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Introduction:
Definition
Principles
Classification
Application
Advantages & limitations of welding.
Arc Welding:
Principle
Metal Arc welding (MAW)
Flux Shielded Metal Arc Welding (FSMAW)
Inert Gas Welding (TIG & MIG)
Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
Atomic Hydrogen Welding processes. (AHW)
Gas Welding:
Principle
Oxy Acetylene welding
Reaction in Gas welding
Flame characteristics
Gas torch construction & working
N G, Asst. Prof, DSCE,
08/03/15
Forward and backwardHareesha
welding.
Bengaluru
INTRODUCTION
Welding is a process for joining different materials.
The large bulk of materials that are welded are metals and their
alloys, although the term welding is also applied to the joining of
other materials such as thermo plastics.
Welding joins different metals/alloys with the help of a number of
processes in which heat is supplied either electrically or by
means of a gas torch.
In order to join two or more pieces of metals together by one of
the welding processes, the most essential requirement is Heat.
Pressure may also be employed.
Since a slight gap usually exists between the edges of the work
pieces, a 'filler metal is used to supply additional material to fill
the gap. But, welding can also be carried out without the use of
filler metal.
The filler metal is melted in the gap, combines with the molten
metal of the work piece and upon solidification forms an integral
part of the weld.
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Welding terminology
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PRINCIPLE OF WELDING
An ideal joint between two pieces of metal or plastic can be made
by heating the workpieces to a suitable temperature. In other
words, on heating, the materials soften sufficiently so that the
surfaces fuse together.
The bonding force holds the atoms, ions or molecules together in
a solid. This 'bonding on contact' is achieved only when:
the contaminated surface layers on the workpiece are removed,
recontamination is avoided, and
the two surfaces are made smooth, flat and fit each other
exactly.
In highly deformable materials, the above aims can be achieved
by rapidly forcing the two surfaces of the workpiece to come
closer together so that plastic deformation makes their shape
conform to each another; at the same time, the surface layers are
broken up, allowing the intimate contact needed to fuse the
materials.
This was the principle of the first way known to weld metals; by
hammering the pieces together while they are in hot condition.
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1. Gas Welding
Air Acetylene Welding
Oxyacetylene Welding
Oxy hydrogen Welding
Pressure gas Welding
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2. Arc Welding
Carbon Arc Welding
Shielded Metal Arc
Welding
Flux Cored Arc Welding
Submerged Arc Welding
TIG (or GTAW) Welding
MIG (or GMAW) Welding
Plasma Arc Welding
Electro slag Welding
Electro gas Welding
Stud Arc Welding.
3. Resistance Welding
Spot Welding
Seam Welding
Projection Welding
Resistance Butt Welding
Flash Butt Welding
Percussion Welding
High Frequency
Resistance Welding.
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ADVANTAGES OF WELDING
A good weld is as strong as the base metal.
General welding equipment is not very costly.
Portable welding equipments are available.
Welding permits considerable freedom in design.
A large number of metals/alloys both similar and dissimilar can be
joined by welding.
Welding can join workpieces through spots, as continuous pressure
tight seams, end-to-end and in a number of other configurations.
Welding can be mechanized.
DISADVANTAGES 0F WELDING
Welding gives out harmful radiations (light), fumes and spatter.
Welding results in residual stresses and distortion of the work-pieces.
Edge preparation of the workpieces is generally required before
welding them.
A skilled welder is a must to produce a good welding job.
Welding heat produces metallurgical changes. The structure of the
welded joint is not same as that of the parent metal.
A welded joint, for manyHareesha
reasons,
needs
stress-relief heat-treatment.
N G, Asst.
Prof, DSCE,
08/03/15
Bengaluru
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3. Bridges
Section lengths.
Shop and field assembly of lengths, etc.
4. Buildings
Column base plates
Trusses
formation of structure, etc.
5. Pressure Vessels and Tanks
Clad and lined steel plates
Shell construction
Joining of nozzles to the shell, etc.
6. Storage Tanks
Oil, gas and water storage tanks.
7. Rail Road Equipment Locomotive
Under frame
Air receiver
Engine
Hareesha N G, Asst. Prof, DSCE,
Front
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Bengaluru
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PRINCIPLE
The source of heat for arc welding process is an 'electric arc'
generated between two electrically conducting materials.
One of the workpiece material called 'electrode' is connected to one
pole of the electric circuit, while the other workpiece which forms
the second conducting material is connected to the other pole of
the circuit.
When the tip of the electrode material is brought in contact with the
workpiece material and momentarily separated by small distance of
2-4 mm, an arc can be generated.
The electrical energy is thus converted to heat energy.
The high heat of the arc melts the edges of the workpieces.
Coalescence takes place where the molten metal of the one
workpiece combines with the molten metal of the other workpiece.
When the coalesced liquid solidifies, the two workpieces join
together to form a single component.
The electrode material can be either a non-consumable material or
a Consumable material.
The non-consumable electrode made of tungsten, graphite etc.,
serve only to strike the arc and is not consumed during the welding
process.
Whereas, the consumable electrode which is made of the same
material as that of the workpiece metal helps to strike the arc and
at the same time melt (gets consumed) and combines with the
Hareesha N G,
Prof, DSCE,
molten metal of the workpiece
toAsst.
form
a weld.
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Applications
Today, almost all the commonly employed metals and their alloys
can be welded by this process.
Shielded metal arc welding is used both as a fabrication process
and for maintenance and repair jobs.
The process finds applications in
Air receiver, tank, boiler and pressure vessel fabrications;
Shipbuilding;
Pipes and Penstock joining;
Building and Bridge construction;
Automotive and Aircraft industry, etc.
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A.C. Welding
D.C. Welding
1. At higher currents AC gives a
1.DC arc is more stable.
smoother arc.
2.DC is preferred for
2. Once established the arc can be easily
welding certain non-ferrous
maintained and controlled.
metals and alloys.
3. It is suitable for welding thicker sections. 3.It has lower open circuit
4. AC is easily available.
voltage and therefore is
5. AC welding power source has no rotating safer.
parts.
4.ARC heat can be
6. It does not produce noise.
regulated (i.e., through
7. It occupies less space
DCRP and DCSP)
8. It is less costly to purchase and maintain. 5.A DC welding
equipment is a self
9. It possesses high efficiency (0.8).
10.It consumes less energy per unit weight of contained unit. It can be
deposited metal.
operated in fields where
power supply is not
11.Melting rate of electrode cannot be
controlled in AC as equal heat
available
generates at electrode and job.
6.DC welding power
12.An AC welding power source is
source is a transformerTransformer
rectifier unit or a DC
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Description
TIG equipment consists of a welding torch in which a nonconsumable tungsten alloy electrode is held rigidly in the
collet.
The diameter of the electrode varies from 0.5 - 6.4 mm.
TIG welding makes use of a shielding gas like argon or
helium to protect the welding area from atmospheric gases
such as oxygen and nitrogen, otherwise which may cause
fusion defects and porosity in the weld metal.
The shielding gas flow from the cylinder, through the
passage in the electrode holder and then impinges on the
workpiece.
Pressure regulator and flow meters are used to regulate the
pressure and flow of gas from the cylinder.
Either AC or DC can be used to supply the required current.
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Operation
The workpieces to be joined are cleaned to remove dirt,
grease and other oxides chemically or mechanically to
obtain a sound weld.
The welding current and inert gas supply are turned ON.
An arc is struck by touching the tip of the tungsten
electrode with the workpiece and instantaneously the
electrode is separated from the workpiece by a small
distance of 1.5 - 3 mm such that the arc still remains
between the electrode and the workpiece.
The high intensity of the arc melts the workpiece metal
forming a small molten metal pool.
Filler metal in the form of a rod is added manually to the
front end of the weld pool.
The deposited filler metal fills and bonds the joint to form a
single piece of metal
The shielding gas is allowed to impinge on the solidifying
weld pool for a few seconds even after the arc is
extinguished (shut off)
This will avoid atmospheric contamination of the solidifying
metal thereby increasing the strength of the joint.
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Advantages
Suitable for thin metals.
Clear visibility of the arc provides the operator to have a
greater control over the weld.
Strong and high quality joints are obtained.
No flux is used. Hence, no slag formation. This results in clean
weld joints.
Disadvantages
TIG is the most difficult process compared to all the other
welding processes. The welder must maintain short arc length,
avoid contact between electrode and the workpiece and
manually feed the filler metal with one hand while
manipulating the torch with the other hand.
Tungsten material when gets transferred into the molten metal
contaminates the same leading to a hard and brittle joint.
Skilled operator is required.
Process is slower.
Not
N G, Asst. Prof, DSCE,
suitable for thick Hareesha
metals.
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Bengaluru
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Description
The equipment consists of a welding torch in which a bare
consumable electrode in the form of a wire is held and guided by a
guide tube.
The electrode material used in MIG welding is of the same
material or nearly the same chemical composition as that of the
base metal.
Its diameter varies from 0.7 -2.4 mm.
The electrode is fed continuously at a constant rate through feed
rollers driven by an electric motor.
MIG makes use of shielding gas to prevent atmospheric
contamination of the molten weld pool.
Mixture of argon and carbon dioxide in a order of 75% to 25% or
80% to 20% is commonly used.
The shielding gas flow from the cylinder, through the passage in
the electrode holder and then impinges on the workpiece.
AC is rarely used with MIG welding; instead DC is employed and
the electrode is positively charged. This results in faster melting of
the electrode which increases weld penetration and welding
Hareesha N G, Asst. Prof, DSCE,
speed.
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Bengaluru
Operation
The workpieces to be joined are cleaned to remove dust, grease and other oxides
chemically or mechanically to obtain a sound weld. The tip of the electrode is also
cleaned with a wire brush.
The control switch provided in the welding torch is switched ON to initiate the
electric power, shielding gas and the wire (electrode) feed.
An arc is struck by touching the tip of the electrode with the workpiece and
instantaneously the electrode is separated from the workpiece by a small distance
of 1.5-3 mm such that the arc still remains between the electrode and the
workpiece.
The high intensity of the arc melts the workpiece metal forming a small molten
pool.
At the same time, the tip of the electrode also melts and combines with the molten
metal of the workpieces thereby filling the gap between the two workpieces.
The deposited metal upon solidification bonds the joint to form a single piece of
metal.
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Advantages
MIG welding is fast and economical.
The electrode and inert gas are automatically fed, and this
makes the operator easy and to concentrate on the arc.
Weld deposition rate is high due to the continuous wire feed
No flux is used. Hence, no slag formation. This results in clean
welds.
Thin and thick metals can be welded.
Process can be automated.
Disadvantages
Equipment is costlier
Porosity (gas entrapment in weld pool) is the most common
quality problem in this process. However, extensive edge
preparation can eliminate this defect.
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Description
The equipment consists of a welding head carrying a bare consumable
electrode and a flux tube.
The flux tube remains ahead of the electrode, stores the granulated or
powdered flux, and drops the same on the joint to be welded.
The flux shields and protects the molten weld metal from atmospheric
contamination.
The electrode which is bare (uncoated) and in the form of wire is fed
continuously through feed rollers.
It is usually copper plated to prevent rusting and to increase its electrical
conductivity (since it is submerged under flux).
The diameter of the electrode ranges from 1.6-8 mm and the electrode
material depends on the type of the work piece metal being welded.
The process makes use of either AC or DC for supplying the required
current.
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Operation
Edge preparation is carried out to obtain a sound weld.
Flux is deposited at the joint to be welded
Welding current is witched ON.
An arc is struck between the electrode and the workpiece under
the layer of flux.
The flux covers the arc thereby increasing the heat near the
weld zone.
This heat melts the filler metal and the workpiece metal forming
a molten weld pool.
At the same time, a portion of the flux melts and reacts with the
molten weld pool to form a slag.
The slag floats on the surface providing thermal insulation to the
molten metal thereby allowing it to cool slowly.
The welding head is moved along the surface to be welded and
the continuously fed electrode completes the weld.
The un-melted flux is collected by a suction pipe and reused.
The layer of slag on the surface of the weld portion is chipped
out and the weld is finished.
Since the weld pool is covered by flux, solidification of molten
metal is slow. Hence, a backing plate made from copper or steel
is used at the bottom of the joint to support the molten metal
until
solidification is complete.
Hareesha N G, Asst. Prof, DSCE,
08/03/15
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Bengaluru
Advantages
High productivity process, due to high heat concentration.
Weld deposition rate is high due to continuous wire feed. Hence, single pass
welds can be made in thick plates.
Deep weld penetration.
Less smoke, as the flux hides the arc. Hence, improved working conditions.
Can be automated
Process is best suitable for outdoor works and in areas with relatively high
winds.
There is no chance of spatter of molten metal, as the arc is beneath the flux.
Disadvantages
The invisible arc and the weld zone make the operator difficult to judge the
progress of welding.
Use of powdered flux restricts the process to be carried only in flat positions.
Slow cooling rates may lead to hot cracking defects.
Need for extensive flux handling.
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Description
The equipment consists of a welding torch with two tungsten
electrodes inclined and adjusted to maintain a stable arc.
Annular nozzles around the tungsten electrodes carry the
hydrogen gas supplied from the gas cylinders.
AC power source is suitable compared to DC, because equal
amount of heat will be available at both the electrodes.
A transformer with an open circuit voltage of 300 volts is
required to strike and maintain the arc.
Operation
The workpieces are cleaned to remove dirt, oxides and other
impurities to obtain a sound weld. Hydrogen gas supply and
welding current are switched ON.
An arc is struck by bringing the two tungsten electrodes in
contact with each other and, instantaneously separated by a
small distance, say 1.5 mm, such that the arc still remains
between the two electrodes.
As the jet of hydrogen gas passes through the electric arc, it
dissociates into atomic hydrogen by absorbing large amounts
of heat supplied by the electric arc.
(endothermic reaction)
The heat thus absorbed can be released by recombination of
Hareesha N G, Asst. Prof, DSCE,
the
hydrogen atoms into
hydrogen
molecule (H 2 ).
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Advantages
Intense flame is obtained which can be concentrated at the joint.
Hence, less distortion.
Welding is faster.
Workpiece do not form a part of the electric circuit. Hence,
problems like striking the arc and maintaining the arc column are
eliminated.
Separate flux/shielding gas is not required. The hydrogen
envelope itself prevents oxidation of the metal and the tungsten
electrode. It also reduces the risk of nitrogen pick-up.
Disadvantage
Cost of welding by this process is slightly higher than with the
other processes.
Welding is limited to flat positions only.
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GAS WELDING
Definition
Gas welding is a fusion-welding process.
It joins metals, using the heat of combustion of an oxygen/air and fuel
gas (i.e. acetylene, hydrogen, propane or butane) mixture.
The intense heat (flame) thus produced melts and fuses together the
edges of the parts to be welded, generally with the addition of a filler
metal.
Principle of gas welding
When the fuel gas and oxygen are mixed in suitable proportions in a
welding torch and ignited the flame resulting at the tip of the torch is
sufficient enough to melt the edges of the workpiece metals.
A solid continuous joint is formed upon cooling.
The two familiar fuel gases used in gas welding are:
Mixture of oxygen and acetylene gas -called oxy-acetylene welding
process.
Mixture of oxygen and hydrogen gas - called oxy-hydrogen welding
process.
Oxy-acetylene welding is the most versatile and widely used gas welding
process due to its high flame temperature (up to 3500 oC) when
compared to that of oxy hydrogen process (up to 2500 oC)
Note: Oxygen is not a fuel: It is what chemically combines with the fuel
gas to produce the heat for
welding. This is called 'oxidation', but the
Hareesha N G, Asst. Prof, DSCE,
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more general and commonly used
term is 'combustion'.
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FLAME CHARACTERISTICS
Types of flames
a) Neutral Flame
b) Oxidizing Flame
c) Reducing Flame (carburizing flame)
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a) Neutral Flame
A neutral flame is produced when approximately equal volumes
of oxygen and acetylene are mixed in the welding torch and
burnt at the torch tip. (More accurately the oxygen-to-acetylene
ratio is 1.1 to 1).
The temperature of the neutral flame is of the order of about
3260C
The flame has a nicely defined inner cone which is light blue in
color. It is surrounded by an outer flame envelope, produced by
the combination of oxygen in the air and superheated carbon
monoxide and hydrogen gases from the inner cone. This
envelope is usually a much darker blue than the inner cone.
A neutral flame is named so because it affects no chemical
change on the molten metal and, therefore, will not oxidize or
carburize the metal.
The neutral flame is commonly used for the welding of:
Mild steel
Stainless steel
Cast Iron
Copper
Aluminium
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c) Reducing Flame
If the volume of oxygen supplied to the neutral flame is reduced, the
resulting flame will be a carburizing or reducing flame, i.e., rich in
acetylene.
A reducing flame can be recognized by acetylene feather which
exists between the inner cone and the outer envelope.
The outer flame envelope is longer than that of the neutral flame
and is usually much brighter in color.
A reducing flame does not completely consume the available carbon;
therefore, its burning temperature is lower and the leftover carbon is
forced into the molten metal. With iron and steel it produces very
hard, brittle substance known as iron carbide.
This chemical change makes the metal unfit for many applications in
which the weld may need to be bent or stretched.
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d) Carburizing flame
A reducing flame may be distinguished from carburizing flame by the
fact that a carburizing flame contains more acetylene than a
reducing flame.
A carburizing flame is used in the welding of lead and for carburizing
(surface hardening) purposes.
A reducing flame, on the other hand, does not carburize the metal,
rather it ensures the absence of the oxidizing condition. It is used for
welding with low alloy steel rods and for welding those metals, (e.g.
non-ferrous) that do not tend to absorb carbon.
This flame is very well used for welding high carbon steel.
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Welding Techniques
Depending upon the ways in which welding rod and the welding
torch may be used, there are two usual techniques in gas
welding, namely:
Leftward technique or Forehand welding method.
Rightward technique or Back hand welding method.
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Leftward Technique
The welder holds welding torch in his right hand and filler rod
in the left hand.
The welding flame is directed away from the finished weld,
i.e., towards the un-welded part of the joint. Filler rod, when
used, is directed towards the welded part of the joint (Fig.).
The weld is commenced on the right-hand side of the seam,
working towards the left-hand side.
The blowpipe or welding torch is given small sideways
movements, while the filler rod is moved steadily across the
seam.
The filler rod is added using a backward and forward
movement of the rod, allowing the flame to melt the bottom
edges of the plate just ahead of the weld pool.
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Rightward Technique
Here again the welding torch is held in the right hand of the welder
and the filler rod in the left hand.
Welding begins at the left-hand end of the joint and proceeds
towards the right, hence the name rightward technique.
The direction of welding is opposite to that when employing the
leftward technique.
The torch flame in rightward technique is directed towards the
completed weld and the filler rod remains between the flame and
the completed weld section (Fig.).
Since the flame is constantly directed on the edges of the V ahead
of the weld puddle (Molten metal pool) , no sidewise motion of the
welding torch is necessary. As a result, a narrower V-groove (30
bevel or 60 included angle) can be utilized than in leftward
welding. This provides a greater control and reduced welding costs.
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