08/03/15

Hareesha N G, Asst. Prof, DSCE,

Bengaluru

 Introduction:
Definition
Principles
Classification
Application
Advantages & limitations of welding.

Arc Welding:

Principle
Metal Arc welding (MAW)
Flux Shielded Metal Arc Welding (FSMAW)
Inert Gas Welding (TIG & MIG)
Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
Atomic Hydrogen Welding processes. (AHW)

Gas Welding:
Principle
Oxy Acetylene welding
Reaction in Gas welding
Flame characteristics
Gas torch construction & working
N G, Asst. Prof, DSCE,
08/03/15
Forward and backwardHareesha
welding.
Bengaluru

INTRODUCTION
Welding is a process for joining different materials.
The large bulk of materials that are welded are metals and their
alloys, although the term welding is also applied to the joining of
other materials such as thermo plastics.
Welding joins different metals/alloys with the help of a number of
processes in which heat is supplied either electrically or by
means of a gas torch.
In order to join two or more pieces of metals together by one of
the welding processes, the most essential requirement is Heat.
Pressure may also be employed.
Since a slight gap usually exists between the edges of the work
pieces, a 'filler metal is used to supply additional material to fill
the gap. But, welding can also be carried out without the use of
filler metal.
The filler metal is melted in the gap, combines with the molten
metal of the work piece and upon solidification forms an integral
part of the weld.
08/03/15

Hareesha N G, Asst. Prof, DSCE,

Bengaluru

 Welding terminology

08/03/15

Hareesha N G, Asst. Prof, DSCE,

Bengaluru

PRINCIPLE OF WELDING
An ideal joint between two pieces of metal or plastic can be made
by heating the workpieces to a suitable temperature. In other
words, on heating, the materials soften sufficiently so that the
surfaces fuse together.
The bonding force holds the atoms, ions or molecules together in
a solid. This 'bonding on contact' is achieved only when:
the contaminated surface layers on the workpiece are removed,
recontamination is avoided, and
the two surfaces are made smooth, flat and fit each other
exactly.
In highly deformable materials, the above aims can be achieved
by rapidly forcing the two surfaces of the workpiece to come
closer together so that plastic deformation makes their shape
conform to each another; at the same time, the surface layers are
broken up, allowing the intimate contact needed to fuse the
materials.
This was the principle of the first way known to weld metals; by
hammering the pieces together while they are in hot condition.
08/03/15

Hareesha N G, Asst. Prof, DSCE,

Bengaluru

08/03/15

Hareesha N G, Asst. Prof, DSCE,

Bengaluru

CLASSIFICATION OF WELDING PROCESSES

There are about 35 different welding and brazing processes and
several soldering methods in use by industry today.
There are various ways of classifying the welding and allied
processes. For example, they may be classified on the basis of:
Source of heat, i.e., flame, arc, etc
Type of interaction i.e. liquid/liquid (fusion welding) or solid/solid
(solid state welding).
In general, various welding and allied processes are classified as
follows:

1. Gas Welding
Air Acetylene Welding
Oxyacetylene Welding
Oxy hydrogen Welding
Pressure gas Welding
08/03/15

Hareesha N G, Asst. Prof, DSCE,

Bengaluru

2. Arc Welding
Carbon Arc Welding
Shielded Metal Arc
Welding
Flux Cored Arc Welding
Submerged Arc Welding
TIG (or GTAW) Welding
MIG (or GMAW) Welding
Plasma Arc Welding
Electro slag Welding
Electro gas Welding
Stud Arc Welding.
3. Resistance Welding
Spot Welding
Seam Welding
Projection Welding
Resistance Butt Welding
Flash Butt Welding
Percussion Welding
High Frequency
Resistance Welding.
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4. Solid State Welding

Cold Welding
Diffusion Welding
Explosive Welding
Forge Welding
Friction Welding
Hot Pressure Welding
Roll Welding
Ultrasonic Welding.
5. Thermo-Chemical Welding
Processes
Thermit Welding
Atomic Hydrogen Welding.
6. Radiant Energy Welding
Processes
Electron Beam Welding
Laser Beam Welding.

Hareesha N G, Asst. Prof, DSCE,

Bengaluru

ADVANTAGES OF WELDING
A good weld is as strong as the base metal.
General welding equipment is not very costly.
Portable welding equipments are available.
Welding permits considerable freedom in design.
A large number of metals/alloys both similar and dissimilar can be
joined by welding.
Welding can join workpieces through spots, as continuous pressure
tight seams, end-to-end and in a number of other configurations.
Welding can be mechanized.
DISADVANTAGES 0F WELDING
Welding gives out harmful radiations (light), fumes and spatter.
Welding results in residual stresses and distortion of the work-pieces.
Edge preparation of the workpieces is generally required before
welding them.
A skilled welder is a must to produce a good welding job.
Welding heat produces metallurgical changes. The structure of the
welded joint is not same as that of the parent metal.
A welded joint, for manyHareesha
reasons,
needs
stress-relief heat-treatment.
N G, Asst.
Prof, DSCE,
08/03/15

Bengaluru

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF WELDING

Welding has been employed in Industry as a tool for:
Regular fabrication of automobile cars, air-crafts,
refrigerators, etc.
Repair and maintenance work, e.g., joining broken parts,
rebuilding worn out components, etc.
A few important applications of welding are listed below:
1. Aircraft Construction
Welded engine mounts.
Turbine frame for jet engine.
Rocket motor fuel and oxidizer tanks.
Ducts, fittings, cowling components, etc.
2. Automobile Construction
Arc welded car wheels
Steel rear axle housing.
Frame side rails.
Automobile frame, brackets, etc.
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Hareesha N G, Asst. Prof, DSCE,

Bengaluru

10

3. Bridges
Section lengths.
Shop and field assembly of lengths, etc.
4. Buildings
Column base plates
Trusses
formation of structure, etc.
5. Pressure Vessels and Tanks
Clad and lined steel plates
Shell construction
Joining of nozzles to the shell, etc.
6. Storage Tanks
Oil, gas and water storage tanks.
7. Rail Road Equipment Locomotive
Under frame
Air receiver
Engine
Hareesha N G, Asst. Prof, DSCE,
Front
08/03/15 and rear hoods, etc.
Bengaluru

11

8. Pipings and Pipelines

Rolled plate piping
Open pipe joints,
Oil gas and gasoline pipe lines, etc.
9. Ships
Shell frames.
Deck beams and bulkhead stiffeners.
Girders to shells
Bulkhead webs to plating, etc.
10. Trucks and trailers.
11. Machine tool frames, cutting tools and dies.
12. Household and office furniture.
13. Earth moving machinery and cranes.
In addition, arc welding finds following applications in repair and
maintenance work:
14. Repair of broken and damaged components and machinery such
as tools, punches, dies, gears, shears, press and machine tools
frames.
15. Hard-facing and rebuilding of worn out or undersized (costly)
parts rejected during inspection.
16. Fabrication of jigs, fixtures, clamps and other work holding
Hareesha N G, Asst. Prof, DSCE,
devices
.
08/03/15
12
Bengaluru

ARC WELDING PROCESS

Arc welding process is fusion method of welding that utilizes the
high intensity of the arc generated by the flow of current to melt
the workpieces.
A solid continuous joint is formed upon cooling.

08/03/15

Hareesha N G, Asst. Prof, DSCE,

Bengaluru

13

PRINCIPLE
The source of heat for arc welding process is an 'electric arc'
generated between two electrically conducting materials.
One of the workpiece material called 'electrode' is connected to one
pole of the electric circuit, while the other workpiece which forms
the second conducting material is connected to the other pole of
the circuit.
When the tip of the electrode material is brought in contact with the
workpiece material and momentarily separated by small distance of
2-4 mm, an arc can be generated.
The electrical energy is thus converted to heat energy.
The high heat of the arc melts the edges of the workpieces.
Coalescence takes place where the molten metal of the one
workpiece combines with the molten metal of the other workpiece.
When the coalesced liquid solidifies, the two workpieces join
together to form a single component.
The electrode material can be either a non-consumable material or
a Consumable material.
The non-consumable electrode made of tungsten, graphite etc.,
serve only to strike the arc and is not consumed during the welding
process.
Whereas, the consumable electrode which is made of the same
material as that of the workpiece metal helps to strike the arc and
at the same time melt (gets consumed) and combines with the
Hareesha N G,
Prof, DSCE,
molten metal of the workpiece
toAsst.
form
a weld.
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14
Bengaluru

1. METALLIC ARC WELDING (MAW)

In metallic arc welding an arc is established between work
and the filler metal electrode.
The intense heat of the arc forms a molten pool in the metal
being welded, and at the same time melts the tip of the
electrode.
As the arc is maintained, molten filler metal from the
electrode tip is transferred across the arc, where it fuses with
the molten base metal.
Arc may be formed with direct or alternating current.
Petrol or diesel driven generators are widely used for welding
in open, where a normal electricity supply may not be
available.

08/03/15

Hareesha N G, Asst. Prof, DSCE,

Bengaluru

15

METALLIC ARC WELDING (MAW) ( continued.)

A simple transformer however widely employed for A.C. arc
welding.
The transformer sets are cheaper and simple having no
maintenance cost as there are no moving parts.
With AC system, the covered or coated electrodes are used,
whereas with D.C. system for cast iron and non-ferrous
metals, bare electrodes can be used.
In order to strike the arc an open circuit voltage of between 60
to 70 volts is required.
For maintaining the short arc 17 to 25 volts are necessary.
The current required for welding, however, varies from 10
amp. to 500 amp. depending upon the class of work to be
welded.

08/03/15

Hareesha N G, Asst. Prof, DSCE,

Bengaluru

16

2. CARBON ARC WELDING

Here the work is connected to negative and the carbon rod or
electrode connected to the positive of the electric circuit.
Arc is formed in the gap, filling metal is supplied by fusing a rod
or wire into the arc by allowing the current to jump over it and it
produces a porous and brittle weld because of inclusion of carbon
particles in the molten metal.
The voltage required for striking an arc with carbon electrodes is
about 30 volts (A.C.) and 40 volts (D.C).
A disadvantage of carbon arc welding is that approximately twice
the current is required to raise the work to welding temperature
as compared with a metal electrode, while a carbon electrode can
only be used economically on D.C. supply.

08/03/15

Hareesha N G, Asst. Prof, DSCE,

Bengaluru

17

3. FLUX SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING (MMAW OR

SMAW)
a. Definition:
It is an arc welding process wherein coalescence is produced by
heating the workpiece with an electric arc set up between a flux
coated electrode and the workpiece.
The flux covering decomposes due to arc heat and performs
many functions, like arc stability, weld metal protection, etc.,
The electrode itself melts and supplies the necessary filler
metal.

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Hareesha N G, Asst. Prof, DSCE,

Bengaluru

18

b. Principle of the process:

Heat required for welding is obtained from the arc struck between a
coated electrode and the workpiece.
The arc temperature and thus the arc heat can be increased or
decreased by employing higher or lower arc currents.
A high current arc with a smaller arc length produces very intense
heat.
The arc melts the electrode end and the job.
Material droplets are transferred from the electrode to the job,
through the arc, and are deposited along the joint to be welded.
The flux coating melts, produces a gaseous shield and slag to prevent
atmospheric contamination of the molten weld metal.
c. Striking the arc:
In manual metal arc welding (MMAW), arc between the electrode and
the workpiece is generally struck either by momentarily touching the
electrode with the workpiece and taking it (electrode) a
predetermined distance away from the workpiece by the wrist motion
or by scratching the electrode on the job in the arc of a circle.
d. Electrode holder:
It can hold the electrode at various angles and energizes it at the
same time.
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Hareesha N G, Asst. Prof, DSCE,

Bengaluru

19

e. Welding the joint

Once the arc has been established and the arc length adjusted, the
electrode is inclined to an, angle of approximately 20 degrees with
the vertical.
To achieve comparatively deeper penetration, electrode angle with
the vertical is further reduced.
The electrode is progressed along the joint at a constant speed, it is
lowered, at the same time, at a rate at which it is melting.
f. Welding Equipment:
AC or DC welding supply, electrode holder and welding cables.
Welding electrodes.
AC transformers and DC generators or rectifiers can be employed for
welding with covered electrodes.
Both AC and DC power sources produce good quality welds, but
depending upon welding situation one may be preferred over the
other.
The most commonly used power source for AC welding is a
transformer.
A transformer may be operated from the mains on single phase, two
phases or three phases.
A typical specification for the transformer is as follows:
Current range up to Hareesha N G, Asst. Prof,600
Amps.
DSCE,
08/03/15
20
Bengaluru
Open circuit voltage
70 to 100 volts.

Advantages of Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

SMAW is the simplest of all the arc welding processes.
The equipment can be portable and the cost is fairly low.
This process finds innumerable applications, because of the
availability of a wide variety of electrodes.
A big range of metals and their alloys can be welded.
Welding can be carried out in any position with highest weld quality.
Limitations
Because of the limited length of each electrode and brittle flux
coating on it, mechanization is difficult.
In welding long joints (e.g., in pressure vessels), as one electrode
finishes, the weld is to be progressed with the next electrode.
Unless properly cared, a defect (like slag inclusion or insufficient
penetration) may occur at the place where welding is restarted with
new electrode.
The process uses stick electrodes and thus it is slower as compared
to MIG welding.
Because of flux coated electrodes, the chances of slag entrapment
and other related-defects are more as compared to MIG or TIG
Hareesha N G, Asst. Prof, DSCE,
welding.
08/03/15
21
Bengaluru

Applications
Today, almost all the commonly employed metals and their alloys
can be welded by this process.
Shielded metal arc welding is used both as a fabrication process
and for maintenance and repair jobs.
The process finds applications in
Air receiver, tank, boiler and pressure vessel fabrications;
Shipbuilding;
Pipes and Penstock joining;
Building and Bridge construction;
Automotive and Aircraft industry, etc.

08/03/15

Hareesha N G, Asst. Prof, DSCE,

Bengaluru

22

A.C. Welding
D.C. Welding
1. At higher currents AC gives a
1.DC arc is more stable.
smoother arc.
2.DC is preferred for
2. Once established the arc can be easily
welding certain non-ferrous
maintained and controlled.
metals and alloys.
3. It is suitable for welding thicker sections. 3.It has lower open circuit
4. AC is easily available.
voltage and therefore is
5. AC welding power source has no rotating safer.
parts.
4.ARC heat can be
6. It does not produce noise.
regulated (i.e., through
7. It occupies less space
DCRP and DCSP)
8. It is less costly to purchase and maintain. 5.A DC welding
equipment is a self
9. It possesses high efficiency (0.8).
10.It consumes less energy per unit weight of contained unit. It can be
deposited metal.
operated in fields where
power supply is not
11.Melting rate of electrode cannot be
controlled in AC as equal heat
available
generates at electrode and job.
6.DC welding power
12.An AC welding power source is
source is a transformerTransformer
rectifier unit or a DC
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generator (motor or engine

23
driven)

Hareesha N G, Asst. Prof, DSCE,

Bengaluru

TUNGSTEN INERT GAS WELDING (TIG)

Tungsten inert gas welding or gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) is
a group of welding process in which the workpieces are joined by
the heat obtained from an electric arc struck between a nonconsumable tungsten electrode and the workpiece in the
presence of an inert gas atmosphere.
A filler metal may be added if required, during the welding
process.
Figure shows the TIG process.

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Hareesha N G, Asst. Prof, DSCE,

Bengaluru

24

Description
TIG equipment consists of a welding torch in which a nonconsumable tungsten alloy electrode is held rigidly in the
collet.
The diameter of the electrode varies from 0.5 - 6.4 mm.
TIG welding makes use of a shielding gas like argon or
helium to protect the welding area from atmospheric gases
such as oxygen and nitrogen, otherwise which may cause
fusion defects and porosity in the weld metal.
The shielding gas flow from the cylinder, through the
passage in the electrode holder and then impinges on the
workpiece.
Pressure regulator and flow meters are used to regulate the
pressure and flow of gas from the cylinder.
Either AC or DC can be used to supply the required current.

08/03/15

Hareesha N G, Asst. Prof, DSCE,

Bengaluru

25

Operation
The workpieces to be joined are cleaned to remove dirt,
grease and other oxides chemically or mechanically to
obtain a sound weld.
The welding current and inert gas supply are turned ON.
An arc is struck by touching the tip of the tungsten
electrode with the workpiece and instantaneously the
electrode is separated from the workpiece by a small
distance of 1.5 - 3 mm such that the arc still remains
between the electrode and the workpiece.
The high intensity of the arc melts the workpiece metal
forming a small molten metal pool.
Filler metal in the form of a rod is added manually to the
front end of the weld pool.
The deposited filler metal fills and bonds the joint to form a
single piece of metal
The shielding gas is allowed to impinge on the solidifying
weld pool for a few seconds even after the arc is
extinguished (shut off)
This will avoid atmospheric contamination of the solidifying
metal thereby increasing the strength of the joint.
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Hareesha N G, Asst. Prof, DSCE,

Bengaluru

26

Advantages
Suitable for thin metals.
Clear visibility of the arc provides the operator to have a
greater control over the weld.
Strong and high quality joints are obtained.
No flux is used. Hence, no slag formation. This results in clean
weld joints.
Disadvantages
TIG is the most difficult process compared to all the other
welding processes. The welder must maintain short arc length,
avoid contact between electrode and the workpiece and
manually feed the filler metal with one hand while
manipulating the torch with the other hand.
Tungsten material when gets transferred into the molten metal
contaminates the same leading to a hard and brittle joint.
Skilled operator is required.
Process is slower.
Not
N G, Asst. Prof, DSCE,
suitable for thick Hareesha
metals.
08/03/15
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Bengaluru

METAL INERT GAS (MIG) WELDING

Metal inert gas welding or gas metal arc welding (GMAW) is a
group of arc welding process in which the workpieces are joined
by the heat obtained from an electric arc struck between a bare
(uncoated) consumable electrode and the workpiece in the
presence of an inert gas atmosphere.
The consumable electrode acts as a filler metal to fill the gap
between the two workpieces.
Figure shows the MIG welding process.

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Hareesha N G, Asst. Prof, DSCE,

Bengaluru

28

Description
The equipment consists of a welding torch in which a bare
consumable electrode in the form of a wire is held and guided by a
guide tube.
The electrode material used in MIG welding is of the same
material or nearly the same chemical composition as that of the
base metal.
Its diameter varies from 0.7 -2.4 mm.
The electrode is fed continuously at a constant rate through feed
rollers driven by an electric motor.
MIG makes use of shielding gas to prevent atmospheric
contamination of the molten weld pool.
Mixture of argon and carbon dioxide in a order of 75% to 25% or
80% to 20% is commonly used.
The shielding gas flow from the cylinder, through the passage in
the electrode holder and then impinges on the workpiece.
AC is rarely used with MIG welding; instead DC is employed and
the electrode is positively charged. This results in faster melting of
the electrode which increases weld penetration and welding
Hareesha N G, Asst. Prof, DSCE,
speed.
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Bengaluru

Operation
The workpieces to be joined are cleaned to remove dust, grease and other oxides
chemically or mechanically to obtain a sound weld. The tip of the electrode is also
cleaned with a wire brush.
The control switch provided in the welding torch is switched ON to initiate the
electric power, shielding gas and the wire (electrode) feed.
An arc is struck by touching the tip of the electrode with the workpiece and
instantaneously the electrode is separated from the workpiece by a small distance
of 1.5-3 mm such that the arc still remains between the electrode and the
workpiece.
The high intensity of the arc melts the workpiece metal forming a small molten
pool.
At the same time, the tip of the electrode also melts and combines with the molten
metal of the workpieces thereby filling the gap between the two workpieces.
The deposited metal upon solidification bonds the joint to form a single piece of
metal.

08/03/15

Hareesha N G, Asst. Prof, DSCE,

Bengaluru

30

Advantages
MIG welding is fast and economical.
The electrode and inert gas are automatically fed, and this
makes the operator easy and to concentrate on the arc.
Weld deposition rate is high due to the continuous wire feed
No flux is used. Hence, no slag formation. This results in clean
welds.
Thin and thick metals can be welded.
Process can be automated.
Disadvantages
Equipment is costlier
Porosity (gas entrapment in weld pool) is the most common
quality problem in this process. However, extensive edge
preparation can eliminate this defect.

08/03/15

Hareesha N G, Asst. Prof, DSCE,

Bengaluru

31

SUBMERGED ARC WELDING (SAW)

Submerged arc welding is a group of arc welding process in
which the workpieces are joined by the heat obtained from an
electric arc struck between a bare consumable electrode and
workpiece.
The arc is struck beneath a covering layer of granulated flux.
Thus, the arc zone and the molten weld pool are protected from
atmospheric contamination by being 'submerged under a blanket
of granular flux.
This gives the name 'submerged arc welding' to the process.
Figure shows the submerged arc welding process.

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Hareesha N G, Asst. Prof, DSCE,

Bengaluru

32

Submerged Arc Welding(SAW)

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Hareesha N G, Asst. Prof, DSCE,

Bengaluru

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Description
The equipment consists of a welding head carrying a bare consumable
electrode and a flux tube.
The flux tube remains ahead of the electrode, stores the granulated or
powdered flux, and drops the same on the joint to be welded.
The flux shields and protects the molten weld metal from atmospheric
contamination.
The electrode which is bare (uncoated) and in the form of wire is fed
continuously through feed rollers.
It is usually copper plated to prevent rusting and to increase its electrical
conductivity (since it is submerged under flux).
The diameter of the electrode ranges from 1.6-8 mm and the electrode
material depends on the type of the work piece metal being welded.
The process makes use of either AC or DC for supplying the required
current.

08/03/15

Hareesha N G, Asst. Prof, DSCE,

Bengaluru

34

Operation
Edge preparation is carried out to obtain a sound weld.
Flux is deposited at the joint to be welded
Welding current is witched ON.
An arc is struck between the electrode and the workpiece under
the layer of flux.
The flux covers the arc thereby increasing the heat near the
weld zone.
This heat melts the filler metal and the workpiece metal forming
a molten weld pool.
At the same time, a portion of the flux melts and reacts with the
molten weld pool to form a slag.
The slag floats on the surface providing thermal insulation to the
molten metal thereby allowing it to cool slowly.
The welding head is moved along the surface to be welded and
the continuously fed electrode completes the weld.
The un-melted flux is collected by a suction pipe and reused.
The layer of slag on the surface of the weld portion is chipped
out and the weld is finished.
Since the weld pool is covered by flux, solidification of molten
metal is slow. Hence, a backing plate made from copper or steel
is used at the bottom of the joint to support the molten metal
until
solidification is complete.
Hareesha N G, Asst. Prof, DSCE,
08/03/15
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Bengaluru

Advantages
High productivity process, due to high heat concentration.
Weld deposition rate is high due to continuous wire feed. Hence, single pass
welds can be made in thick plates.
Deep weld penetration.
Less smoke, as the flux hides the arc. Hence, improved working conditions.
Can be automated
Process is best suitable for outdoor works and in areas with relatively high
winds.
There is no chance of spatter of molten metal, as the arc is beneath the flux.
Disadvantages
The invisible arc and the weld zone make the operator difficult to judge the
progress of welding.
Use of powdered flux restricts the process to be carried only in flat positions.
Slow cooling rates may lead to hot cracking defects.
Need for extensive flux handling.

08/03/15

Hareesha N G, Asst. Prof, DSCE,

Bengaluru

36

ATOMIC HYDROGEN WELDING (AHW)

Atomic hydrogen welding is a thermo-chemical welding process
in which the workpieces are joined by the heat obtained on
passing a stream of hydrogen through an electric arc struck
between two tungsten electrodes.
The arc supplies the energy for a chemical reaction to take place.
Filler rod may or may not be used during the process.
Figure shows the arrangement for atomic welding process.

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Hareesha N G, Asst. Prof, DSCE,

Bengaluru

37

Description
The equipment consists of a welding torch with two tungsten
electrodes inclined and adjusted to maintain a stable arc.
Annular nozzles around the tungsten electrodes carry the
hydrogen gas supplied from the gas cylinders.
AC power source is suitable compared to DC, because equal
amount of heat will be available at both the electrodes.
A transformer with an open circuit voltage of 300 volts is
required to strike and maintain the arc.
Operation
The workpieces are cleaned to remove dirt, oxides and other
impurities to obtain a sound weld. Hydrogen gas supply and
welding current are switched ON.
An arc is struck by bringing the two tungsten electrodes in
contact with each other and, instantaneously separated by a
small distance, say 1.5 mm, such that the arc still remains
between the two electrodes.
As the jet of hydrogen gas passes through the electric arc, it
dissociates into atomic hydrogen by absorbing large amounts
of heat supplied by the electric arc.
(endothermic reaction)
The heat thus absorbed can be released by recombination of
Hareesha N G, Asst. Prof, DSCE,
the
hydrogen atoms into
hydrogen
molecule (H 2 ).
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Bengaluru

 Recombination takes place as the atomic hydrogen touches

the cold workpiece liberating a large amount of heat.
H + H H2 + 422kJ (exothermic reaction)
Note: The hydrogen can be thought of as simply a
transport mechanism to extract energy from the arc, and
transfer it to the work.
A arc is produced due to the heat liberated during the
chemical reaction. A feature of the arc is the speed by
which it can deliver heat to the workpiece surface.
The welding torch is moved along the surface to be welded
with the arc tip touching the surface.
The heat of the arc melts and fuses the workpiece and the
filler metal to form a joint.
The operator can control the heat by varying the distance
of the arc stream between the two electrodes and the
distance between the workpiece.
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Hareesha N G, Asst. Prof, DSCE,

Bengaluru

39

Advantages
Intense flame is obtained which can be concentrated at the joint.
Hence, less distortion.
Welding is faster.
Workpiece do not form a part of the electric circuit. Hence,
problems like striking the arc and maintaining the arc column are
eliminated.
Separate flux/shielding gas is not required. The hydrogen
envelope itself prevents oxidation of the metal and the tungsten
electrode. It also reduces the risk of nitrogen pick-up.
Disadvantage
Cost of welding by this process is slightly higher than with the
other processes.
Welding is limited to flat positions only.

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Bengaluru

40

GAS WELDING
Definition
Gas welding is a fusion-welding process.
It joins metals, using the heat of combustion of an oxygen/air and fuel
gas (i.e. acetylene, hydrogen, propane or butane) mixture.
The intense heat (flame) thus produced melts and fuses together the
edges of the parts to be welded, generally with the addition of a filler
metal.
Principle of gas welding
When the fuel gas and oxygen are mixed in suitable proportions in a
welding torch and ignited the flame resulting at the tip of the torch is
sufficient enough to melt the edges of the workpiece metals.
A solid continuous joint is formed upon cooling.
The two familiar fuel gases used in gas welding are:
Mixture of oxygen and acetylene gas -called oxy-acetylene welding
process.
Mixture of oxygen and hydrogen gas - called oxy-hydrogen welding
process.
Oxy-acetylene welding is the most versatile and widely used gas welding
process due to its high flame temperature (up to 3500 oC) when
compared to that of oxy hydrogen process (up to 2500 oC)
Note: Oxygen is not a fuel: It is what chemically combines with the fuel
gas to produce the heat for
welding. This is called 'oxidation', but the
Hareesha N G, Asst. Prof, DSCE,
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41
more general and commonly used
term is 'combustion'.
Bengaluru

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Hareesha N G, Asst. Prof, DSCE,

Bengaluru

42

OXY ACETYLENE WELDING

Principle of Operation
When acetylene is mixed with oxygen in correct proportions in
the welding torch and ignited, the flame resulting at the tip of the
torch is sufficiently hot to melt and join the parent metal.
The oxy-acetylene flame reaches a temperature of about 3200C
and thus can melt all commercial metals which, during welding,
actually flow together to form a complete bond.
A filler metal rod is generally added to the molten metal pool to
build up the seam slightly for greater strength.

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Bengaluru

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Description and Operation

The equipment consists of two large cylinders: one containing oxygen
at high pressure and the other containing acetylene gas.
Two pressure regulators fitted on the respective cylinders regulates or
controls the pressure of the gas flowing from the cylinders to the
welding torch as per the requirements.
The welding torch is used to mix both oxygen and acetylene gas in
proper proportions and burn the mixture at its tip.
A match stick or a spark lighter may be used to ignite the mixture at
the torch tip.
The resulting flame at the tip has a temperature ranging from 3200C 3500C and this heat is sufficient enough to melt the workpiece metal.
Since a slight gap usually exists between the two workpieces, a filler
metal is used to supply the additional material to fill the gap.
The filler metal must be of the same material or nearly the same
chemical composition as that of the workpiece material.
The molten metal of the filler metal combines with the molten metal of
the workpiece and upon solidification form a single piece of metal.
Flux, if required, may be used during the process. It can be directly
applied to the surface of the workpiece or, the heated end of the filler
metal
may be dipped in a
flux material
and
used.
Hareesha
N G, Asst. Prof,
DSCE,
08/03/15
44
Bengaluru

Advantages of Gas Welding

It is probably the most versatile process. It can be applied to a
wide variety of manufacturing and maintenance situations.
Welder has considerable control over the temperature of the
metal in the weld zone.
The rate of heating and cooling is relatively slow. In some cases,
this is an advantage.
Since the sources of heat and of filler metal are separate, the
welder has control over filler-metal deposition rates.
The equipment is versatile, low cost, and usually portable.
The cost and maintenance of the gas welding equipment is low
when compared to that of some other welding processes.
Advantages of Gas Welding
Heavy sections cannot be joined economically.
Flame temperature is less than the temperature of the arc.
Fluxes used in certain welding and brazing operations produce
fumes that are irritating to the eyes, nose, throat and lungs.
Gas flame takes a long time to heat up the metal than an arc.
More safety problems are associated with the handling and
storing of gases.
Acetylene and oxygen gases are rather expensive.
Flux shielding in gas welding is not so effective as an inert gas
N G, Asst. Prof, DSCE,
shielding
in TIG or MIGHareesha
welding.
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45
Bengaluru

REACTIONS IN GAS WELDING

When suitable proportions of oxygen and acetylene are mixed and
ignited at the torch tip, a flame with a temperature of about 3200C
is produced.
For complete combustion to take place, two volumes of acetylene is
combined with five volumes of oxygen. The reaction is given below:
2C2H2+502->4C02 + 2H20
Complete combustion takes place in two stages.
1) First stage combustion
At the beginning of the process, when the gas torch is ignited,
equal volumes of oxygen and acetylene are issued from the torch
to burn in the atmosphere.
The reaction occurs due to which the inner cone is visible at the
torch tip.
For example, consider one volume of each oxygen and acetylene.
C2H2 + 02 -> 2CO + H2 + heat
(1/3 of total heat generation)
This is an exothermic reaction that produces CO and H 2 as products
of the first stage of combustion.
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Bengaluru

46

2) Second stage combustion

The second stage combustion involves the combustion of CO and
H2 which are the products of combustion of first stage.
Both these products are capable of supporting combustion and
hence, utilize 02 from the surrounding atmosphere for combustion.
The reactions are as follows:
2CO + 02 -> 2C02
and
H2 + 0.5O2->H2O

2/3 of total heat generation

Carbon monoxide burns and forms carbon dioxide, while hydrogen
combines with oxygen to form water.
The combustion is therefore complete and carbon dioxide and
water (turned to steam) are the chief products of combustion.

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Bengaluru

47

FLAME CHARACTERISTICS
Types of flames
a) Neutral Flame
b) Oxidizing Flame
c) Reducing Flame (carburizing flame)

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Bengaluru

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a) Neutral Flame
A neutral flame is produced when approximately equal volumes
of oxygen and acetylene are mixed in the welding torch and
burnt at the torch tip. (More accurately the oxygen-to-acetylene
ratio is 1.1 to 1).
The temperature of the neutral flame is of the order of about
3260C
The flame has a nicely defined inner cone which is light blue in
color. It is surrounded by an outer flame envelope, produced by
the combination of oxygen in the air and superheated carbon
monoxide and hydrogen gases from the inner cone. This
envelope is usually a much darker blue than the inner cone.
A neutral flame is named so because it affects no chemical
change on the molten metal and, therefore, will not oxidize or
carburize the metal.
The neutral flame is commonly used for the welding of:
Mild steel
Stainless steel
Cast Iron
Copper
Aluminium
Hareesha N G, Asst. Prof, DSCE,
08/03/15

Bengaluru

49

b) Oxidizing Flame (O2 : C2H2 = 1.5 : 1)

If, after the neutral flame has been established, the supply of
oxygen is further increased, the result will be an oxidizing flame.
An oxidizing flame can be recognized by the small cone which is
shorter, much bluer in color and more pointed than that of the
neutral flame.
The outer flame envelope is much shorter and tends to fan out
(disperse) at the end.
An oxidizing flame tends to be hotter than the neutral flame. This
is because of excess oxygen and which causes the temperature to
rise as high.
The excess oxygen, tends to combine with many metals to form
hard, brittle, low strength oxides.
Moreover, an excess of oxygen causes the weld bead and the
surrounding area to have a scummy or dirty appearance.
For these reasons, an oxidizing flame is of limited use in welding.
It is not used in the welding of steel.
A slightly oxidizing flame is helpful when welding most
Copper-base metals
Zinc-base metals Hareesha N G, Asst. Prof, DSCE,
08/03/15
50
Bengaluru

c) Reducing Flame
If the volume of oxygen supplied to the neutral flame is reduced, the
resulting flame will be a carburizing or reducing flame, i.e., rich in
acetylene.
A reducing flame can be recognized by acetylene feather which
exists between the inner cone and the outer envelope.
The outer flame envelope is longer than that of the neutral flame
and is usually much brighter in color.
A reducing flame does not completely consume the available carbon;
therefore, its burning temperature is lower and the leftover carbon is
forced into the molten metal. With iron and steel it produces very
hard, brittle substance known as iron carbide.
This chemical change makes the metal unfit for many applications in
which the weld may need to be bent or stretched.

Metals that tend to absorb carbon should

not be welded with reducing flame.
A reducing flame has an approximate
temperature of 3038C.

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Bengaluru

51

d) Carburizing flame
A reducing flame may be distinguished from carburizing flame by the
fact that a carburizing flame contains more acetylene than a
reducing flame.
A carburizing flame is used in the welding of lead and for carburizing
(surface hardening) purposes.
A reducing flame, on the other hand, does not carburize the metal,
rather it ensures the absence of the oxidizing condition. It is used for
welding with low alloy steel rods and for welding those metals, (e.g.
non-ferrous) that do not tend to absorb carbon.
This flame is very well used for welding high carbon steel.

To conclude, for most welding operations,

the Neutral Flame is correct, but the other
types of flames are sometimes needed for
special welds, e.g., non-ferrous alloys and
high carbon steels may require a reducing
flame, whilst zinc-bearing alloys may need
an oxidizing flame for welding purposes.
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Bengaluru

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Welding Techniques
Depending upon the ways in which welding rod and the welding
torch may be used, there are two usual techniques in gas
welding, namely:
Leftward technique or Forehand welding method.
Rightward technique or Back hand welding method.

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Hareesha N G, Asst. Prof, DSCE,

Bengaluru

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Leftward Technique
The welder holds welding torch in his right hand and filler rod
in the left hand.
The welding flame is directed away from the finished weld,
i.e., towards the un-welded part of the joint. Filler rod, when
used, is directed towards the welded part of the joint (Fig.).
The weld is commenced on the right-hand side of the seam,
working towards the left-hand side.
The blowpipe or welding torch is given small sideways
movements, while the filler rod is moved steadily across the
seam.
The filler rod is added using a backward and forward
movement of the rod, allowing the flame to melt the bottom
edges of the plate just ahead of the weld pool.

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Hareesha N G, Asst. Prof, DSCE,

Bengaluru

54

Leftward Technique (Continued..)

Since the flame is pointed in the direction of the Welding, it
preheats the edges of the joint.
Good control and a neat appearance are characteristics of the
leftward method. Leftward technique is usually used on relatively
thin metals, i.e., having thicknesses less than 5 mm.
When workpiece thickness is over 3 mm, it is necessary to bevel
the plate edges to produce a V-joint so that good root fusion may
be achieved.
The included angle of V-joint is 80-90.
When welding materials over 6.5 mm thick, it is difficult to obtain
even penetration at the bottom of the V and, therefore, the
quality of the weld decreases as plate thickness increases.
The leftward technique requires careful manipulation to guard
against excessive melting of the base metal, which results in
considerable mixing of base metal and filler metal.

08/03/15

Hareesha N G, Asst. Prof, DSCE,

Bengaluru

55

Rightward Technique
Here again the welding torch is held in the right hand of the welder
and the filler rod in the left hand.
Welding begins at the left-hand end of the joint and proceeds
towards the right, hence the name rightward technique.
The direction of welding is opposite to that when employing the
leftward technique.
The torch flame in rightward technique is directed towards the
completed weld and the filler rod remains between the flame and
the completed weld section (Fig.).
Since the flame is constantly directed on the edges of the V ahead
of the weld puddle (Molten metal pool) , no sidewise motion of the
welding torch is necessary. As a result, a narrower V-groove (30
bevel or 60 included angle) can be utilized than in leftward
welding. This provides a greater control and reduced welding costs.

During welding, the filler rod may be moved

in circles (within the puddle) or semicircles
(back and forth around the puddle).
The rightward technique is one used on
heavier or thicker (above 5 mm) base
metals, because in this technique the heat
is concentrated into the metal. Welds with
Hareesha N G,12
Asst.mm
Prof, DSCE,
penetrations
of approximately
can
08/03/15
Bengaluru
be achieved in a single pass.

56

 Rightward technique has got certain advantages over the

leftward one, as listed below:
Up to 8.2 mm plate thickness, no bevel is necessary. This
saves the cost of preparation and reduces the consumption
of filler rod.
For welding bigger thicknesses, where beveling of plate
edges becomes necessary, the included angle of V need be
only 60, which requires less filler metal against 80V
preparation used in leftward welding technique.
The welder's view of the weld pool and the sides and
bottom of the V groove is unobstructed. This results in
better control and higher welding speeds.
The smaller total volume of deposited metal, as compared
to leftward welding, reduces shrinkage and distortion.
The weld quality is better than that obtained with the
leftward technique.
Owing to less consumption of the filler metal, the rightward
technique involves lower cost of welding than leftward
technique.
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Bengaluru

57

Welding Torch or Blow Pipe

Oxygen and the fuel gas having been reduced in pressure by the
gas regulators are fed through suitable hoses to a welding torch
which mixes and controls the flow of gases to the welding nozzle
or tip where the gas mixture is burnt to produce a flame for
carrying out gas welding operation.
There are two types of welding torches, namely:
High pressure (or equal pressure) type.
Low pressure (or injector) type.
High pressure blow-pipes or torches are used with (dissolved)
acetylene stored in cylinders at a pressure of 8 bar.
Low pressure blow-pipes are used with acetylene obtained from
an acetylene generator at a pressure of 200 mm head of water
(approximately 0.02 bar).

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Bengaluru

58

08/03/15

Hareesha N G, Asst. Prof, DSCE,

Bengaluru

59

Working of a low pressure blow-pipe

It is termed as a low pressure blow-pipe because it can be

operated at low acetylene pressure; it is frequently used with
acetylene generators.
As acetylene is of low pressure, it is necessary to use oxygen at a
high pressure (2.5 bar).
As shown in fig., the oxygen enters the mixing chamber through a
passage located in the centre of the torch. The oxygen passage is
surrounded by the acetylene. The high pressure oxygen passes
through a small opening in the injector nozzle, enters the mixing
chamber and pulls (or draws) the acetylene in after it.
An advantage of low pressure torch is that small fluctuations in
the oxygen supplied to it will produce a corresponding change in
the amount of acetylene drawn, thereby making the proportions
of the two gases constant while the torch is in operation.

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Bengaluru

60

Working of a high pressure blow-pipe

In this type of blow-pipe, both the oxygen and acetylene are fed
to the blow pipe at equal pressures and the gases are mixed in a
mixing chamber prior to being fed to the nozzle tip.
The equal pressure or high pressure type of blow-pipe is the one
most generally used because
It is lighter and simpler.
It does not need an injector.
In operation, it is less troublesome since it does not suffer
from backfires to the same extent.
To change the power of the welding torch, it is only necessary to
change the nozzle tip (size) and increase or decrease the gas
pressures appropriately.

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Bengaluru

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