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1: History and Purpose of Flexibility Analysis

The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) B31 Code for Pressure Piping was
developed with the expectation that piping system designers would be familiar with the
concept of flexibility. For this reason the B31 Codes never described or discussed in any
depth the intention of either performing a flexibility analysis or the results expected
therefrom. The flexibility equation, also referred to as the thermal expansion or displacement
stress equation,
SE = SQRT(Sb^2 + 4 St^2)
was incorporated into the 1955 Edition of B31.1 in Section 6, Chapter 3, Expansion and
Flexibility. In 1955 the B31.1 book had different sections for different applications, i.e.,
Section 1 for power piping, Section 2 for industrial gas and air piping, Section 3 for refinery
and oil transportation piping, Section 4 for district heating piping, and Section 5 for
refrigeration piping. But prior to 1955, in 1952, the B31.8 Gas Transmission and Distribution
Piping book was published, initiating the publication of the separate applications books we
have today, i.e., B31.1 Power Piping, B31.3 Process Piping, B31.4 Liquid Transportation
Piping, B31.5 Refrigeration Piping, and B31.9 Building Services Piping. Each of these
applications books, when published, incorporated the flexibility equation following a B31
code model outline developed in the 1950's. B31.8 also incorporated the flexibility equation
even though B31.8 did not follow the model outline owing to the fact that B31.8 was
published prior to the development of the B31 model outline.
The allowable flexibility stress-range for the 1955 Edition of B31.1 was based on the
expectation of elevated temperature operation and ductile behavior, and first introduced the
concept of self-springing or shakedown to ASME pressure component design. Generally, the
flexibility allowable stress-range was permitted to approach two times yield. However, the
pipeline codes, B31.4 and B31.8, never adopted the twice yield allowable stress-range
(shakedown) concept because it was expected that pipelines would experience nonductile
behavior. Code revisions over the years since 1955 have not served to clarify the concept of
flexibility and in many ways have obscured it. For example, B31.1 deleted a stress equation
which implied the methodology typically used for flexibility design.
The purpose of performing a flexibility analysis is to determine that, barring interferences and
assuming a supportable geometry, the anchor-to-anchor piping configuration (layout) is
acceptable. Adequate flexibility is required to avoid an expansion (or contraction) induced
fatigue failure and to limit anchor loads on equipment. A flexibility analysis typically (and
traditionally) evaluates the range of stresses encountered by piping system service startup
and shutdown. It is generally assumed that the startup-shutdown stress-range will bound the
other thermal expansion or displacement stress-ranges. The piping flexibility is evaluated
between equipment and structural anchors without locating any intermediate supports.
Weight stresses, then, would not be known. It is presumed that the intermediate supports for
weight and other loads can be added after determining that a piping system has adequate
flexibility without significantly increasing the flexibility stress-ranges. This is reflected in the
circa. 1955 B31 books having an allowable thermal expansion stress-range
SA = f(1.25Sc + 0.25Sh)
and permitting an additional thermal expansion stress-range allowance of Sh - SL, when the
stresses due to weight and other sustained loads, SL, were known.
After the flexibility analysis has determined that the piping has adequate flexibility, using the

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allowable thermal expansion or displacement stress-range, SA, then span tables and/or
engineering judgment is used to locate intermediate supports for weight and other loads. If
the thermal displacements at a proposed support point are negligible (i.e., very small), then a
rigid support can be located at that point. If the vertical thermal displacements are significant
at locations where weight supports are proposed, springs (variable or constant) can be used.
If the lateral thermal displacements are significant at locations where lateral supports are
proposed, gapped supports usually can be used. By use of support types that offer minimal
restraint throughout the startup-shutdown excursion, the flexibility stress-range is not
significantly increased and could be expected to be bounded by the additional thermal
expansion allowance, Sh - SL. (Note: Sh - SL is available in CAEPIPE as an Analysis Option
(under Code) "Use liberal allowable stresses," for certain piping codes that allow for it).
The entire flexibility design and analysis process assures that the effects of fatigue due to
thermal expansion, or more generally the restraint of free-end displacements, are minimized.
However, some caution in performing the flexibility analysis is necessary to see that other
frequently occurring normal and abnormal operating condition stress-ranges do not envelope
the startup-shutdown stress-range or to see that supports do not unduly restrain the load
induced expanding (or contracting) piping system.
Author: Mr. Ron Haupt, P. E., of Pressure Piping Engineering (www.ppea.net) is a member
of several piping code committees (B31, B31.1, B31.3, BPTCS, and others). He consults
with us in the capacity of Nuclear QA Manager.

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2: Piping Flexibility - General Considerations

Suppose that we have two vessels, T-1 and T-2, say 50 ft. apart and that we have to run a
pipe from T-1 to T-2 between two nozzles at the same elevation. Obviously, the most
economical way of doing this from the purely Piping aspect would be to join them with a
straight pipe as shown in fig. 1 below.

Figure 1
Now further suppose that everything is in carbon steel and the vessel T-1 has its
temperature raised to 350o F. When the valve A is opened, there will be an expansion
between the centers of T-1 and T-2 which can be found in the usual manner, viz.
Expansion rate for carbon steel at 350F= 2.26 ins/100 ft. (This value is taken from ANSI
B31.3 Table 319.3.1A)
Therefore Expansion = 50/100 x 2.26 = 1.13 inches.
One of two things can now happen (1)

As the pipe expands it will dent the sides of the vessels as shown in fig. 2.

Figure 2
(2)

As the pipe expands, it will buckle as shown in Fig 3.

Figure 3

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If the vessels are comparatively thin and the pipe of large diameter so that it can withstand a
high load before buckling, then the first case applies and the vessel walls will bend inwards
to accommodate the 1.13 inches expansion; if, on the other hand, the vessels are thick and
the pipe of small diameter, the alternative condition shown in fig. 3 will occur.
Now it is possible to calculate the stresses in the pipes and vessels for both of the systems
illustrated, but even if they come within the range of allowable stresses neither case would
be regarded as good engineering practice in the great majority of applications.
However, if the plot had been laid out differently, it would have also been possible to run the
pipe in two sections at right angles to each other, as shown in fig. 4.

Figure 4
With this configuration for the piping, as the point B moves out to B1 it is able to bend
the leg BC into the position B1C, and the longer the leg BC, the easier it becomes to
bend.
It is a simple matter to calculate the minimum length l of BC which will allow the expansion
to be absorbed whilst the stresses are restricted to a given value, and fig. 4 illustrates the
simplest concept of all in the field of Flexibility Analysis, namely that of Minimum Leg
Length.
Article Excerpted From SST 101: Piping Stress Analysis Seminar Notes.

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3: Tips for Flexible Layouts

Increasing flexibility is shown from left to right

A system for determining flexibility on an increasing scale is illustrated above. Each

prism shows pipe running between points A and F. In the one at the far left, the pipe
cuts across the face of the prism with leg CD. For this case, the pipe could cut across
any face or into the body of the prism. If calculation shows such a line to be
overstressed, another route must be chosen.
The center sketch shows the same anchor points A and F, but the pipe now runs
along the edges of the prism. The pipe could be run along any of the edges but not
across the surface or through the prism. This route is more flexible than that on its
left.
Suppose that the pipe in the center sketch is still overstressed. The sketch at far right
shows the line going outside the prism into space. It runs along the edges and then
into space to form a loop between points C and F. This route is the most flexible of
the three possible routes.
It is important to point out that the first route shown (far left) is the usual one and
piping is not necessarily overstressed because it follows this path. The three
sketches are used only to show the successive paths of increasing flexibility. The
prisms provide a means of visualizing, at a glance, a softer piping system. Even the
path at far right, however, can be overstressed if the loop between points C and F is
not large enough.
In laying out hot piping, one should at least consider the following:
1. The expansion of turbines, towers, heat exchangers etc. must be added to the
pipe expansion.
2. A heat exchanger is generally fixed at one end and free to slide at the other.
3. Long radius elbows are more flexible than five diameter bends. The elbows
produce lower forces but higher local stresses because of the flattening of a
curved member when it flexes. The five diameter bend flattens less therefore
produces higher forces but lower local stresses. These local stresses are of
course, in the bend or elbow itself.
4. Pumps, turbines and compressors must have low forces on them as required by
the manufacturer and in compliance with API 610/617 and NEMA SM-23. If the
stress in the piping adjacent to the equipment is limited to 5,000 psi, the forces
will generally be acceptable.

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5. Dead weight of piping must in most cases be carried by independent supports

and not by the pump, turbine or compressor. In the case of heat exchangers and
vessels and other non-rotating equipment, some of the piping dead weight loads
may be transferred to the nozzles but the designer MUST check with the
equipment designer first.
6. Always run a line with a thought as to how it will be supported. Lines should be
grouped whenever possible. If a line needs to be re-routed for the better support,
this should be done.
7. Cold spring is not the answer to lowering stresses in overstressed piping. The
Piping code does not permit this. It allows only a one third reduction in forces and
bending moments if the line is cut short by 50 percent of its total expansion.
8. The stress at flanged connections should be limited to 10,000 psi.

Article Excerpted From SST 101: Piping Stress Analysis Seminar Notes.

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4: Location of Supports and Restraints

The scope of the Pipe Support function is stated in the relevant clause of the applicable Piping code,
repeated here verbatim:

321.1.1 Objectives (From ANSI B31.3 code)

The layout and design of piping and its supporting elements shall be directed toward
preventing the following:
(1)

Piping stresses in excess of those permitted in the Code;

(2)

Leakage at joints;

(3)

Excessive thrusts and moments on connected equipment (such as pumps and

turbines);

(4)

Excessive stresses in the supporting or restraining elements;

(5)

Resonance with imposed or fluid-induced vibrations;

(6)

Excessive interference with thermal expansion and contraction in a piping system

which is otherwise adequately flexible;

(7)

Unintentional disengagement of piping from its supports;

(8)

Excessive piping sag in systems requiring drainage slope;

(9)

Excessive distortion or sag of piping (e.g. thermoplastics) subject to creep under

conditions of repeated thermal cycling;

(10)

Excessive heat flow, exposing supporting elements to temperature extremes

outside their design limits.

Placing Dead Weight Supports

Guidelines for placing deadweight supports
Locate dead weight supports using recommended spacing from the code (B31 etc.).
Consider existing support points.
Decrease span by half off equipment.
Decrease span for concentrated loads.
Support concentrated loads.
Support offset loads.
Decrease span for extra lagging or insulation.

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Locate supports at changes in direction (no overhung corners, top or bottom of risers).
Select type (rigid, spring, or constant support) based on thermal expansion analysis.
Preferred Attachment to "Structure"
Guidelines for dealing with structures when connected with piping.
Apply loads to columns and beams near main-member intersections to minimize bending
effects.
Avoid the introduction of unnecessary torsion or lateral bending effects.
Avoid the introduction of movements or transverse loading to slender members (such as
wind bracing) and particularly to compression members where instability controls the design.
Confine connections to an independent structure or a foundation when dealing with piping
subject to pulsating flow or transmitted mechanical vibration, unless a careful and
comprehensive analysis assures that the structures, buildings, etc., are of adequate strength
with nonresonant frequency and sufficient stiffness to control amplitude within the bounds
required by general comfort level of personnel.
Provide anchors and extremely flexible and nonresonant intervening pipe runs (e.g.,
expansion joints) to machinery that introduces mechanical vibrations, in order to isolate the
effect by reducing transmissibility.

Preferred Points of Attachment to Pipe

Guidelines for selecting preferred attachment points on piping
On a pipe rather than on piping components such as valves, fittings, or expansion joints.
Under highly localized loading, flanged or threaded joints may leak and valve bodies may
distort with resulting seat leakage or binding. Attachments to heavy components, however,
may be acceptable and even desirable where the effect can be properly provided for.
On straight runs rather than on sharp radius bends or welding elbows, since these are
already subjected to highly localized stresses on which the local effects of the attachment
would be superimposed. Furthermore, attachments on curved pipe which extend well along
the length or circumference of the bend will seriously alter the flexibility of the component.
On pipe runs which do not require frequent removals for cleaning and maintenance work.
As close as practical to heavy load concentrations such as vertical runs, branch lines,
motor operated or otherwise heavy valves, and minor vessels such as separators, strainers,
etc.

Article Excerpted From SST 101: Piping Stress Analysis Seminar Notes.

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6: Suggestions for Reducing Equipment Loading

Piping imposes loads on equipment nozzles. These loads may exceed the allowables
provided by the manufacturer or contained in guidelines such as the API 610.
The following guidelines may be helpful in reducing these piping loads on nozzles connected
to equipment.
1. If the dead loads exceed the allowable,
- Ensure the piping system is adequately supported,
- Remove unneeded supports; they may be the cause of the problem.
2. If the thermal loads exceed the allowable,
- Check the design and operating temperatures. Consult the process engineer to
obtain correct or reasonable values for different operating conditions.
3. Try modifying the piping support system and layout
- Add expansion loops if apt,
- Use expansion joints or other flexible joints,
- Consider spring mounted pumps,
- Modify the layout of piping by rerouting,
- Use guides or anchors at strategic locations,
- Use reinforcing pads on vessel nozzles.

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7: Introduction to Code Terminology Used By CAEPIPE

Many times, engineers from non-piping backgrounds get assigned to piping stress jobs. One
of the their most frequently asked questions is:
What do SL, SE, SH, SA, etc. mean?
Reply: These notations are commonly found in ANSI piping codes such as B31.1, B31.3,
B31.8 etc. A few international codes contain and use the same notations, too.
Briefly, CAEPIPE or any similar program that performs code compliance calculations needs
to calculate three types of stresses, generally. They are Sustained, Expansion and
Occasional stresses. These notations arise mainly out of stress calculations.
Sustained Stress: SL,
Corresponding allowable stress, called hot allowable stress (because the allowable is given
in the code for the specific input temperature): SH
Expansion Stress: SE
Corresponding allowable stress (also called allowable displacement stress range),: SA
Occasional Stress: SL+SO (stress is calculated based on a combination of sustained and
occasional loads)
P: Allowable pressure for straight pipes and bends
Slp : Longitudinal pressure stress
MA, MB and MC: Resultant moments due to sustained, occasional and expansion loads,
respectively.
Z: Section modulus of pipe (pi /32) * (D4 d4)/D
Where D = OD of pipe, d = ID of pipe, and pi = constant (3.14159)
One can become familiar with this terminology after a cursory perusal of the code (Design
section). Or, scan through the pages of Appendix A of the CAEPIPE Users Manual.
Conclusion:
We hope this brief primer got you started in the field of piping stress analysis (for
newbies) and was a useful refresher for experienced analysts. Should you have
found any errors or relevant omissions, please inform us (info@sstusa.com) so we
can correct them.
In case, you still have not downloaded CAEPIPE, we strongly urge you to do so
because of its many benefits. As trite as this may sound, CAEPIPE will certainly save
you money and time. You ought to give it a chance to prove it to you.

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