A Michelson Interferometric Technique For Measuring Refractive in

Lehigh University
Lehigh Preserve
Theses and Dissertations
2006
A Michelson interferometric technique for

measuring refractive index of sodium zinc tellurite
glasses
Deepak N. Iyer
Lehigh University
Follow this and additional works at: http://preserve.lehigh.edu/etd

Recommended Citation
Iyer, Deepak N., "A Michelson interferometric technique for measuring refractive index of sodium zinc tellurite glasses" (2006). Theses
and Dissertations. Paper 954.
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Iyer, Deepak N.
A Michelson
Interferometric
Technique for
Measuring
Refractive Index...
January 2007
A MICHELSON INTERFEROMETRIC TECHNIQUE FOR

MEASURING REFRACTIVE INDEX OF SODIUM ZINC
TELLURITE GLASSES.
By
Deepak. N. Iyer
A Thesis
Presented to the Graduate and Research Committee

of Lehigh University
in Candidacy for the Degree of
Master of Science
In
Electrical Engineering
Lehigh Universitv'"
....
December 2006
Dedicated to my parents
111
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to take this opportunity to thank my advisor, Dr. Jean Toulouse for
providing me an opportunity to pursue research under his supervision. His advanced
and profound knowledge in optics has been a constant source of invaluable guidance,
without which this work would never have been accomplished.
I am indebted to Dr. Radha Pattnaik for his immense support throughout this work.
His technical input has been an invaluable asset and he has been a source of
inspiration for me at every step of my work.
This will be incomplete without thanking my parents, Padma Narayanan and

A.Narayanan Iyer for their constant support, love and encouragement, without which
I would not have come this far. I also thank my sister for her continuous support and
motivation. Thank you for being there for me!
1\'
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL
11
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
IV
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES
Vlll
LIST OF TABLES
ABSTRACT
CHAPTER 1 MICHELSON INTERFEROMETER THEORY
1.1
Introduction
1.2
Michelson Interferometer
1.3
Interference of waves with single frequency
1.3.1 Condition for interference- monochromatic light
Interference of two waves with different frequencies.
1.4
CHAPTER 2 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP FOR REFRACTIVE
INDEX MEASUREMENTS
2.1
10
Measuring refractive index by counting the number of fringes
10
2.1.1 Procedure for alignment
13
2.1.2 Theory behind rotating the sample
17
2.1.3 Derivation of the relationship between the refractive index,

number of fringes collapsing and the angle of rotation of the sample
2.2 Measuring the refractive index from the intensity of the fringe pattern
2.2.1 Procedure for alignment
CHAPTER 3 DERIVATIONS AND RESULTS
3.1 Measuring the refractive index of BK7 Windows
19
21
22
23
23
3.1.1. Plotting angle of rotation with respect to the number of fringes
23
3.1.2. Difference Angle derivation
26
3.1.3. Plotting difference in angle of rotation with respect to the

number of fringes
28
3.1.4. Derivation of the expression for intensity in tenus of

refractive index. thickness of the sample and the angle of
rotation of the sample
35
3.1.5. Analysis of the stored \\'avefonn
36
3.1.6. Measuring the refractive index of BK7 Windows

by plotting the intensity of the fringe pattern with respect
40
to the angle of rotation

3.2 Measuring refractive indices of core and cladding sodium
zinc tellurite glass samples
3.2.1
57
Intensity plots for measuring refractive index of
core glass sample

3.2.2
60
Intensity plots for measuring refractive index of
cladding glass sample
69
CHAPTER 4 CONCLUSION
77
CHAPTER 5 FUTURE WORK
78
REFERENCES
79
VITA
82
\"11
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Schematic illustration of a Michelson interferometer
Figure 2: Formation of circles on interference
Figure 3: Beat Signal from two input frequencies into a

Michelson Interferometer
Figure 4: Michelson Interferometric setup for measuring refractive

index of BK7 sample by manually counting the number of fringes
collapsing or appearing
10
Figure 5: Successive fields of view in interferometer alignment
15
Figure 6: Demonstrating the change in path length
18
Figure 7: Analysis of the sample being rotated
19
Figure 8: Michelson Interferometric setup for measuring refractive

index of BK7 sample by measuring the intensity of the interference
fringe pattern
21
Figure 9(a-d): Plotting cosine of the angle of rotation with respect to

the number of fringes collapsing or appearing
24
Figure 10: Simulation for ideal valucs ofrefractivc index for BK7 sample
28
Figure II (a-h): Plotting cosine of thc difference in angle of rotation with

respcct to the number of fringes collapsing or appearing
30
Figure 12: Refractive Index bar graph for Figs. II (a-h)
34
~lotion
37
Figure 13: Trapezoidal
Profile for the controller
Figure 14: Intensity Fringe Pattern Simulation for mcasuring rcfractivc index
VIII
40
Figure 15(a-I): Plotting intensity with respect to the angle of rotation

for the BK7 glass sample
41
Figure 16: Refractive Index bar graph for Figs. 15(a-u)
57
Figure 17(a-I): Plotting intensity with respect to the angle of rotation for the
core glass sample
60
Figure 18: Refractive Index bar graph for Figs. 17(a-l)
69
Figure 19(a): Plotting intensity with respect to the angle of rotation for the
cladding glass sample.
70
Figure 20: Refractive Index bar graph for Figs. 19 (a-g)
76
IX
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: The measured values of refractive indices presented in Figs. 9(a-d)

along with the mean and standard deviations
26
Table 2: Density, Hardness and Refractive Index of Zinc Tellurite Glasses
58
Table 3: Refractive Indices at 532 and 1064 nm and d 33 values of poled

Na20-ZnO-Te02 glasses
59
ABSTRACT
The Michelson interferometer is an extremely versatile instrument that can be used to

make an accurate comparison of wavelengths, measure the refractive index of gases
and transparent solids, and determine small changes in lengths quite precisely .The
main purpose of our research is to develop a Michelson Interferometric setup to
measure the refractive index of Sodium Zinc Tellurite glasses of known thickness.
This is accomplished by rotating the test sample by means of an automated rotation
stage connected to a controller. The intensity of the fringe pattern is measured with
the help of an oscilloscope and non-linear curve fitting is done with the appropriate
formulae to accurately obtain the value of refractive index. It is successfully
demonstrated that refractive index can be obtained to two digits of precision and
samples ranging from a few microns in thickness to a few millimeters can be
measured.
CHAPTER 1: MICHELSON INTERFEROMETER-THEORY
1.1 Introduction
There are, in general, a number of types of optical instruments that produce optical
interference. These instruments are grouped
under the
generic name of
interferometers. The Michelson interferometer is perhaps the best known and most
basic in a family of interferometers which includes the Fabry-Perot interferometer,
the Twyman-Green interferometer and the Mach-Zehnder interferometer.
The Michelson Interferometer, first developed by Albert Michelson in 1881, has

proved of vital importance in the development of modem physics and is an optical
instrument of high precision and versatility. This versatile instrument was used to
establish experimental evidence for the development for the validity of the special
theory of relativity, to detect and measure hyperfine structure in line spectra, to
measure the tidal effect of the moon on the earth and to provide a substitute standard
for the meter in temlS of wavelengths of light 1.2. Michelson himself pioneered much
of this work.
It is generally uscd in invcstigations that involvc small changes in optical path lengths
and is ablc to dctcct very small movements (on the order of nanometers). With
Michelson intcrferomcter. circular and straight-line fringes of both monochromatic
light and white light can bc produced. These fringes can be uscd to make an accurate
comparison of wavelengths, measure the refractive index of gases and transparent

solids, and determine small changes in length quite precisely. The instrument can be
used as a stable mode selecting resonator element in laser cavities as well.
Interferometry has been used for thickness and index measurements of thin films 3 ,4
and optical fibers 5. In principle, these measurements can be made to great precision,
typically on the order of nanometers, since interferometric technique uses the
interference of nanometer wavelengths. We propose a Michelson Interferometric
technique to measure the refractive index of Sodium Zinc Tellurite bulk glasses. This
is achieved by rotating the test sample in one arm of the interferometer thereby
creating a path length difference between the two optical paths of the interferometer.
Non-linear curve fitting is performed on the measured waveform to relate its intensity
to the refractive index of the sample thereby obtaining values of refractive index to
two digits of accuracy.
1.2 Michelson Interferometer

The Michelson interferometer causes interference by splitting a beam of light into two
parts. Each part is made to travel a different path and brought back together where
they interfere according to their path length difference 1.2. A diagram of the apparatus
is shO\m in Fig. 1
.,
j
Screen
M
-.
.-
Light
source
-.
I
I
I_
-.jd ~
Figure 1: Schematic illustration of a Michelson interferometer.
The Michelson interferometer operates on the principle of division of amplitude

rather than on division of wavefront. Light from a light source strikes the beam
splitter (designated by S) and is split into two parts. The beam splitter allows 50% of
the radiation to be transmitted to the translatable mirror MI. The other 50% of the
radiation is reflected back to the fixed mirror M2. Both these mirrors, M I and M2, are
highly silvered on their front surfaces to avoid multiple internal reflections. The
compensator plate C is introduced along this path to have the same optical path length
when M I and M2 are of same distance from the beam splitter. After returning from
MI , 50% of the light is reflected toward the frosted glass screen. Likewise. 50% ofthc
light returning from tvb is transmitted to the glass screen. Thc two beams arc
superposed and one can obser.e the interference fringe pattern on the screen. The
character of the fringes is directly related to the differcnt optical path lengths travcled
by the two bcams and. thcrcforc. is relatcd to whatevcr causcs a diffcrcncc in thc
optical path lcngths.
4
1.3 Interference of Waves With a Single Frequency
If two waves simultaneously propagate through the same regIOn of space, the
resultant electric field at any point in that region is the vector sum of the electric field
of each wave. This is the principle of superposition. (it is assumed that all waves have
the same polarization). If two beams emanate from a common source, but travel over
two different paths to a detector, the field at the detector will be determined by the
optical path difference, which we will denote by
So if two waves of the same frequency,
OJ,
/jx
= x2 -
XI
but of different amplitude and different
phase impinge on one point they are superimposed, or interfere, so that:

(I)
where
01
and
02
are the amplitudes of both the waves and a l and a 2 are the phase
angles at any time I.

The resulting wave can be described as
y
= A sin(OJI- a)
(2)
with A being the resultant amplitude and a the resultant phase.

(3)
where !1 is the phase difference which is givcn by
(4)
whcre i. is thc wavelcngth of the light source uscd.
In a Michelson interferometer, light is split into two beams by the beamsplitter

(amplitude splitting), reflected by two mirrors, and passed again through the glass
plate to produce interference phenomena behind it. A lens is inserted between the
light beam and the beamsplitter so that the light source lies at the focal point, since
only enlarged light spots can exhibit interference rings. If the actual mirror M z is
replaced by its virtual image Mz', which is formed by reflection at the glass plate, a
point P of the real light source is formed as the points P' and P" of the virtual light
sources L( and Lz as shown in Figure 2.
p' 2d p-...". -::::J= ... 2dCOS9~ 8
L, ... 1 L2 ....,
/~
....~
Ip'I(~1
Mz
l/t\,11,
\.11 rT1----------I \1
8r"lI-~ff::::E_
1\ 11:1\ 1;'11
II
-H-Htlf-1~f-----";L...-+--H--+-===------ff----+--H-
1\1'
I
)1.1
I
... I
\.t
l';d--r--
...
Figure 2: Formation of circles on intcrfercnce
So based on the different light paths, the phase difference, using the symbols of
Figure 2, is:
2ii
2,7
i1cp = -tlX = -2d cosO
I.
;.
(5)
The intensity distribution for a1 = a 2 = a according to (3) is:

,
, DqJ
I : : : AL = 4a Lcos L- ')
(6)
1.3.1. Condition for interference-Monochromatic Light
Constructive interference (Maxima) occurs when
I1rp
= 2nm,
111
= 0, l, 2, 3
(7)
So we have from equation (5),
2d cosO = l1lA;
111
= 0, I, 2, 3
(8)
that is circles are produced for a fixed value of 111 and d since 0 remains constant (see
Fig. 2). So if both the optical path lengths are the same or if these two paths differ by
an integral number of wavelengths A ,the condition for constructive interference is
met. Thus, bright fringes will be formed for that wavelength.
If, on the other hand, the two optical paths differ by an odd integral number of half
wavelengths ~ A , where
111
= I, 3, 5, and so on, the condition for destructive
interference is met and dark fringes will be formed. So destructive interference occurs
when
I1rp
= (2111 + I),
111
= 0, 1,2.3
(9)
This might appear at first sight to violate conservation of energy. However energy is
conserved. because there is a re-distribution of energy at the detector in which the
energy at the destructive sites arc re-distributed to the constructive sites. The effect of
the interference is to alter the share of the reflected light which heads for the detector
and the remainder which heads back in the direction of the source.
If the position of the movable mirror M1 is changed so that d for example decreases
then, according to Eq. (8), the diameter of the ring will also decrease since 111 is fixed
for this ring. A ring thus disappears each time d is reduced by half. The ring pattern
disappears if d = O. If M1 and M2 are not parallel, curved bands are obtained which are
converted to straight bands when d = O.
1.4 Interference of Two Waves with Different Frequencies
We will now consider the case of two frequencies with wavenumbers k l and k 2 that
together follow two different paths with a difference of
fjx.
The sum of the waves
with different amplitudes at point x along the x -axis is given by:

(10)
E
(k - k )
If we let a = _2 and define Ok = 1 2 , after a lot of algebra, we can write the
EI
2
intensity
(E r ' Er ) as:
2(1 +a+a 2 +acos2&~x+(1 +aXcoskl~x+acosk2~X))
(II)
The expected signal which consists of a fast oscillation as well as slow oscillation
characteristic of Ok is shown in Fig. 3.
Figure 3:
Beat Signal from
two input frequencies
Interferometer
into
a Michelson
CHAPTER 2: EXPERIMENTAL SETUPS FOR REFRACTIVE INDEX

MEASUREMENT
2.1. Measuring the refractive index by counting the number of fringes.
S
633nm (35mVV)
He-Ne source
Screen
L1
Camera lens
25mm (F1.4)
8
8K7 sample
L2
Camera lens
55mm (1 :1.7)
/'"
Manual rotation stage
Figure 4: Michelson Interferometric setup for measuring refractive index of

BK7 sample by manually counting the number of fringes collapsing or
appearing.
10
The optical setup for the Michelson interferometer is shown schematically in Fig. 4.
Light from a Helium Neon source S (wavelength of 633nm) is deflected through a
mirror M3 and strikes the beam splitter B. The beam splitter is a half-silvered glass
plate (silvered on the back side) which reflects half of the light toward mirror M2 and
transmits half of the light (but the entire cross section) toward mirror M,. The
distance, or path length as it is called, between each mirror and the beamsplitter
should be the same. These distances can be determined with a tape measure, and
should be as long as possible for the table size. The interferometer's sensitivity
increases the farther the mirrors are from the beamsplitter. Both mirrors then renect
their respective beams back to the beamsplitter and strike the beamsplitter at the
original incident beam's position. Part of mirror MI's reflected beam will then be
reflected by the beamsplitter to the screen S and part of mirror M2'S reflected beam
will be transmitted by the beamsplitter to the screen S. Two beanl spots that are
visible on the screen can then be superimposed to view the interference pattern. This
is achieved by moving either mirror, M1 or M2, slightly up and down and/or
sideways.
The BK7 Windows sample is then mounted on a manual rotation stage and inserted in
one of the two paths; this changes the optical path difference between the two paths.
It is then slowly rotated carefully noting dO\m the angles so that fringes start
collapsing or appearing on the screen. The angle through which the sample has to be
rotated for a set of 5. 10. 15 .... fringes to collapse or appear is noted dO\\ll. This is
II
then subsequently used in the fonnula which relates the refractive index and thickness
of the sample with the angle of rotation to obtain the refractive index to a high degree
of accuracy.
The spots on the screen can be more precisely superimposed by placing a diverging
lens L1 between the laser and the beamsplitter BS. The diverging beam lens is placed
close to the beamsplitter BS. This increases the diameter of the two spots on the
screen so they are easier to superimpose. Another diverging beam lens L2 may also be
used to view the interference pattern more clearly while counting the number of
fringes.
A compensating glass of identical composition and thickness to the beam splitter is

necessary to produce white-light fringes so that each of the two beams (paths d/ and
d2 in Fig. 2) passes through the san1e thickness of glass. This is due to the fact that
because of dispersion, the optical path lengths will be different for different
wavelengths. Note that otherwise the bean1 that travels along path BM/BO (dJJ would
pass through a thickness of glass three times while the beam that travels along the
other path BM2BO (d2) would pass through the same thickness of glass only once. It
would not be needed if one only worked with highly monochromatic light where
optical path lengths of the two aons of the interferometer can be set to be equal for a
particular wavelength.
12
2.1.1 Procedure for alignment:
The alignment of the Michelson interferometer can be accomplished
in
several
simple, logical steps.
With the Helium Neon source S centered at one end of the table, it is positioned to a
height above the optical table that allows the beam to be approximately 6-8 inches
above the table surface. The source is then turned on, waiting several minutes for the
light to reach full intensity. The mirror M3 is used to deflect the light to the
beamsplitter; it is carefully aligned so as to reflect the whole light to the major part of
the optical table so that there is sufficient space for the whole setup. The beamsplitter
is taken out of the way of the laser beam initially. Making use of two pinholes kept a
long distance away from each other, it is made sure that the laser beam is straight and
at the same height. The stationary mirror MI is now mounted and its position is
adjusted until the beam reflected from it re-enters the laser. That is, the mirror reflects
the light perfectly back into the barrel of the laser. It is always a good idea to have the
laser dot in the center of the mirror rather than the edge for proper alignment. Putting
a screen behind the mirror, it will be possible to see several red dots surrounding a
bright red spot. These several dots are focused to one spot by adjusting the knobs on
the back of the mirrors. Now the movable mirror is exactly perpendicular to the laser
beam.
The beam-splitter is now mounted in between mlITors MJ and MI on a manual

rotation stage and is rotated 45 so that the laser beam is now split into two beams.
13
One beam is transmitted through the beamsplitter to mirror M1 and the other beam is
reflected at 90 degrees to mirror M2. Again mirror M2 is mounted in such a way that
the reflected beam hits the mirror at the center. The two paths BM1 and BM2 are made
equal to within a millimeter, using a white index card or small ruler. The reflected
beams from both the mirrors pass through the beamsplitter again and hit the screen.
By means of the two adjusting mirror screws in mirrors M1 and M2, both points of
light are made to coincide. The test sample (BK7 windows) is then mounted on a
manual rotation stage and inserted into the optical path BM I. By making use of the
micrometer screws in the sample mirror mount, the height of the reflected beam from
the sample is adjusted in reference to the interfering dots on the screen. The two dots
from the reflection of the sample is then superimposed with the already superimposed
dots due to the reflected beam from the mirrors to align the sample perpendicular to
the path BM 1 and to obtain the zero fringe position.
A diverging camera lens (25 mm) is now placed in the light beam between mirror M3
and the beamsplitter to expand the beam so that the points of light are enlarged and
the interference pattems are observed on the screen (bands, circles). By careful
readjustment, an interference image of concentric circles will be obtained. The fringes
may. when first observed, appear rather closely spaced as shO\\l1 in Fig. Sa. While
looking at the fringes. carefully adjust the screws on mirror M2 so that the fringes
become circular with their common center lying in the center of your field of view as
ShO\\l1 in Fig. 5b. At this point. the two mirrors .\11 and .\h. should have their planes
perpendicular to one another. that is. B.\/] is perpendicular to B.\h
14
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Figure 5: Successive fields of view in interferometer alignment
Normally before any adjustment of the interferometer takes place, the two path
lengths BMl and BM2 are very likely unequal. Moving mirror M( back and forth along
BM( will change the difference in path lengths and, in fact, permit us to reduce the
difference to very nearly zero. As mirror M( is moved so as to approach equal path
lengths, the fringes move inward toward the center. The center fringe collapses and
eventually disappears altogether while outer fringes start appearing at the edge and
move towards the center as shown in Fig. 5c. The camera lens L2 is placed between
the beamsplitter B and screen 0 and this lens combination of L1 and L2 is adjusted to
view only the center fringe. Now the micrometer screw of mirror M1 is carefully
turned in a direction that causes the fringes to move toward the center and disappear.
This is continued until the field of view is entirely dark as in Fig. 5d. (This condition
may be difficult to achieve since air currents or small table vibrations constantly
cause small random changes in the path length. Nevertheless. one should approach
the "dark-field" condition as closely as possible.). The "dark-field" condition is
extremely useful in detennining the zero fringe position of the sample.that is sample
is exactly perpendicular to the optical path in which it is inserted.
15
The BK7 sample is now rotated manually towards one side so that the fringes start
collapsing or appearing on the screen. The angle of rotation through which the sample
has to be rotated for a set of 5 fringes to appear or collapse is noted down carefully.
This procedure is continued for la, 15, 20 ... fringes till the maximum fringes for
which the fringe pattern is clearly visible. Now the same procedure is repeated for the
opposite direction and both the values compared. The index of refraction of the
sample is thus calculated from the no. of interference fringes shifted during the
rotation of the glass plate. The following equation is used to calculate the index of
refraction of the sample 67 :
(21 - NA)(1 - cos i)
21(1- cosi) - NA
(12)
11=-------
where N is the number of shifted fringes,
e is the angle of rotation of the sample and
t is the thickness of the sample.
Once the interference fringe pattern is achieved, we can touch the table, the mirrors,
or the beamsplitter and watch them oscillate. These interference fringe patterns can be
used to analyze any vibrations occurring on the table surface and/or any movement of
thc optical components.
It follows that if the interfercnce pattern is stationary, there are no vibrations and/or
component movcment occurring in or on thc system. If the pattcrn moves rapidly and
then settles dO\\ll. the table is rcceiving ground vibrations. These types of vibrations
may be caused by moving vehicles. peoplc walking in an adjaccnt room. c1c\ators.
16
dishwashers, etc. It is best to run this analysis in the evenings or on the weekend
when the surrounding environment is quieter.
If the fringe pattern moves slowly back and forth, it is due to air currents in the room.
If central air conditioning is present, the thermostat or input vent to the room should
be turned off. This type of pattern movement may also be caused by optical
components that are not locked tightly into position. So is made sure that all thumb
screws on the optical mounts are tightened.
2.1.2 Theory behind rotating the sample:

If a plane parallel plate of index of refraction n is inserted normal to the path of one of
the beams of light traversing the arms of a Michelson interferometer, the increase of
optical path introduced will be 2(11 - 1), where t is the thickness of the plate. The
factor 2 occurs because light traverses twice through the glass piece. For light of
wavelength A, the difference of path introduced is NA, where N is the number of
fringes displaced when the plate is inserted.
If the plate is rotated through a small measured angle, the path of the light will be
changed, and the no. of fringes N corresponding to this change is counted. This is
because of the fact that as the plate is rotated, the length of the glass in the path will
increase and therefore no. of wavelengths in that path will increase. This will change
the interference pattern.
17
'-------,-----' t
d'
d'=~
d'>d
cose
Figure 6: Demonstrating the change in path length
As
e increases, cos edecreases, so d' increases. Thus we can see that the path length
through the glass plate increases as we rotate it through some angle. When projected
on a screen, it can be seen that the fringes collapse as the glass plate is rotated. The
change of the path through the glass plate depends upon the thickness of the plate, the
angle through which it is rotated and the index of refraction. So the index of
refraction may be calculated if the other two values are known.
IS
2.1.3. Derivation of the relationship between the refractive index,

number of fringes collapsing and the angle of rotation of the sample
o
A
"-
"-
"-
, '..[J/r.://.'
/
d-/-"/
t
b
::r.------"'c
I
i p "'" "-
~,:T, -
"
"
Figure 7: Analysis of the sample being rotated 6
The expression for index of refraction of the sample in tenns of the number of fringes
collapsing and the angle by which the sample has been rotated is given by G.S.Monk
6
Let OP be the original direction of light normal to plate of thickness' l' as shown in
Fig. 7. The total optical path between a and c initially for the propagation of light
is 111 + be where
'11'
is the index of refraction of the plate. When plate is rotated
through an angle' i ., optical path is increased to ad * 11 + de.

So the total increase in optical path is
e5) -e5 2
= 2(ad* 11+de-111-be) = ;V),
(13)
where N is the number of fringes collapsing or appearing on the screen and i, is the
wayclength of the light source used.
19
But we have
I
ab=-cosr
(14)
where' r ' is the angle of refraction of the light beam.

We also have
de
= dc sin i = (fc -
bc
= - I- - I
fd) sin i = I tan isin i-I tan r sin i
(15)
(16)
cosi
Substituting Egs. (14-16) into (13), we have

5:
5:
VI - V 2
' .
=-?(-III- + I tan I.SIn
I-
cosr
Now using Snell's Law

11
. .
I)
I tan r SIn I - 111 - - - . + I
(17)
COSI
11 sin,.
= sin i , we get the expression for index of refraction as
(21 - N).. )(1- cos i)

=-'---------''--'----------'-
(18)
2/(1- cosi) - N)..
as already given in Eg. (12)

This can also be rewritten as
N
= 2/(1- cosi)(n-I)
n}, -
(19)
},(I - cos i)
20
2.2 Measuring the refractive index from the intensity of the fringe
pattern:
S
633nm (35mVV)
He-Ne source
L1
Camera lens
25mrn (F1.4)
'-
AGILENT
DSC6054A
OsciDoscope
M1
Figure 8:
Michelson Interferometric setup for measuring refractive index of
BK7 sample by measuring the intensit)' of the interference fringe pattern
Thc sctup is vcry similar to Fig. 4. Instcad of thc manual rotation stagc uscd thcrc. an
automatcd rotation stagc controllcd by a Nc\vport ESP300 controllcr is uscd. It has a
vcry good rcsolution of 0.00 1. this hclps in providing a vcry accuratc valuc of thc
anglc of rotation.
Oncc thc intcrfercncc pattem is obtaincd aftcr recombining both the retlected beams.
the center of the fringe pattem is then passed through a pinhole P and neutral density
filters and then detected using a InGaAs detector D. If the intensity of the signal is too
21
high, the detector mechanism would not have the capability to detect it, hence the
neutral density filters are used to reduce the intensity of the signal.
The detector 0 is then connected to an oscilloscope to view and store the real-time
wavefonn.
2.2.1 Procedure for Alignment:

Instead of the manual rotation stage in the previous case, the sample is mounted on an
automated rotation stage Newport SR50CC which is compatible with the Newport
ESP300 Controller.
Once the fringes are seen on screen, the screen is then removed and a pinhole P is
fixed so that only the center of the fringe pattern goes through the hole. Since this
may have a very high intensity, neutral density filters are used to reduce the intensity
of the signal. The InGaAs detector is mounted carefully so that it catches the center
fringe and transmits the signal to the oscilloscope. We use an Agilent DSC6054A
Oscilloscope which has an attached USB which facilitates easy storing of the
wavefoml in any jump drive. The BK7 Windows sample, after it has been aligned
perpendicular the aml is then rotated in either direction through any desired angle.
The real-time wavefoml trace as the sample rotates from the left to right is taken.
observed in the oscilloscope and then stored in the jump drive for analysis. This
process is repeated a number of times to get more number of measurements for
accurate analysis. The velocity and acceleration of the SR50CC rotation stage can be
controlled through the controller to see the effects of changing these parameters in the
final stored wavefonn.
.,.,
CHAPTER 3: DERIVATIONS AND RESULTS

3.1 Measuring the refractive index of BK7 Windows:
3.1.1 Plotting angle of rotation with respect to the number of
fringes:
The angle of rotation through which the sample has been rotated is calculated and
noted down for every 5 or 10 fringes collapsing. It is then plotted with respect to the
number of fringes and a non-linear curve fitting is performed to get the value of
refractive index.
The expression for refractive index derived in Eq.( 18) is then used as the formula for
performing the non-linear curve fit. In the Figs. 9(a-d), 'a' denote the thickness of the
sample and 'I' denotes the wavelength of the light source used which corresponds to
the HeNe wavelength 633nm. Both these parameters are kept fixed and the refractive
index 'n' is kept as a floating parameter to get an accurate fit to the experimental
values. This fit value of refractive index obtained is highlighted in blue in all the
plots. This value is then compared with the expected value of refractive index for
BK7 windows at 633nm and room temperature 25C which is 1.51509. The average
of all the values obtained from the fits for refractive index is then calculated and
standard deviation from the expected value is then calculated and reported in Table 1.
1.000
Data:Data1_B
Model: ref-index
Ch i"2
R"2
o.gga
-;-
= 6 .0507E-10
= 0 .gOOg2
1.51313
6.33 E7
0.00507
0.g06
:0.00100
:0
:0
Ol
C
'"0
0.g04
(J
0.g02
O.gOO
-t---r---.---,.--,.----,,----,---..,.----.---.--.....---,
10
20
40
30
50
No.offrlnges
Figure 9(a): Plotting cosine of the angle of rotation with respect to the number of
fringes collapsing or appearing. Refractive index of n
= 1.51313 obtained.
Dab Dab1_B
o.goa
Mod el: ref- ind ex
0.006
-;Ol
C
n
'"0
(J
Chi"2
R"2
5.6653E-g
= 0 .00051
1.50407
6.33E-7
0.00507
:000332
:0
:0
0.004
0.002
0.000
0.088
10
20
30
50
eo
No. of fringes
Figure 9(b): Plotting cosine of the angle of rotation with respect to the number of
fringes collapsing or appearing. Refractive index of n
24
= 1.50497 obtained.
1.000
Data: D alal_B
~'"
0998
099t:l
'6l
c
.!!.
1.3024E9
C hi"2
R"2
= 0.99983
15282t:l
t:l .33E7
:l;0.001t:l9
:1;0
0.00507
:1;0
"-
...,
0.994
Model: ret index
(,)
09Q2
0.990
~".
-t--..--,---.---,--.--,-----.--,---,...--..,---,
40
o
10
20
30
50
No.offringes
Figure 9(c): Plotting cosine of the angle of rotation with respect to the number of
fringes collapsing or appearing. Refractive index of n = 1.52826 obtained.
1.000
D ala: D atal_C
Model: ref index
0.998
0.99992
n
_
ell
55878El0
0996
153106
10.00112
6.33E7
10
0.00507
10
0)
"
c;
Og94
(,)
0.992
..
O. 99 0 -t--,....--.---..-----,r-----.--,----r----.----r---.--------,
10
40
30
50
No. of fringes
Figure 9(d): Plotting cosine of the angle of rotation with respect to the number of
fringes collapsing or appearing. Refractive index of n = 1.53106 obtained.
25
Measurement no.
Refractive Index(n)
1.51313
1.50497
1.52826
1.53106
Mean of all measurements = 1.519355

Standard deviation
= 0.015706523
Table 1: The measured values of refractive indices presented in Figs. 9(a-d)

along with the mean and standard deviations
3.1.2 Difference Angle derivation:
The zero position of the fringe is problematic and if not known exactly may lead to
missing a fringe thereby leading to inappropriate values. So inorder to exclude this
from consideration, we derive a difference angle formula where the value of
refractive index just depends upon the difference between the angles through which
the sample has been rotated and the thickness of the sample.
We have from (18).
(20)
Also
11
N~).)(I- cos0 2 )
21(1- cosO~) - N~).
= (21 -
(21 )
26
where NI' N 2 denote the number of fringes and (JI' (J2 denote the angle through
which the sample has been rotated from the center.
We can write this in terms of sine and cosine of angles as
(22)
cos(fl) =
(4(11 -1)1 + N A(2 - 11))2
2(2(11 -1)1 + NIA
(23)
(24)
cos(!l) =
(4(11 -1)( + N A(2 - 11))2
2(2(11-1)/+N 2 A
(25)
(26)
So substituting equations (22) to (25) , we have
co {
OI-(2)
2
4(n-l)(+NIA(2-11)
=1
----'----
o -0
T=cos-
4(n-l)1 + 2i\V-
4(n-l)/+N2A(2-n)
\
4(n-l)( + 2N2 A
[ 4(n-))t+N 1 ),(2-n) 4(n-!)t+N 1),(2-n) +

4(n-))t+2N I ),
4(ll-))t+2N 1),
NInA
4(n-l)( + 21\V- ~ 4(11-1)( + 2N/
NInA.
N1n),
\ 4(ll-))t+2N 1 ),\4(n-))t+2N),
(27)
27
N 2nA
3.1.3. Plotting difference
III
angle of rotation with respect to the
number of fringes
Figure 10 shows the simulation for ideal value of refractive index for BK7 sample.
Here a fringe spacing of lOis fixed so that M1 and (M I+10) gives the fixed fringe
separation. Diff (M I) represents half of the difference in angle through which the
sample is rotated to achieve this fringe spacing (that is ()I
- ()2 ).
This is then plotted
with respect to the number of fringes to give the ideal difference angle plot.
I "jIJlIO
-3
D"
Ul.lW
at 633nm, 25deg celsIus room temp fOI BK7

\'I'here" denotes thickness of sample and?' denotes wa\'l!length of the laser light source used
om,
/
I
/'
I
I
om:
D:T{Ml)
,I
O%~
O%;~
:~'---_-----'_ _---I.
..
I I -_ _.L-I_~
Figurc 10: Simulation for idcal yalucs of rcfractin index for BK7 sample
28
For a fringe spacing of 10 fringes (that is M 2
= M, + 10),
8) and 82 are measured
and noted down. The cosine of half of the difference angle is calculated and ploned
with respect to the number of fringes.
This information is free of the zero position and yields an effective way to accurately
measure the refractive index. In the Figs. I I(a-h), 'a' denotes the thickness of the
sample and 'I' denotes the wavelength of the light source used which corresponds to
the HeNe wavelength 633nrn. These parameters are kept fixed and the refractive
index 'n' is kept as a floating parameter to get an accurate fit to the experimental
values. This value is again compared with the expected value of refractive index for
BK7 windows at 633nm and room temperature 25C which is 1.51509. The average
of all the values obtained from the fits for refractive index is then calculated and
standard deviation from the expected value is then calculated and reported in Table 2.
29
o.gggn
.~.,"
::::;:,.,
/
O.ggggO
C hi2
R2
2.7504E13
0.ggg52
1.51517
O.33E7
0.00507
Ogggg3
Ogggg2
:to.0042
:to
:to
. /
10
15
20
30
25
35
40
No.offringcs
Figure II(a): Plotting cosine of the difference in angle of rotation with respect to
the number of fringes collapsing or appearing. Refractive index of n = 1.51517
obtained.
OggggB
o gggg7
0 ggggO
II
Cl
c:
"
~--------,
D.h D.I.l_B
.:
0 gggg5
t.Aodtl diN-.oglt
..
0 gggg4
Chi"2
R"2
;;
'lJ
47405E13
Og.gl1
151571
000507
o 32BE7
o gggg3
to 00552
to
to
10
15
20
25
30
35
No.of fringes
Figure 11(b): Plotting cosine of the difference in angle of rotation with respect to
the number of fringes collapsing or appearing. Refractin index of n
obtained.
30
1.51571
0.00008
0.09997
00gg90
~
tll
l:
I'J
Data: Data1 B
0.09995
Mo del diNa ng le2
.E
~
Chi"2
RA2
~ 0.09004
III
= 1 .7253 E13
= 0.0907
0
(J
0.09993
1.51355
O .0033
0.33E 7
0.00507
009992
10
15
20
30
No.offrlnges
Figure 11 (C): Plotting cosine of the difference in angle of rotation with respect to
the number of fringes collapsing or appearing. Refractive index of n
= 1.51355
obtained.
09999g5
~~-=--=.
o .gggggO
//
-;- o .ggg985
tll
l:
I'J
I
I
o gg99BO
.E
~ o gg9975
'"0
C hi A2
R A2
~
(J
Data Data1_B
Model diN-angie
o g99970
o 9g9905
18780E 12
098350
1 51734
000507
033E7
iOO~7
O
10
o gggg:lO
0
10
20
40
30
50
No. of fringes
Figure 11(d): Plotting cosine of the difference in angle of rotation with respect to
the number of fringes collapsing or appearing. Refractin index of n
obtained.
31
= 1.51734
Oggggg5
OgggggO
:"
0 ggggS5
0010: 00101_8
Cl
c:
Modtl diHonglt
O.ggggSO
C hi A2
RA2
"
-
2.7502E13
a.ggOSg
0.gggg75
1.512g0
0.33E7
0.00507
OIl
<.J
Ogggg70
to.Ol10g
to
to
Ogggg05
10
20
30
50
Ho. of hinges
Figure l1(e): Plotting cosine of the difference in angle of rotation with respect to
==
1.51296
obtained.
OgggggO
a oh
g> OggggSO
c:
Ogggg75
~
VI
0 gggg70
"o
O.t.l_8
Model diH. ngle
Chi'2
R A2
<.J
5200BE13
0.gg010
1 50037
to oogOl
0.33E 7
000507
to
to
OggggOO
o gggg55 -t--......----,--.....--...--.....--,.--.,....--,.--.--------,
10
30
o
20
50
Ho. offringes
Figure 11(f): Plotting cosine of the difference in angle of rotation with respect to
obtained.
==
1.50637
0.IlIlIlQ8
O.IlIlIlQ7
-;- 0.IlQIlQ6
A - t a - :-Da-t-a2-8------1-
'El
c:
"
.S
0.IlQIlQ5
'C
iii
o
0.IlQIlQ4
0.IlQIlQ3
0.IlQIlQ2
/
10
/
15
Model: dittangle
20
Chi"2
: 4.B025E13
RA 2
: 0.11111112
25
1.52317
to.005114
6.33E 7
0.00507
to
to
30
35
No.offriJlges
Figure II(g): Plotting cosine of the difference in angle of rotation with respect to
obtained.
O.IXlIXlQ
O.IXlIXlB
0.1Xl1Xl7
-;~
O.IXlIXlO
n
C
~ 0.IXHXI5
!!.
.,
o
Chr"2
18113E12
R"2
0.QQ078
0 OQ0Q4
I 5254Q
fO OlOQ8
000507
fO
033E 7
fO
10
30
40
No. of fringes
Figure 11(h): Plotting cosine of the difference in angle of rotation with respect to
obtained.
The bar graph shown in Fig. 12 gives the approximate mean value of refractive index
calculated from these set of measurements represented in Figs. 11 (a-h). The standard
deviation from the mean value obtained from the graph is also calculated.
1.525
1.520
CIJ
'tJ
..5
~
1.515
:p
(.)
~a:::
1.510
1.505
1.500 +""~"-r
Measurement No.
Figure 12: Refractive Index bar graph for Figs. 11(a-h)

From the bar graph, the Mean of the refractive index was measured to be 1.51622
with a standard deviation of 0.00561.
This method of measuring the refractive index manually counting the number of
fringes shifting corresponding to the angle of rotations proves very cumbersome
because of the following disadvantages:
a) There is a possibility of missing some fringes because of the disadvantage of
measurement-by-eye
34
b) Refractive Index precision of 2-3 digits might not be achieved if there is any
small error in the measurement of the angle
c) The zero position of the fringe is a very abstract concept and it is very difficult
to reference it to a fixed position, so some fringes may be missed while doing
the manual measurement.
In order to overcome all these disadvantages, an automated method of measuring
refractive index is proposed wherein the sample is mounted on top of an automated
rotation stage whose movement is precisely controlled by a controller. The controller
velocity and acceleration can be set to any desired value. The sample is rotated
through any desired angle and a complete waveform of the intensity change is
measured in the oscilloscope. We will propose a way to take this measured waveform
and do a non-linear curve fitting with the proper derived intensity formula and get the
refractive index to a high level of accuracy.
3.1.4 Derivation of the expression for intensity in terms of refractive

index, thickness of the sample and the angle of rotation of the sample
We have from Equation (6),
(27)
where I denotes the intensity of the resultant wave. A is the amplitude of the resultant
waw and 9), and 9)2 are phase angles corresponding to each of the optical paths.
35
The expression for intensity can now be written as

(28)
Now substituting the value for optical path difference from (15) and using Snell's law
for expanding, the expression for intensity comes out to be of the form
l(a,b,O):=a+b cos
2'11
2
n .\
(29)
3.1.5 Analysis of the stored waveform:

When executing a move command in the controller to move the rotation stage by a
specified angle, the stage will accelerate until the velocity reaches a pre-defined
value. Both this acceleration and constant velocity can be set to a specified value
from the controller. Then at the proper time, it will start decelerating so that when the
motor stops, the stage is at the correct final position. The velocity plot of this type of
motion will have a trapezoidal shape as shO\\11 in Fig. 13.
36
Desired Velocity
Time
Figure 13: Trapezoidal Motion Profile for the controller
So inorder to account for this trapezoidal motion, the stored waveform in the
oscilloscope has been modified in accordance with the principles of angular velocity
and acceleration to account for the working operation of the controller. So since the
difference between successful positions of the stage at continuous angles (!18 ) is not
constant as a function of time, from the whole trace stored in the oscilloscope, the
accelerating and decelerating part of the wavefonn is cut out and only the constant
velocity part used for analysis.
Analysis of BK7 Window sample for a particular case is shO\m below.
If the sample is rotated through an angle of 9 degrces, the constant angular
acceleration a is sct to 2 dcgls 2 and final angular velocity
OJ
of the rotation stage is
set to 0.5 deg/s, the calculations involn::d in analyzing the wavcform can bc
summarizcd bclow:
Using the cquations for constant angular acccicration. wc havc
37
OJ
where
= OJo + al
OJ o
(30)
is the initial angular velocity and t is is the time taken to reach the constant
angular velocity
OJ
Substituting the values in Eq.(30), we have

0.5 = 2t
So the time taken for the rotation stage to achieve constant angular velocity is 0.25
sec. Similarly time taken for the stage to decelerate to zero final velocity is also 0.25
sec.
The distance covered by the stage in this time frame () can be calculated using the
relation
1 2
() = OJol + -al
(31 )
Plugging in the values of a
2deg/s 2 and t = 0.25 sec in Eq.(31), we get
() = 0.0625 0
(32)
So the linear angular distance traveled by the rotation stage once it has reached a
constant angular velocity of (t)
= 0.5 deg/ s can be given as
0/ = 9 - 2 * (0.0625) = 8.875 0
So 8.875 0
1/
= 0.5 deg/ s * 1/
'
(33)
this gives the time taken for linear angular motion as
= 17.75 sec
So the total time taken

1=1/ + 0.25 + 0.25
= 18.25sec
(34)
38
The analysis now for a particular plot is done as follows:

The data for the plot contains 905 data points overall and this now corresponds to the
total time of 18.25sec.
905 po int s :> 18.25 sec

Ipoint :> 0.02016575sec
. . . I 0.25 sec :>
So mltIa
0.25
0.02016575
:::::
13 th po mt
'
Linear angular motion continues till 18 sec

So deceleration starts from
18
: : : 893 rJ po int
0.02016575
So only the portion of the waveform from the 13 th point to 89rd point is considered
for analysis, rest of the waveform is cut and excluded from the analysis.
Therefore linear angular motion corresponds to
880 po int s :> 8.875
Ipoint
:>
0.010085227
Each data point is then multiplied by this value to obtain the exact angular position of
the rotation stage relative to the intensity measured at each point.
39
3.1.5 Measuring the refractive index of BK7 Windows by plotting the

intensity of the fringe pattern with respect to the angle of rotation:
t= 0.9410- 3
J..= 63310- 9
n= 1.46
7,.-----.----.----,-----.,.-----.---,-------,-----,---,.------,
5
I(24,4J,e)
\
2
-10
-8
-6
-4
-2
l
8
10
Figure 14: Intensity Fringe Pattern Simulation for measuring refractive index
Figure 14 shows a simulation for the intensity of the measured signal with respect to
the angle of rotation. An arbitrary yalue of thickness'( of 0.94 mm and a refractiyc
index of n= 1.46 arc chosen. Here' a' and 'b' represents scaling factors that control
40
the height and amplitude of the waveform respectively. Appropriate values of a and b
are chosen to represent the signal effectively. Figures 15(a-u) represent the observed
wavefonn for the BK7 sample having thickness'd' of 5.17mm. A non-linear curve fit
is made on the intensity pattern using Eq. (29) which gives the relation between the
intensity of the fringe pattern and the angle of rotation. Appropriate values of a and b
are chosen for scaling the fit properly with the signal.
8 9 10 11 12
8
Data: B K7 Sample
Mode I: inte ns ity s imu lation
C hi"2
R"2
= 1.74315
= 0.81119
b
n
O
7
1.51395
0.00073
0.00517
II
o
Angle of Rotation
Figure 15(a): Plotting intensity with respect to the angle of rotation. Non-linear
curve fitting yields a refractive index of 1.51395
Thc wa\'cfonn pcaks towards both sidcs of thc ccntcr zcro fringc. corrcsponding to
zcro dcgrcc anglc of rotation. arc numbercd in ordcr. as ShO\\11 in Fig. 15(a-u). Fig.
15(a-b) corrcspond to thc samc data. non-lincar fits arc madc on pcaks 8-12 in Fig.
41
15(a) and peaks 10-12 in Fig. 15(b) keeping a, band d parameters fixed and refractive
index n as a floating parameter. Refractive index values of 1.51395 and 1.51489 are
obtained which corresponds to an accuracy of two decimal places.
10 11
12
A
Data: BK7 Sample
Mod el: intens ity s im ulatio n
V.
I
Chi"2
R"2
= 1.62224
= 0 .66142
7
:1:0
:1:0
1.5148Q
:1:0.00083
0.00517
:1:0
V V ~
Angle of Rotiltion
Figurc 15(b): Plotting intensity with respect to the angle of rotation. Non-Iincar
cun'c fitting yields a refractive index of 1.51489
42
-16 -15 -14

6
Data BK7 Sample
Mo de I: inte ns ity s im ulatio n
Chr"2
R"2
= 0.46303
= 0 .89791
O
O
7
1.51501
0.00517
I
v
0.00038
Angle of Rotation
Figure 15(c): Plotting intensity with respect to the angle of rotation. Non-linear
In Fig. 15(c), a non-linear curve fit is made on peaks 14-16 towards the left of the
center fringe and a refractive index value of 1.51501 is obtained. Comparing with the
ideal refractive index value for BK7 glass at room temperature- 1.51509. it is
observed that this is the best fit achieved and the most accurate value of index
obtained from the measurement.
1"
'tJ
-14 -13 -12

6
D ala: BK7 Sample

Mod el: inlens ity s im u lalion
C hi"2
R"2
= 0.79726
= 0.84132
7
O
O
7
1.50921
0.00517
n
d
~0.00052
~O
I)
\J
Angle of Rotation
Figure 15(d): Plotting intensity with respect to the angle of rotation. Non-linear
A non-linear curve fit is made on peaks 12-14 towards the left of the center fringe in
Fig. l5(d). The scaling factors a and b, as well as thickness d are kept fixed and
refractive index n is defined as a floating parameter to obtain a value of 1.50921 for
the index.
44
9 ...
... 17
I
1\
8
If
1
Data BK7 Sample
Model: Inlensrty simulation
R"2
= 1.05040
= 0.75Q22
a
b
n
d
0.5
to
0.5
to
1.51763
0.00517
Chi"2
to .00030
to
Angle of Rotation
Figure 15(e): Plotting intensity with respect to the angle of rotation. Non-linear
13 14 15 16
8
D ala: BK7 Sample
Model intensity simulation
C hi'2
R '2
= 0.(/472
= 0.BB403
(/5
(/.5
to
to
151757
000517
to
to
00035
o
4
Angle of Rot.ltion
Figure 15(f): Plotting intensit) with respect to thc anglc of rotation. Non-lincar
cun'c fitting yiclds a rcfractive indcx of 1.51757
45
Fig. 15(e-g) correspond to the same measurement. Non-linear curve fits are made on
peaks 7-17 in Fig. 15(e), peaks 13-16 in Fig. 15(f) and peaks 11-13 in Fig. 15(g).
Scaling factors and thickness are kept as fixed parameters and refractive index n is
defined as a floating parameter. Refractive index values of 1.51763, 1.51757 and
1.519 are obtained respectively which again corresponds to an accuracy upto two
decimal places.
11 12 13
Data: BK7 Sample

Model: intensity simulation
Chi"2
R"2
= 0.92082
= 0 .90091
9.5
10
9.5
10
1.519 10.00046
0.00517
10
o
4
Angle of Rotiltion
Figure 15(g): Plotting intensif)' with respect to the angle of rotation. Non-linear
cun'e fitting yields a refractive index of 1.519
Fig. 15(h) corrcsponds to a diffcrcnt mcasurcmcnt. a non-linear curyc fit is made on

peaks 13-15 towards the right of the ccntcr fringc and a rcfracti,c index yalue of
1.50691 is obtained.
46
13 14 15
h
D ala: B K7 Sample
C hi"2
R"2
= 1.11914
= 0.84037
7
7
n
O
O
1.50691
0.00517
O .00061
O
v
4
Angle of Rotatio n
Figure 15(h): Plotting intensity with respect to the angle of rotation. Non-linear
Fig. 15(i-k) correspond to the same measurement. Non-linear curve fits are made on
peaks 4-12 in Fig. 15(i), peaks 6-8 in Fig. 150) and peaks 11-13 in Fig. 15(k), all
towards the left side of the center fringe, keeping a, band d parameters fixed and
refractive index n as a floating parameter. Refractive index values of 1.50985.
1.50854 and 1.50953 are obtained which again corresponds to an accuracy upto two
decimal places. It is observed again that these values for index are very close to the
ideal index value of 1.51509 for BK7 Windows at room temperature.
47
12 ..
.. 5
-4
M
6
J
03t3: BK7 Sampl~
Model: intensrty simulation
Chi'2
R'2
= 0.68268
0.00230
3
b
n
d
7
:to
-7
:to
1.50085
0.00517
:1:0.00038
:1:0
o
-4
-2
Angle of Rotation
Figure 15(i): Plotting intensity with respect to the angle of rotation. Non-linear
g
~
6
-6
~
Data: BK7 Sample
i:'
Cht'2
RA 2
iii
1:
7
:1:0
7
10
150854
000517
IV
0
0.501171
e 0.Q2721
Vi
10000611
10
v
2
Angle of Rol.11ion
Figurc 15m: Plotting intcnsit)- with rcspcct to thc anglc of rotation. Non-Iincar
cun-c fitting yiclds a rcfractive index of 1.50854
48
13 12 11
f\
1\
"
Data: BK7 Sample

C hi"2
R"2
= 0.4361
= 0.94043
7
-7
1.60963 0.00042
0.00617
O
n
d
O
O
~}
~J
-4
Angle of Rotlltion
Figure 15(k): Plotting intensity with respect to the angle of rotation. Non-linear
-10
-9
-8
o.t" 8 K7 Sample
Modol: inhnsly simul.tion
o
Chi'2
0.24371
R'2
0.Q0701
to
-8
to
150071
000517
to .00034
to
AIl!}le of ROt.ltioll
Figure 15(1): Plotting intensit)- with respcct to the anglc of rotation. Non-linear
cun-c fitting yields a refractive index of 1.50071
49
A non-linear curve fit is made on peaks 8-10 towards the left of the center fringe in
Fig. 15(1). The scaling factors, a and b, which are chosen to be 8 and -8, as well as
thickness d of 5.17mm, are kept as fixed parameters, and refractive index n is set to
be a floating parameter. A value of 1.50071 for the index is obtained from the fit.
-18..
.. -14
h
8
D ala: B K7 Sample
C hi"2
R"2
= 1.5581
= 0.80857
9.5
b
n
d
9.5
10
1.5242 10.00044
0.00517
10
10
I
V
o
4
Angle of Rotation
Figurc 15(m): Plotting intcnsity with rcspcct to thc anglc of rotation. Non-lincar
cun'c fitting yiclds a rcfractivc indcx of 1.5242
In Figs. 15(m) and 15(n), which corrcsponds to two scparatc mcasurcmcnts. a

constant vclocity of 0.25 dcg/s and an acccicration and dcccleration of I deg/s 2 is set
to be the controller paramcters. Analysis is donc using thescs valucs to see the effect
of velocity regulation in the valucs for refractivc index. Non-linear curve fits are
madc on peaks 14-18 in Fig. 15(m) and peaks 10-13 in Fig. 15(n). both towards the
50
left of the center fringe. Keeping a, b and d parameters fixed, refractive index values
of 1.5242 and 1.52252 are obtained respectively. It is observed that using a lower
velocity and acceleration value for the controller, there are more jerks in the measured
waveform and corresponding refractive index values slightly deviate away from the
ideal value.
-13 -12 -11 -10
Data: BK7 Sample

Model: inte nsity simulation
Chi'2
R'2
= 0.81Q71
Q5
b
n
d
Q.5
to
152252
0.00517
15677
to
to .00065
to
V ~'
2
Anule of Rotation
Figurc 15(n): Plotting intcnsity with rcspcct to the anglc of rotation. Non-linear
cun'c fitting yields a rcfractivc indcx of 1.52252
A non-linear curve fit is made on peaks 3-17 towards the left of the center fringc in
Fig. 15(0). Thc scaling factors, a and b, which arc choscn to bc 9.5 and -9.5, as wcll
as thickncss d of 5.17mm, arc kcpt as fixcd paramctcrs and rcfractivc indcx n is set to
bc a floating parameter. A value of 1.52755 for the indcx is obtained from thc fit.
51
-17...
.. -4 -3
D31a: BK7 Sample

Model: inlensity simul31ion
Chi"2
R"2
= 2.36462
= 0.72007
g .~
b
n
d
.Q.~
1~27~~
:t00004Q
:to
0.00517
~ ~
:to
:to
Angle of Rotation
Figure 15(0): Plotting intensity with respect to the angle of rotation. Non-linear
Fig. 15(p-q) correspond to the same measurement. Non-linear curve fits are made on
peaks 5-9 in Fig. 15(p), peaks 13-15 in Fig. 15(q), both towards the left side of the
center fringe keeping a, band d parameters fixed and refractive index n as a floating
parameter. Refractive index values of 1.5210 I and 1.52646 are obtained respectively
which still corresponds to an accuracy upto two decimal places. Thus we can observe
that two digits of accuracy is continuously obtained thereby proving that the
measurements are reproducible.
52
- 9. 8 7
- .0-5
1\
Data: BK7sampie
Ii
Chi'2
R'2
= 5.74082
= 0.27787
g .5
O
.g .5
O
1.52101
0.00517
b
n
d
0.00138
O
Angle of Rot.:ltlon
Figure 15(p): Plotting intensity with respect to the angle of rotation. Non-linear
15 -14 13
Q
{\
.t"
8 K7 Sample
Model r,hnsity S:~'TIul.ltion
(\
Chi'2
= 1.33523
R '2
0.B23Q3
Q5
.Q 5
O
O
15~(\40
000517
to
to
00040
\
\
o
4
Angle of Rot.ltion
Figurc 15(q): Plotting intcnsit) with rcspect to the angle of rotation. Non-lincar
cunc fitting yields a refractive index of 1.52M6
53
10
D ala: BK7 Sample
C hi"2
R"2
0.04753
0.88101
0.5
O
-0.5
O
1.53007
0.00517
n
d
O .00061
O
\
-2
Angle of Rotatio n
Figure 15(r): Plotting intensit)' with respect to the angle of rotation. Non-linear
-15 14 -13 -12
Data BK7 Sample
i\
Model intensity simulation
~
'Vi
1:
C hi'2
R'2
= 0.86778
= 0.80107
0.5
10
-0.5
10
1.53005
0.00517
b
n
I~
10.0 0046
10
-4
Angle of Rot"tion
Figurc 15(s): Plotting intcnsity with rcspcct to thc anglc of rotation. Non-linear
cun-c fitting yiclds a rcfractive indcx of 1.53095
54
Fig. 15(r-s) correspond to the same measurement. Non-linear curve fits are made on
peaks 8-10in Fig. 15(r), peaks 12-15 in Fig. 15(s). Keeping a, b and d parameters
fixed and refractive index n as a floating parameter, index values of 1.53097 and
1.53095 are obtained respectively.
A non-linear curve fit is made on peaks 14-16 towards the right of the center fringe in
Fig. 15(t). The scaling factors, a and b, which are chosen to be 9.5 and -9.5, as well as
thickness d of 5.17mm, are kept as fixed parameters and refractive index n is set to
be a floating parameter. A value of 1.50408 for the index is obtained from the fit.
14 15 16
8
Dolo: B K 7 Sample
Mod 01: Inlon.ly 1m ulolio n
C hi'2
R'2
= 0.73573
o.g 1784
Q.5
Q.5
:to
:to
150408
0.00517
:to 00034
:to
o
4
An!lle of Rotation
Figurc 15(t): Plotting intcnsit) with rcspect to the anglc of rotation. Non-lincar
cun'c fitting yields a rcfractivc indcx of 1.50408
55
-15 ...
.. -5 -4
1\
Data: B K7 Sample
Chi2
R2
; 1 .~094B
= 0.81607
a
b
n
d
g.~
.g.~
1.~4189
O.OO~17
l)
O
O
O .00046
O
Angle of Rotiltion
Figure 15(u): Plotting intensity with respect to the angle of rotation. Non-linear
cun'e fitting yields a refractive index of 1.54189
Fig. 15(u) represents a non-linear curve fit on peaks 4-15 towards the left side of the
center fringe for a certain specific measurement. Since the peak amplitudes are very
uneven because of the jerks in the motion of the rotation stage, the fit gives a value of
refractive index which is quite deviated from the ideal value.
The bar graph shO\\11 in Fig. 16 gives the approximate mean value of refractive index
calculated from these set of measurements represented in Figs. 15 (a-u). The standard
deviation from the mean value obtained from the graph is also calculated.
56
1.545
1.540
1.535
1.530
X
C1I
".5
~
'Q
(,)
~
~
1.525
1.520
1.515
1.510
1.505
1.500
10
15
20
Measurement No.
Figure 16: Refractive Index bar graph for Figs. 15(a-u)
From the bar graph, the Mean of the refractive index was measured to be 1.51773
with a standard deviation of 0.0 I023.
3.2 Measuring refractive indices of core and cladding sodium
ZIDC
tellurite glass samples

Tellurium oxide based glasses are potential materials for optical device applications
due to their nonlinear optical properties. They show high refractive index. and
consequently high third order nonlinear susceptibility x'. and high dielectric
constant 9. 1O Also. they are transparent over the visible and near infrared regions. Kim
cl alII
have measured for a pure Te02 glass a value of X' = 1.41 x 10 -1: CSIi however
5i
it is not easy to obtain this pure glass. Tellurite-based glasses are also promising
candidate materials for high Raman amplification applications, due to their high gain
coefficients I2 -18 . They have a broad emission band around 1.5 Ilm and are promising
for development of broadband integrated optical amplifiers. They exhibit a wide
transmission range (0.35 to 5Ilm), the lowest vibrational energy (about 780 em-I)
among oxide glass formers leading to fluorescence from additional energy levels
compared to silicate or phosphate glasses. They have a low process temperature, good
chemical durability, and exhibit significant nonlinear properties I9 '2o .. The zinc
tellurite glasses have a higher density and refractive index and are considerably softer
than silicate glasses 12
Tellurite glasses have also been prepared by Stanworth 21 and Yakhkind 22 , who
investigated glasses in various binary systems and in several tricomponent systems.
Optical constants, densities, and spectral properties were given, together with
experimental and calculated regions of glass formation. Tellurite glasses having
semiconducting properties have also been reported, particularly in the V205-Te02
system 23 . The glasses obtained have a yellowish color, even when using
spectrochemically pure Te02. This color was thus assumed to be a property of the
pure glass as with the A1 20 3-Te02, glass prepared by Stanworth 21 .
CI&J;5
eompolit.ioll
(~ TtOs)
65
70
75
Dault,
IfC1ll
2 .~d
5.33 :i: 0.03
5.35:i: 0.03
5.37:i: 0.03
RdrattlTc
indo:
~DOOp
(~A.2JC)
bardDea
2.036
265.9:i: 6
263.4:i: 4
274.9:i:15
58
Table 2: Density, Hardness and Refractive Index of Zinc Tellurite Glasses 12

Gla!>!>
compo~illon
30Na0l1' 70TeO~
lONaOl,'220ZnO 70Te02
30ZnO 70TeO~
tim
II) C6.J
d 33 (pm/Vi
2.00
2.02
2.05
1.95
1.97
2.00
0.082
0.23
0.45
Table 3: Refractive Indices at 532 and 1064 nm and d 33 values of poled Na 20ZnO-Te0 2 glasses 24
The second-order nonlinear optical coefficient increases with a replacement ofNaOI/2

by ZnO. This increase can be attributed to the rise in the content of nonbridging
Oxygens 25 which contribute to the dipole moments oriented under the dc electric
field, and lead to the anisotropic structure. From this viewpoint, a glass containing a
large
number of nonbridging oxygens is likely to present a large anisotropy. In addition, the
high mobility of Na+ enhances the electrochemical reactions at high temperatures,
leading to a decrease in the second harmonic intensity as well as the second-order
nonlinear optical coefficient observed for the glasses with a large amount of Na20.
The glass composition in our case is 75Te02-20ZnO-5Na20-6KNb03 for the core
glass sample and 75TeOr20ZnO-5Na20 for the cladding glass sample. Figs. 16 (a-I)
gives the obseryed value of refractive index for the core glass sample having
thickness'd' of 1. 73 mOl. This is achieved by perfonning a non-linear cUI'\'e fit on the
intensity pattern using Eg. (29) which gives the relation between the intensity of the
fringe pattern and the angle of rotation. The scaling factors a and b arc kept as
59
floating parameters and appropriate values are chosen for scaling the fit properly with
the measured signal.
3.2.1. Intensity plots for measuring refractive index of core glass sample:
Fig. 17(a-b) corresponds to the measurement of the intensity pattern as a function of

the angle through which the core glass sample has been rotated. Non-linear curve fits
are made on peaks 9-12 in Fig. 17(a) and peaks 7-12 in Fig. 17(b). The difference
between the two graphs here is that the scaling factors a and b along with the
refractive index n are kept as floating parameters and thickness d is kept as a fixed
parameter while performing the fit. So appropriate values of a and b are chosen for
good fits and refractive index values of 2.01832 and 2.01379 are obtained
respectively which again corresponds to values of index upto two decimal places of
accuracy.
10
11
12
12
DOlO: Core G135S sample

Modtl: intt nsity simulJtion
Chi'2
R'2
0.38030
= 0.g0731
12.oa708
5301gg
201832
000173
10 11148
10.1754
10.000g0
10
Angle of Rot.ltion
Figure 17(a): Plotting intensit) with respect to the angle of rotation for the core
glass sample. Non-linear cun'e fitting yields a rcfractin index of 2.01832
60
12
10 11 12
Data: Cote Glass Sample

Model: into nsity simulation
Chi0 2
R0 2
= 1.37417
0.08gg0
-4.84417
2.0 137g
0.00173
11.4777~
0.1 071~
0.2 O~g4
O.oOI77
O
I~
Angle of Rotiltion
Figure 17(b): Plotting intensity with respect to the angle of rotation for the core
glass sampleo Non-linear curve fitting yields a refractive index of 2001379
12
If\
r\
Dan: Cor e GI ass Sam pi e

Model: intensrty simulation
Chi 0 2
R"2
'-
\.:
IV
4.0
= 0.g4g31
= 0.7g551
0.07240
5.32201
2.0256g
o 00173
Vi
5i
1;
.~
n
d
0.15240
O .25272
O .00346
O
5 6
4.8
Angle of rotation
Figure 17(c): Plotting intensit)- with respect to the angle of rotation for thc corc
glass samplc. Non-Iincar cun-c fitting yiclds a refractive indcx of 2002569
61
A non-linear curve fit is made on peaks 6-9 in Fig. 17(c) and on peaks 4-7 in Fig.
17(d), both towards the right of the center fringe. The scaling factors, a and b, are
again set as floating parameters along with the refractive index n and arbitrary values
are obtained from the fit conforming to a good fit. An index value of 2.02569 and
2.02137 is obtained from the fit which again conforms to an accuracy upto two
decimal places.
12
D ala: Core Glass Sample

M 0 dol inlo ns Ity s Imu lalion
C h i"2
R "2
= 072508
= 082733
5.73423
5.17207
:l:0.11Q15
10.20041
202137
0.00173
:1:002085
:1:0
An !.lIe of rotiltio n
Figure 17(d): Plotting intensif)' with respect to the angle of rotation for the core
glass sample. Non-linear cune fitting yields a refractive index of 2.02137
In fig. 17(e). only a is kept as a floating parameter and b is chosen to be -6 to see the
effect of keeping b as a fixed parameter in the final yalues of rcfractiye index. An
62
index value of 2.04862 is obtained which depends on the accuracy of the waveform
measured rather than changing or fixing the values of scaling factors.
9
12
10
11
12
r~
Data: Data2_B
Chi'2
R'2
= 1.70807
= 0.57854
12.73460
6
O
2.04862
0.00173
b
n
d
0.13412
O .00185
O
Angle of Rottltion
Figure 17(e): Plotting intensity with respect to the angle of rotation for the core
glass sample. Non-linear curve fitting yields a refractive index of 2.04862
63
12
'[
Data: C ore Glass sample

Mod e I: Intens tty s 1m ulatio n
~
III
c:
C hi"2
R "2
1.36467
0.70867
12
QI
1:
v
V
4-
:to
8
:to
210047
0.00173
:to.00 18
:to
IV
\I
Angle of rot\ltion
Figure 17(f): Plotting intensity with respect to the angle of rotation fo~ the core
12
D.I. COlt GI ... S.rnpl.

Modol: inhnsiysimul.lion
~
III
c
...
.5
I
8
III
Chi A 2
RA 2
e
e
2.02608
0.5287'1
12
to
to
6
2 12777
000173
to.OO371
to
4
4
Angle of Rot.ltioll
Figure 17(g): Plotting intcnsity with rcspcct to the angle of rotation for the core
glass samplc. Non-lincar cun'c fitting yiclds a rcfractivc indcx of 2.12777
64
5
12
I~
f\
1'1
o ala: C ore
Glass Sample
Mod el: inlens ity s im ula lio n
C hi"2
i::'
Il
R"2
=
=
0.70e1l4
0.831l05
'iii
lD
1:
12
O
2.101l51l
O .00 1114
0.00173
IJ ' - - - - - - -...
V
4
An gle of rotatio II
Figure 17(h): Plotting intensity with respect to the angle of rotation for the core
glass sample. Non-linear cun'e fitting yields a refractive index of 2.10959
Fig. 17(f-h) correspond to the same measurement, non-linear curve fits are made on
peaks 6-9 in Fig. 17(f), peaks 4-7 in Fig. 17(g) and peaks 5-8in Fig. 17(h). In all the
three graphs, the scaling factors a and b along with the thickness d of the sample, are
kept as a fixed parameters, and refractive index n is kept as a floating parameter,
while perfom1ing the fit. Refractive index values of2.10047, 212777 and 2.10959 are
obtained respectively. It is observed that because of the random variations in the
amplitude and spacing between alI the peaks, a comparatively higher valuc of
refractive index is obtaincd from this set of data.
65
12
10
Data: Core Glass sample

Mod e I: int.ns ity
s im u lation
C hi"2
= O.934Q3
R"2
"0.79092
'Vi
lD
1:
\
6
OJ
11.42255
5.17484
:1:0.41948
:1:0.8117
2 .04Q 18
0.00172
:1:0.96485
:1:0.00077
Angle of rolalio n
Figure 17(i): Plotting intensity with respect to the angle of rotation for the core
12
10
11
Dato: Cor. Ola.. Sam pl.

Modll: inhns i!y simuLltion
g
Chi"2
R"2
= 2 .86826
030056
12
to
8
to
2 02384 to.00218
000173
to
Angle of Rotation
Figure 17(j): Plotting intensit)' with respect to the angle of rotation for the eore
glass sample. Non-linear eun'e fitting yields a refractin index of 2.0238~
66
Fig. 17(i) and 170) again correspond to another set of scanned waveforms from the
same measurement, the fit values of refractive index are observed to be 2.04918 and
2.02384 for all other parameters kept fixed and n being kept as a floating parameter.
Non-linear curve fitting is performed on another set of data in Figs. 17(k) and 17(1)
where refractive index values of2.03984 and 2.00683 are obtained.
v
4
Angle of Rotation
Figure 17(k): Plotting intensit)' with respect to the angle of rotation for the core
glass sample. Non-linear cun'e fitting yields a refractivc index of 2.03984
67
-7
-5
fI
V.
9
Data: Co,e Glass Sample
Mo de I: inte ns Ity s im u lalion
Chi"2
R"2
10
to
7
to
2.00683
0.00173
b
n
= 1.08558
= 0 .79941
to .00177
to
IV
Angle of rotation
Figure 17(1): Plotting intensity with respect to the angle of rotation for the core
From the measurements of refractive index done on the core glass sample in Figs.
17(a-I), a bar graph is constructed to calculate the mean concentration of the
refractive index .The bar graph shown in Fig. 18 gives the approximate mean value of
refractive index calculated from these set of measurements and their standard
deviation.
68
2.05
2.04
C1I 2.03
".5
~
'Q
(,)
2.02
0:::
2.01
2 .0 0 -f-LL~"'"
Measurement no.
Figure 18: Refractive Index bar graph for Figs. 17(a-l)
From the bar graph, the Mean of the refractive index was measured to be 2.0275 with
a standard deviation of 0.0 1509.
3.2.2 Intensity plots for measuring refractive index of cladding glass sample:
Figures 19(a-g) gives the observed value of refractive index for the cladding glass
sample having the composition 75TeOr20ZnO-5Na::!O and a thickness'd' of
approximately 0.84mm. This is achieved by perfornling a non-linear curve fit on the
intensity pattern using Eq.(29) which gives the relation between the intensity of the
fringe pattern and the angle of rotation
69
In Figs. 19(a) and 19(b), corresponding to the same measurement, appropriate scaling
factors of 2 and -1 are chosen for a and b respectively, thickness of the sample is kept
as a fixed parameter and refractive index values of 1.99372 and 2.00347 are obtained
from the fits.
6
2.0
tl
r.
1.6
J!J
II
~
Data: Clad G lass Sample
Mo de I: inte ns ity s imu lation
'Ii
"
VI
Chi"2
R"2
lV IV
IV
1.2
'J
= 0 .04188
= 0.55561
2
to
1
to
1.gg372
0.00084
to.00202
to
Allgle of Roti'ltioll
Figure 19(a):
Plotting intensit)' with respect to the angle of rotation for the
cladding glass sample. Non-linear curve fitting yields a refractive index of

1.99372
70
2.0
(,
113
Data: Clad Glass Sample

'"
Chi'2
R"2
~
Vi
!l
1
!l
2.00347
0.00084
ii
1:
1.2
IV
\J
1\
= 0.04415
= 0.27272
I~
:1:0.00227
:1:0
Angle of rotation
Figure 19(b):
Plotting intensity with respect to the angle of rotation for the
2.00347
In Figs. 19(c) and 19(d), it is observed that the waveform obtained is not so good
compared to other set of data measured. Infact, in general, the traces scanned for the
cladding glass sample is not as sharp and clear as the ones obtained for the core glass
sample. This is due to the fact that here the sample is very thin (O.84mm). so the
optical path length difference is very sensible to even small changes in the angle of
rotation of the sample. Hence the waveform trace obtained is more random compared
to the earlier traces for both the core and BK7 samples. Refractive indices of 1. 99834
and 1.98967 are obtained from these two graphs after perfomling the non-linear curve
fitting.
71
4.5
'0:;
1:
3.6
! r~ \
~
0.10: CI.d gllSs SImple

~ 0
de L in te os ity s imu Ijtion
C hl"2
RA2
-1.31007
5
10
10
,2
= 0.25638
1 QQ834
10.0043
000084
10
v v
4
Angle of 10t.1llon
Figure 19(c):

1.99834
6
1\
48
~ 40
Vi
~r
lD
1:
3.2
I~
V
I~
n
I
o.to: CI.d Olus S.mple

Mod.1 intensity simuillion
C hi A 2
RA 2
02081Q
1 10363
5
,2
10
10
, Q8Q67
1000385
000084
10
e
Angle of lolalio n
Figure 19(d):
Plotting intensif)" with respcct to the angle of rotation for the
cladding glass sample. Non-lincar cun"c fitting yiclds a refractiyc index of

1.98967
Similarly refractive index values of 1.99537 and 1.99315 are obtained from Figs.
19(e-f) which correspond to the same measurement. Curve fitting is performed on
peaks 5-8 in Fig. 19(e) and peaks 6-10 in Fig. 19(f). An accuracy of upto two
decimals is observed.
{\
f\
4.8
'in
4.0
ID
1:
I~
!~ \
,
V ~
Data:Clad Glass Sample

Mod el: intens ity s im ulatio n
C hi"2
0.3068
R"2
-2.86367
a
b
n
5
O
-2
O
1.99537
0.00084
to .0031 9
to
3.2
IJ
6
Angle of rotation
Figure 19(e):
cladding glass sample. Non-linear cun'e fitting yields a refractive index of

1.99537
73
7
f\
6
1\
4.8
~
m
1:
3.2
,J
\l
10
1\
1\
II
1\
~
'Vi 4.0
Data: C lad Glass Sample

l~
Chi"2
RI\2
= 0.2Q257
= 2.72736
a
b
n
5
O
O
2
1.QQ315
0.00256
0.00084
Angle of Rotation
Figure 19(1):

1.99315
Finally, in Fig. 19(9), non-linear curve fitting is performed on peaks 6-9 on the right
side of thc centcr zero fringe. For scaling factors a and b choscn to be 5 and -2
rcspectively, an index value of2.01567 is observed.
74
Data: Clad Glass Sample

Chi"2
0.21593
RA 2
1.51313
a
b
n
d
5
2
O
O
2.01557 0.0025
0.00084
O
Angle of Rotation
Figure 19(9):
Plotting intensit)' with respect to the angle of rotation for the

2.01567
A bar graph is constructed from these measured vales in Figs. 19(a-g) to measure the
mean and standard deviation of the refractive index for the cladding glass sample, as
shO\\11 in Fig. 20
75
2.020
2.015
2.010
X 2.005
C1I
."s
~
2.000
'Q
(,)
1.995
1.990
1.985
Measurement no.
Figure 20: Refractive Index bar graph for Figs. 19 (a-g)
From the bar graph, the Mean of the refractivc index was mcasured to be 1.99848
with a standard dcviation of 0.00874. Hence it is observed that cladding refractivc
index is less than the core refractivc index by 1.43%.
76
Chapter 4: CONCLUSION:
We have successfully demonstrated a Michelson Interferometric technique for

measuring the refractive index of sodium zinc tellurite glasses based on the concept
of changing the path length of one arm of the interferometer by rotating the test
sample introduced into that optical path. The intensity of the waveform recorded is
plotted against the angle of rotation of the test sample and non-linear curve fitting is
done to obtain the refractive index to two digits of precision.
The average value of Refractive Index for BK7 Windows sample was measured from
the fits to be 1.51622 from the difference angle plots and 1.51773 from the intensity
plots with a standard deviation of 0.01023. This value is then compared with the ideal
value of refractive index of 1.51509 at room temperature for the BK7 sample and it is
observed that a precision of two digits of accuracy has been successfully attained. The
average value of refractive index for the core glass tellurite sample having the
composition 75Te02-20ZnO-5Na20-6KNb03 is observed to be 2.0275 with a
standard deviation of 0.0 1509. Similarly the average value of refractive index for the
cladding glass tellurite sample having the composition 75Te02-20ZnO-5Na20
obser..ed to be 1.99848 with a standard deviation of 0.00874.
77
IS
Chapter 5: FUTURE WORK
This work can be extended to develop a white-light interferometric technique to

measure the absolute phase shift and the refractive index for sodium zinc tellurite
samples. White light interferometry with the use of a tunable monochromator is a
very powerful technique which helps in determining the refractive index for different
wavelengths and is a very effective tool in determining the variation in index with
respect to wavelengths for these glasses.
A double interferometer based system which couples this scannmg Michelson
interferometric setup to a modified Mach-Zehnder interferometer (MZI) system has
been developed to obtain refractive index directly to four digits of precision 26 . The
main advantage here is that cross-correlation interferograms of the unbalanced
interferometer (with the sample inserted) can be accurately referenced to the zero
delay of the balanced interferometer (without the sample). So this difficulty, which is
the main source of errors in the measurement of first-order dispersion, espccially for
thick samples or strongly dispersivc materials is climinatcd using this mcthod. Hcncc
thc intcrferometric cxperimental sctup devclopcd in our rcscarch can be modified to a
doublc interfcrometcr systcm bascd on thc abovc principlcs to accuratcly detcnnine
thc rcfractivc indices for corc and cladding sodium zinc tclluritc glasscs to threc or
four digits of accuracy.
78
REFERENCES
1)
A. Michelson and E.W. Morley, Phi/os. Mag. S. 5,24 (151), 449-463 (1887)
2)
A. A. Michelson et ai., Conference on the Michelson-Morley Experiment,
Astrophysical Journal 68, 341 (1928)
3)
T. Fukano and 1. Yamaguchi, "Simultaneous measurement of thicknesses and
refractive indices of multiple layers by a low coherence confocal interference

microscope," Opt. Lell. 21, 1942-1944 (1996)
4)
P. A. Flournoy, R. W. McClure, and G. Wyntjes, "White-light interferometric

thickness gauge," App!. Opt. 11,1907-1915 (1972)
5)
J. Canning, A. L. G. Carter, and M. G. Sceats, "Correlation between

photodarkening and index change during 193 nm irradiation of germanosilicate
and phosphosilicate fibers," J. Lightwave Techno!. 15, 1348-1356 (1997)
6)
Monk, GeorgeS Light-Principles and experiments. McGraw Hill Book

Company, NY& London (1937)
7)
Fendley,J.J.
"Measurement
of
refractive
index
USIng
Michelson
interferometer'.Ph)'s.Educ.17, 209-211 (1982)

8)
Klein. ;"1.V. Optics. John Wiley, New York. Pg 572 (1970)
9)
Inoue. S. and Nokui. 1\.: Proceedings of the Int. C011( on Sciece and
Technology ofNell' Glasses, cd. Sakka S. and Saga, N.: Tokyo p. 77. (1991)
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11) Kim, S.-H.; Yoko, T. and Sakka, S.; 1. Am. Ceram. Soc. 76,2486. (1993)
12) A. Mori, H. Masuda, K. Shikano, K. Oikawa, K. Kato, and M. Shimizu, "Ultrawideband tellurite-based Raman fibre amplifier," Electron. Lett. 37, 1442-1443
(2001 )
13) R. Stegeman, L. Jankovic, H. Kim, C. Rivero, G. Stegeman, K. Richardson, P.
Delfyett, Y. Guo, A.Schulte, and T. Cardinal, "Tellurite glasses with peak
absolute Raman gain coefficients up to 30 times that of fused silica," Opt. Lett.
28, 1126-1128 (2003)
14) C. Rivero, K. Richardson, R. Stegeman, G. Stegeman, T. Cardinal, E. Fargin,
M. Couzi, and V.Rodriguez, "Quantifying Raman Gain Coefficients in Tellurite
Glasses," 1. NOll-C,yst. Sols. 345&346,396-401 (2004)
15) R. Stegeman, C. Rivero, K. Richardson, G. Stegeman, P. Delfyett, Y. Guo, A.
Pope, A. Schulte, T.Cardinal, P. Thomas, and J-c. Champamaud-Mesjard,
"Raman gain measurements of thallium-tellurium oxide glasses," Opt. Express
13, 1144-1149 (2005)
16) G. Dai, F. Tassone, A. Li Bassi, V. Russo, C.E. Bottani, and F. D'Amore,
"Te02-based glasses containing Nb205, Ti02, and \v03 for discrete Raman
fiber amplification," Photon. Tee/mol. Lett. 16, 1011-1013,(2004)
17) G.S. iv1urugan, T. Suzuki. and Y. Ohishi. "Tellurite glasses for ultrabroadband
fiber Raman amplifiers,"Appl. Phys. Lett. 86. 161109 (2005)
18) V. G. Plotnichenko, V. O. Sokolo\'. V. V. Koltashe\', E.
Grishin, and
~1.
~t.
Diano\" I. A.
F. Churbano\', "Raman band intensities of tclluritc glasscs."
Opr. Lett. 30, 1156-1158 (2005)
so
19) R. Rolli, K. Gatterer, M. Wachtler, M. Bettinelli, A. Speghini, and D.Ajo',

"Optical spectroscopy of lanthanide ions in ZnO-Te02 glasses,"Speclrochim.
AcIa, ParI A 57,2009-2017 (2001)
20) L.
Le Neindre, S. Jiang, B. C.
Hwang, T.
Luo, 1. Watson, and
N.Peyghambarian, "Effect of relative alkali content on absorption linewidth in

erbium-doped tellurite glasses," 1. Non-Crysl. Solids 255, 97-102 (1999)
21) (a) J. E. Stanworth, "Tellurite Glasses," Nalure, 169 [4301]581-82 (1952). (b) 1.
E. Stanworth, "Tellurite Glasses," 1.SOc. Glass Teclmol., 38 [183] 425-35T
(1954).
22) A. K. Yakhkind, "Tellurite Glasses," 1. Am. Ceram. Soc., 49 [12] 670-75
(1966).
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P. L. Baynton, H. Rawson, and 1. E. Stanworth; pp. 52-61 in Proceedings oflhe

Fourlh Infernalional Glass Congress, Paris, 1956. Imprimerie Chaix, Paris,
1957.
24) Aiko Narazaki, Katsuhisa Tanaka, Kazuyuki Hiraa, and Naahiro Saga, Journal
0.( Applied Physics, 83,8,3986-3990 (1998)
25) A. Osaka, J. Qiu, T. Fujii, T. Nanba, J. Takada, and Y. Miura, 1. Soc. Maler.
Sci. Jpn 42.473 (1993)
26) M.Galli. FJv1arabelli. G.Guizzetti. Applied Oplics. 42,19.3910 (2003)
81
VITA
Deepak. N. Iyer was born to Padma Narayanan and A.N.Iyer on May 14, 1983 in
Cannanore, India. He completed his high school from Modern School, Nagpur in
1998 with a position in the merit list being ranked 11 th in the national level CBSE
Exams. He completed his HSC from Shivaji Science College, Nagpur in 2000 with
distinction, being in the merit list. He obtained his Bachelors Degree in Electronics
and Telecommunication from Atharva College of Engineering, Mumbai University in
June 2004. In pursuit of higher education in the field of Optics, he was accepted into
the Masters Program in Electrical Engineering in Lehigh University in August 2004.
Since then he has been at Lehigh, working on this research work among other things.
82
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Lehigh University

A Michelson interferometric technique for

Follow this and additional works at: http://preserve.lehigh.edu/etd

A MICHELSON INTERFEROMETRIC TECHNIQUE FOR

Presented to the Graduate and Research Committee

This will be incomplete without thanking my parents, Padma Narayanan and

CHAPTER 1 MICHELSON INTERFEROMETER THEORY

Interference of waves with single frequency

1.3.1 Condition for interference- monochromatic light

Interference of two waves with different frequencies.

CHAPTER 2 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP FOR REFRACTIVE

Measuring refractive index by counting the number of fringes

2.1.1 Procedure for alignment

2.1.2 Theory behind rotating the sample

2.1.3 Derivation of the relationship between the refractive index,

3.1 Measuring the refractive index of BK7 Windows

3.1.1. Plotting angle of rotation with respect to the number of fringes

3.1.2. Difference Angle derivation

3.1.3. Plotting difference in angle of rotation with respect to the

3.1.4. Derivation of the expression for intensity in tenus of

3.1.5. Analysis of the stored \\'avefonn

3.1.6. Measuring the refractive index of BK7 Windows

to the angle of rotation

Intensity plots for measuring refractive index of

core glass sample

Intensity plots for measuring refractive index of

cladding glass sample

CHAPTER 5 FUTURE WORK

Figure 1: Schematic illustration of a Michelson interferometer

Figure 2: Formation of circles on interference

Figure 3: Beat Signal from two input frequencies into a

Figure 4: Michelson Interferometric setup for measuring refractive

Figure 5: Successive fields of view in interferometer alignment

Figure 6: Demonstrating the change in path length

Figure 7: Analysis of the sample being rotated

Figure 8: Michelson Interferometric setup for measuring refractive

Figure 9(a-d): Plotting cosine of the angle of rotation with respect to

Figure II (a-h): Plotting cosine of thc difference in angle of rotation with

Figure 12: Refractive Index bar graph for Figs. II (a-h)

Figure 13: Trapezoidal

Profile for the controller

Figure 15(a-I): Plotting intensity with respect to the angle of rotation

Figure 16: Refractive Index bar graph for Figs. 15(a-u)

Figure 18: Refractive Index bar graph for Figs. 17(a-l)

Figure 20: Refractive Index bar graph for Figs. 19 (a-g)

Table 1: The measured values of refractive indices presented in Figs. 9(a-d)

Table 2: Density, Hardness and Refractive Index of Zinc Tellurite Glasses

Table 3: Refractive Indices at 532 and 1064 nm and d 33 values of poled

The Michelson interferometer is an extremely versatile instrument that can be used to

CHAPTER 1: MICHELSON INTERFEROMETER-THEORY

The Michelson Interferometer, first developed by Albert Michelson in 1881, has

comparison of wavelengths, measure the refractive index of gases and transparent

1.2 Michelson Interferometer

Figure 1: Schematic illustration of a Michelson interferometer.

The Michelson interferometer operates on the principle of division of amplitude

1.3 Interference of Waves With a Single Frequency

So if two waves of the same frequency,

but of different amplitude and different

phase impinge on one point they are superimposed, or interfere, so that:

angles at any time I.

with A being the resultant amplitude and a the resultant phase.

where !1 is the phase difference which is givcn by

In a Michelson interferometer, light is split into two beams by the beamsplitter