s

ma 0.038923 0.8947

kg
s

Thus,

Vao

0.8947 kg s 0.287 KJ kg K 288 K

84.39 kPa

m3
s
0.8759 m3 s
VD
1.168 m3 s
0.75

Vao 0.8759

Finally

613.434 KW
1.1689 m3 s
525.2kPa

Pm I s

TYPICAL HEAT BALANCE IN ENGINES

Energy Balance
A. Input
Energy Changeable, EC
EC = mf x HV

100%

B. Outputs
1.
2.
3.
4.

Useful power, BP
Heat carried by exhaust gas, QH
Heat carried by jacket or cooling water, QC
Friction, Radiation and unaccounted losses

30-32% ( th B )
24-26% (%QE)
30-32% (%QE)
10-16%

Summary
QH (30-32%)

EC (100%)

BP (30-32%)

QC (24-26%)

others (10-16%)

Percent Cooling Loss

%Qj = Heat carried by the jacket or cooling water

Energy Changeable

m j C pw t b t a
m f HV

x 100%

100%

if EC is not given

th B

BP 3600
100%
EC

m f HV

BP 3600
100%
m f HV

Now...

%Q j

BP 3600

th B

m j C pw tb t a
100%
BP 3600

th B

th B m j C p tb t a
w

BP 3600

100%

Solving for the mass of jacket or cooling water, let: %Qj = 32% and th B =30%

mj

%Q j BP 3600

th B C p t b t a
w

0.32 BP 3600
BP
kg
BP
kg
917.124
;
0.2548
;
t b t a hr
t b t a s
0.3 4.187t b t a

Solving the volume of jacket or cooling water, let = 1000kg/m3

mj
Vj

; Vj

mj