Konbaung Dynasty - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

Konbaung Dynasty - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konbaung_Dynasty
Konbaung Dynasty
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The Konbaung Dynasty (Burmese: , pronounced: [kb

k], formerly the Alompra Dynasty) was the last dynasty that ruled Burma
(Myanmar), from 1752 to 1885. It created the second-largest empire in
Burmese history and continued the administrative reforms begun by the
Toungoo dynasty, laying the foundations of the modern state of Burma. The
reforms, however, proved insufficient to stem the advance of the British, who
defeated the Burmese in all three Anglo-Burmese wars over a six-decade span
(18241885) and ended the millennium-old Burmese monarchy in 1885.
An expansionist dynasty, the Konbaung kings waged campaigns against
Manipur, Arakan, Assam, the Mon kingdom of Pegu and the Siamese kingdom
of Ayutthaya, thus establishing the Third Burmese Empire. Subject to later
wars and treaties with the British, the modern state of Burma can trace its
current borders to these events.
Konbaung Dynasty
Kingdom
Throughout Konbaung Dynasty, the capital was relocated several times for
religious, political, and strategic reasons.
Flag
Capital
Shwebo (17521760)
Sagaing (17601765)
Ava (17651783,
18211842)
Amarapura
(17831821,
18421859)
Mandalay
(18591885)
Languages
Burmese
Religion
Theravada Buddhism
Government
Monarchy
King
- 17521760
- 18781885
Alaungpaya (first)
Thibaw (last)
Legislature
Hluttaw
Historical era
- Founding of
dynasty
- Reunification of
Burma
- Wars with Siam
- Chinese invasions
- Anglo-Burmese
Wars
- End of dynasty
Early modern period
Contents
1 History
1.1 Establishment
1.2 Reforms
1.3 Relations with Siam
1.4 Relations with China
1.5 Relations with the British and downfall
2 Government
2.1 Administrative divisions
2.2 Royal agencies
2.3 Royal service
2.4 Royal court
2.5 Military
2.6 Royal rituals
2.6.1 Consecration ceremonies (abhiseka)
2.6.2 Coronation
2.6.3 Installation of the Crown Prince
2.6.4 Feeding of the first betel
2.6.5 Naming ceremony
2.6.6 Royal Ploughing Ceremony
2.6.7 Head-washing ceremony
2.6.8 Obeisance ceremony
2.6.9 Ancestor worship
2.6.10 Funerals
2.6.11 Foundation sacrifice
2.6.12 Devotional rituals
3 Society and culture
3.1 Social classes
3.2 Sumptuary laws
3.3 Demography
17521885
29 February 1752
17521757
17601854
17651769
18241826, 1852,
1885
29 November 1885
Area
- 1824[1]
- 1826
794,000 km
(306,565 sq mi)
584,000 km
(225,484 sq mi)
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- 1852
3.4 Literature and arts

3.5 Architecture
3.6 Religion
4 Rulers
4.1 Family tree
5 See also
6 Notes
7 References
8 External links
- 1875
Population
- 1824[1] est.
Density
Currency
Today part of
History
470,000 km
(181,468 sq mi)
460,000 km
(177,607 sq mi)
3,000,000
3.8 /km (9.8 /sq mi)
Kyat
Burma
China
India
Laos
Thailand
Establishment
The dynasty was founded by a village chief, who later became known as Alaungpaya, in 1752 to challenge the Restored
Hanthawaddy Kingdom which had just toppled the Toungoo dynasty. By 1759, Alaungpaya's forces had reunited all of Burma
(and Manipur), and driven out the French and the British who had provided arms to Hanthawaddy.[2]
Alaungpaya's second son, Hsinbyushin, came to the throne after a short reign by his
elder brother, Naungdawgyi (17601763). He continued his father's expansionist policy
and finally took Ayutthaya in 1767, after seven years of fighting.
Reforms
Lion Throne in the throne hall of the

royal palace of Amarapura (Painting
by Colesworthy Grant, 1855.
Realizing the need to modernize, the Konbaung rulers tried to enact various reforms
with limited success. King Mindon with his able brother Crown Prince Kanaung
established state-owned factories to produce modern weaponry and goods; in the end,
these factories proved more costly than effective in staving off foreign invasion and
conquest.
Mindon also tried to reduce the tax burden by lowering the heavy income tax and
created a property tax, as well as duties on foreign exports. Ironically, these policies had the reverse effect of increasing the tax
burden, as the local elites used the opportunity to enact new taxes without lowering the old ones; they were able to do so as
control from the centre was weak. In addition, the duties on foreign exports stifled the burgeoning trade and commerce.
Konbaung kings extended administrative reforms begun in the Restored Toungoo Dynasty period (15991752), and achieved
unprecedented levels of internal control and external expansion. They tightened control in the lowlands and reduced the
hereditary privileges of Shan chiefs. They also instituted commercial reforms that increased government income and rendered
it more predictable. Money economy continued to gain ground. In 1857, the crown inaugurated a full-fledged system of cash
taxes and salaries, assisted by the country's first standardized silver coinage.[3]
Nonetheless, the extent and pace of reforms were uneven and ultimately proved insufficient to stem the advance of British
colonialism.[4]
Relations with Siam

In 1760, Burma began a series of wars with Siam that would last well into the middle of the 19th century. By 1770,
Alaungpaya's heirs had temporarily defeated Siam (1767), subdued much of Laos (1765) and defeated four invasions by Qing
China (17651769).[5] With the Burmese preoccupied for another two decades by another impending invasion by the
Chinese,[6] the Siamese recovered their territories by 1770, and went on to capture Lan Na by 1776.[7] Burma and Siam went
to war until 1855 but after decades of war, the two countries exchanged Tenasserim (to Burma) and Lan Na (to Siam).
Relations with China
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In the defence of its realm, the dynasty fought four wars successfully against the Qing Dynasty of China which saw the threat
of the expansion of Burmese power in the East. In 1770, despite his victory over the Chinese armies, King Hsinbyushin sued
for peace with China and concluded a treaty in order to maintain bilateral trade with the Middle Kingdom which was very
important for the dynasty at that time. The Qing Dynasty then opened up its markets and restored trading with Burma in 1788
after reconciliation. Thenceforth peaceful and friendly relations prevailed between China and Burma for a long time.
Relations with the British and downfall

Faced with a powerful China and a resurgent Siam in the east, Bodawpaya acquired western kingdoms of Arakan (1784),
Manipur (1814) and Assam (1817), leading to a long ill-defined border with British India.[8]
Europeans began to set up trading posts in the Irrawaddy delta region during this period. Konbaung tried to maintain its
independence by balancing between the French and the British. In the end it failed, the British severed diplomatic relations in
1811, and the dynasty fought and lost three wars against the British Empire, culminating in total annexation of Burma by the
British.
The British decisively defeated the Burmese in the First Anglo-Burmese War (18241826). Burma was forced to cede Arakan,
Manipur, Assam and Tenasserim, and pay a large indemnity of one million pounds.
In 1837, King Bagyidaw's brother, Tharrawaddy, seized the throne, put Bagyidaw under house arrest, and executed the chief
queen Me Nu and her brother.[9] Tharrawaddy made no attempt to improve relations with Britain.
His son Pagan, who became king in 1846, executed thousands some sources say as
many as 6,000 of his wealthier and more influential subjects on trumped-up
charges.[10] During his reign, relations with the British became increasingly strained. In
1852, the Second Anglo-Burmese War broke out. Pagan was succeeded by his younger
brother, the progressive Mindon. Mindon attempted to bring Burma into greater contact
with the outside world, and hosted the Fifth Great Buddhist Synod in 1872 at
Mandalay, gaining the respect of the British and the admiration of his own people.
Mindon avoided annexation in 1875 by ceding the Karenni States. He died before he
could name a successor, and Thibaw, a lesser prince, was manoeuvred onto the throne
by Hsinbyumashin, one of Mindon's queens, together with her daughter, Supayalat.
(Rudyard Kipling mentions her as Thibaw's queen, and borrows her name, in his poem
The Road to Mandalay) The new King Thibaw proceeded, under Supayalat's direction,
to massacre all likely contenders to the throne. This massacre was conducted by the
queen.
The dynasty came to an end in 1885 with the forced abdication and exile of the king
and the royal family to India. The British, alarmed by the consolidation of French
Indochina, annexed the remainder of the country in the Third Anglo-Burmese War in
1885. The annexation was announced in the British parliament as a New Year gift to
Queen Victoria on 1 January 1886.
The last king, Thibaw Min (right),

here with Queen Supayalat and her
sister Princess Supayagyi, was
forcibly deposed in a war with the
British colonialists in 1885.
Although the dynasty had conquered vast tracts of territory, its direct power was
limited to its capital and the fertile plains of the Irrawaddy valley. The Konbaung rulers enacted harsh levies and had a difficult
time fighting internal rebellions. At various times, the Shan states paid tribute to the Konbaung Dynasty, but unlike the Mon
lands, were never directly controlled by the Burmese.
Government
The Konbaung Dynasty was an absolute monarchy. As in the rest of Southeast Asia, the traditional concept of kingship aspired
to the Chakravartin (Universal Monarchs) creating their own mandala or field of power within the Jambudipa universe, along
with the possession of the white elephant which allowed them to assume the title Hsinbyushin or Hsinbyumyashin (Lord of the
White Elephants), played a significant role in their endeavours. Of more earthly importance was the historical threat of
periodic raids and aiding of internal rebellions as well as invasion and imposition of overlordship from the neighbouring
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kingdoms of the Mon, Tai Shans and Manipuris.[11]
Administrative divisions
The kingdom was divided into provinces called myo ( ). [12][13] These provinces
were administered by Myosa ( ),
who were members of the royal family or
the highest-ranking officials of the Hluttaw.[14] They collected revenue for the royal
government, payable to the Shwedaik (Royal Treasury) in fixed installments and
retained whatever was leftover.[14] Each myo was subdivided into districts called taik
(), which contained collections of villages called ywa ( ).[12]
A traditional painting by Saya Chone

depicts the abdication of King
Thibaw.
The kingdom's peripheral coastal provinces (Pegu, Tenasserim, Martaban and Arakan)
were administered by a Viceroy called a Myowun, who was appointed by the king and
possessed civil, judicial, fiscal and military powers.[14] Provincial councils (myoyon) consisted of myo saye (town scribes),
nakhandaw (receivers of royal orders), sitke (chiefs of war), htaunghmu (jailer), ayatgaung (head of the quarter), and dagahmu
(warden of the gates).[15] Each province was divided into districts called myo, each led by a myo ok (if appointed), or by a myo
thugyi (if the office was hereditary).[15] The Viceroy of Pegu was assisted by several additional officials, including an
akhunwun (revenue officer), akaukwun (customs collector), and a yewun (conservator of port).[16]
The outlying tributary fiefdoms on the edges of the kingdom were autonomous in practice and nominally administered by the
king.[17] These included the Tai-speaking (what became the Shan States during British rule), Palaung, Kachin and Manipuri
kingdoms. The tributary princes of these fiefdoms regularly pledged allegiance and offered tribute to the Konbaung kings
(through rituals called gadaw pwedaw)[18] and were accorded with royal privileges and designated sawbwa (from Shan
saopha, 'lord of the sky')[17][19] In particular, the families of Shan sawbwas regularly intermarried into Burmese aristocracy
and had close contact with the Konbaung court.[17]
Royal agencies
The government was centrally administered by several advisory royal agencies, following a pattern established during the
Taungoo Dynasty.[20]
The Hluttaw ( , lit. "place of royal release," c.f. Council of State)[21] held legislative, ministerial and judicial
functions, administering the royal government as delegated by the king.[21] Sessions at the Hluttaw were held for 6 hours daily,
from 6 to 9 am, and from noon to 3 pm.[22] Listed by rank, the Hluttaw was composed of:
Head of the Council - the king, his heir apparent, or a high-ranking prince who presided over the Hluttaw as its nominal
head.[23]
Wunshindaw ( , Prime Minister) - served as the Chief Minister of the Hluttaw, an office established during
the reign of Mindon Min and most notably served by the Kinwun Mingyi U Kaung[23][24][25]
Four Wungyi () - jointly administered the Hluttaw's administrative portfolio and shared joint responsibility for
the kingdom's administration.[21][26]
Four Wundauk () - served as deputies to the Wungyi
Myinzugyi Wun ( , lit. "Minister of the Cavalry Regiments") - as the highest regular army position,
oversaw the Tatmadaw.[27]
Athi Wun (, lit. "Minister of the Athi") - responsible for allocating corve labour resources and mobilization of
taxpaying commoners, called athi, during wartime[21][27]
The Byedaik (
, lit. "Bachelor Chambers," with Bye stemming from Mon blai , "bachelor") served as the Privy
Council by handling the court's internal affairs and also served as an interlocutor between the king and other royal agencies.[27]
The Byedaik consisted of:
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Eight Atwinwun ( , c.f. 'Ministers of the Interior')- communicated business affairs of the Hluttaw to the king,
administered internal transactions of general affairs relating to the royal court.[28]
Thandawzin (
, "Heralds") - performed secretarial duties and attended king's audiences to note king's
orders and forward them to Hluttaw for inscription.[29]
Simihtunhmu ( , lit. "Lamp Lighthers") - kept a list of all persons sleeping in the palace[30]
Hteindeinyanhmu ( , "caretakers of royal appointments") - performed menial tasks such as
maintaining the palace furniture, draperies and other appointments[31]
The Shwedaik ( ) was the Royal Treasury, and as such, served as the repository of the state's precious metals and
treasures.[32] Moreover, the Shwedaik retained the state's archives and maintained various records, including detailed
genealogies of hereditary officials and census reports.[32][31] The Shwedaik was composed of:
Shwedaik Wun ( ) - Chancellor of the Exchequer[31]
Shwedaik Saw ( ) - Governor of the Treasury[31]
Shwedaik Kyat ( ) - Superintendent[31]
Shwedaik Saye ( ) - Clerk of the Treasury[31]
Shwedaik Thawkaing (
) - Keeper of the Treasury Key[31]

Royal service
Each royal agency included a large retinue of middle and low level officials responsible
for day-to-day affairs. These included the:
Nakhandaw () - charged with conveying communications to and
from the King and Hluttaw.[33] Also served as intermediary between royal
agencies and between king and ministers.[32] Collected, sorted, interpreted
reports, read proclamations at official gatherings, transmitted orders to provincial
councils.[32]
Sayedawgyi (; great chief clerks) - performed executive
level work and preliminary investigations for trials[33]
Saye (; clerks)
Ameindawgyi ( ; writers of great orders) - prepared and
issued royal orders after necessary preliminary steps had been taken.[33]
Athonsaye (; clerks of works) - oversaw construction and repairs of
all public buildings[33]
Ahmadawye (; recorders of orders) - drafted orders and
A royal scribe, 1855.
letters to be issued by Hluttaw[33]

Awayyauk (; distant arrivals) - received and read letters coming from distance before submission to
ministers[33]
Thandawgan () - ceremonial officers who received letters on behalf of the king[34]
and 3 classes of ceremonial officers:
1. Letsaungsaye (clerks of presents) - read lists of offerings made to the King at royal functions[34]
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2. Yonzaw (master of ceremonies) - arranged royal functions and audiences of the King[34]
3. Thissadawge (recorders of great oaths) - administered oaths of fealty to those entering the royal service[34]
Royal court
Konbaung society was centred on the king, who took many wives and fathered
numerous children, creating a huge extended royal family which formed the power
base of the dynasty and competed over influence at the royal court. It also posed
problems of succession at the same time often resulting in royal massacres.
The Lawka Byuha Kyan ( ), also known as the Inyon Sadan
(), is the earliest extant work on Burmese court protocols and
customs.[35] The work was written by the Inyon Wungyi Thiri Uzana, also known as
the Inyon Ywaza, during the reign of Alaungpaya, the founder of the Konbaung
dynasty.[36]
"Royal Audience," a traditional

painting by Saya Chone.
Royal court life in the Konbaung dynasty consisted of both codified rituals and
ceremonies and those that were innovated with the progression of the dynasty. Many
ceremonies were composed of Hindu ideas localized and adapted to existing traditions, both Burmese and Buddhist in origin.
These rituals were also used to legitimize the rule of Burmese kings, as the Konbaung monarchs claimed descent from Maha
Sammata through the Sakyan clan (of which Gotama Buddha was a member). Life in the royal court was closely regulated.
Eunuchs ( ) oversaw the ladies of the royal household and apartments.[37] Inferior queens and concubines could not
reside in the main palace buildings.[37]
Brahmins, generally known as ponna () in Burmese, served as specialists for
ritual ceremonies, astrology, and devotional rites to Hindu deities at the Konbaung
court.[38] They played an essential role in king-making rituals, consecration and
ablution ceremonies called abhiseka (
) .[39] Court Brahmins (,
parohita) were well embedded in daily life at the court, advising and consulting the
king on various matters.[40] A social hierarchy among the Brahmins determined their
respective duties and functions.[40] Astrologer Brahmins called huya () were
responsible for determining astrological calculations, such as determining the
auspicious moment for the foundation of a new capital, a new palace, pagoda, or
assumption of the royal residence, announcing an appointment, leaving a place, visiting
a pagoda or starting a military campaign.[41] They also established the religious
calendar, prepared the almanac ( ), calculated upcoming solar and lunar
eclipses, identified major festival days based on the lunar cycle, and communicated
auspicious times and dates.[41] A special group of Brahmins who performed abhiseka
rituals were also selected as pyinnya shi ( ), appointed royal counselors.[42]
Military
Royal rituals
The King and Queen observing a

ceremony involving riders on
horseback. From a 18th-century
parabeik (picture book)
Lavish affairs were also organised around the life ceremonies of royal family members.[43] Brahmins presided over many of
these auspicious ceremonies, including the construction of a new royal capital; consecration of the new palace, the royal
ploughing ceremony; the naming, first rice feeding and cradling ceremonies; the abhiseka head anointing rituals, and the
King's participation in Burmese New Year (Thingyan) celebrations.[44] During Thingyan, a group of 8 Brahmins sprinkled
water blessed by a group of 8 Buddhist monks, throughout the palace grounds, at the Hluttaw, various courts, the major city
gates, and the 4 corners of the capital.[44] The king attended many of the ceremonies involving royal family members, from
cradling ceremonies () to ear-boring ceremonies, from marriages to funerals.[43]
Specific buildings in the royal palace served as the venue for various life ceremonies. For instance, the Great Audience Hall
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was where young princes underwent the shinbyu coming-of-age ceremony and were ordained as monk novices.[45] This was
also the venue where young princes ceremonially had their hair tied in a topknot ( ).
[45] Elaborate Burmese New
Year feasts took place at the Hmannandawgyi (Palace of Mirrors): on the third day of the New Year, the king and chief queen
partook in Thingyan rice, cooked rice dipped in cold perfumed water, while seated on their throne.[46] Musical and dramatic
performances and other feasts were also held in that complex.[46]
Consecration ceremonies (abhiseka)
The most significant court functions of a king's reign were the abhiseka or consecratory
rituals, held at various times throughout a king's reign, to reinforce his place as the
patron of religion (Sasana) and righteousness.[43] Abhiseka rituals all involved the
pouring of water from a conch on the candidate's (usually the king's) head, instructing
him what to do or not to do for the love of his people and warning him that if he failed
to oblige, he might suffer certain miseries.[44] Ablution rituals were the responsibility
of a group of 8 elite Brahmins uniquely qualified to perform the ritual.[44] They were to
remain chaste before the ceremony.[44] Another group of Brahmins was responsible for
the consecration of the Crown Prince.[44]
There were 14 types of abhiseka ceremonies in total:[44]
1. Rajabhiseka (
) - coronation of the king
A nineteenth-century watercolor
painting by royal painters depicts an
Konbaung abhiseka ceremony. The
king and queen are respectively
seated in the pavilion, surrounded by
a retinue of Brahmins.
2. Muddhabhiseka (
) - formal vow by the king to work for the
propagation of the Sasana (Buddha's teachings); held five years after accession[47][44]
3. Uparajabhiseka () - installation of crown prince[47]
4. Mahesibhiseka (
) - coronation of chief queen[47]
5. Mangalabhiseka () - held to celebrate the possession of white elephants[47]
6. Siriyabhiseka () - held to renew the king's glory, held on occasion[47]
7. Ayudigabhiseka () - held to gain longevity, held on occasion[47]
8. Jeyyabhiseka () - held to ensure victory and success in war[47]
9. Mahabhiseka () - held to increase economic prosperity, held seven years after accession[47]
10. Sakalabhiseka () - held to ensure peace in the kingdom[47]
11. Vijayabhiseka () - held to conquer enemies[44]
12. Mandabhiseka (Manda beittheit) - held to marry the candidate to a queen of royal lineage.[48]
13. Singabhiseka (Thenga beittheit) - held to recommit a king to abide by the laws, whereupon full powers for the
government and administration of the country are conferred[48]
Coronation
Rajabhiseka (
) - the Coronation of the king, which was presided over by Brahmins, was the most important ritual
[47][49]
of the royal court.
The ceremony was typically held in the Burmese month of Kason, but did not necessarily occur
during the beginning of a reign.[49][47] The Sasanalinkaya states that Bodawphaya, like his father, was coronated only after
establishing control over the kingdom's administration and purifying the religious institutions.[49] The most important features
of this ritual were: the fetching of the anointing water; the ceremonial bath; the anointment; and the king's oath.[50]
Elaborate preparations were made precisely for this ceremony. Three ceremonial pavilions (Sihasana or Lion Throne;
Gajasana or Elephant Throne; and the Marasana or Peacock Throne) were constructed in a specifically designated plot of land
(called the "peacock garden") for this occasion.[51] Offerings were also made to deities and Buddhist parittas were chanted.[47]
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Specially designated individuals, usually the daughters of dignitaries including merchants and Brahmins, were tasked with
procuring anointing water midstream from a river.[52] The water was placed in the respective pavilions.[53]
At an auspicious moment, the king was dressed in the costume of a Brahma, and the queen in that of a queen from
devaloka.[54] The couple was escorted to the pavilions in procession, accompanied by a white horse or a white elephant.[55][54]
The king first bathed his body in the Morasana pavilion, then his head in the Gajasana pavilion.[56] He then entered the
Sihasana pavilion to assume his seat at the coronation throne, crafted to resemble a blooming lotus flower, made of figwood
and applied gold leaf.[56] Brahmins handed him the five articles of coronation regalia (, Min Myauk Taza):
1. White umbrella ( , hti byu)[57]
2. Crown, in the form of a crested headdress (, magaik)[57]
3. Sceptre (, thanlyet)[57]
4. Sandals (, che nin)[57]
5. Fly-whisk, made of yak tail ( , thamyi yat)[57]
At his throne, eight princesses anointed the king by pouring specially procured water atop his head, each using a conch
bedazzled with gems white solemnly adjuring him in formulae to rule justly.[56][55] Brahmins then raised a white umbrella
over the king's head.[55] This anointment was repeated by eight pure-blooded Brahmins and eight merchants.[58] Afterward,
the king repeated words ascribed to Buddha at birth: "I am foremost in all the world! I am most excellent in all the world! I am
peerless in all the world!" and made invocation by pouring water from a golden ewer.[55] The ritual ended with the king taking
refuge in the Three Jewels.[55]
As part of the coronation, prisoners were released.[58] The king and his pageant returned to the Palace, and the ceremonial
pavilions were dismantled and cast into the river.[59] Seven days after the ceremony, the king and members of the royal family
made an inaugural procession, circling the city moat on a gilt state barge, amid festive music and spectators.[48]
Installation of the Crown Prince
Uparajabhiseka () - the Installation of the Uparaja (Crown Prince), in Burmese Einshe Min ( ), was
one of the most important rituals in the king's reign. The Installation Ceremony took place in the Byedaik (Privy Council).[60]
The Crown Prince was invested, received appenages and insignias, and was bestowed a multitude of gifts.[61] The king also
formally appointed a retinue of household staff to oversee the Prince's public and private affairs.[62] Afterward, the Crown
Prince was paraded to his new Palace, commiserate with his new rank.[63] Preparations for a royal wedding with a princess,
specially groomed to become the new king's consort, then commenced.[63]
Feeding of the first betel
Kun U Khun Mingala () - the Feeding of the First Betel ceremony was held about 75 days after the birth of a
prince or princess to bolster the newborn child's health, prosperity and beauty.[64] The ceremony involved the feeding of betel,
mixed with camphor and other ingredients. An appointed official () arranged the rituals preceding the ceremony.[64] These
rituals included a specific set of offerings to the Buddha, indigenous spirits (yokkaso, akathaso, bhummaso, etc.), Guardians of
the Sasana, and to the parents and grandparents of the child, all of which were arranged in the infant's chamber.[65] Additional
offerings were made to the Hundred Phi (), a group of 100 Siamese spirits headed by Nandi (
),
personified by a Brahmin figure made of kusa grass, which was ceremonially fed scoops of cooked rice with the left
hand.[65][66]
Naming ceremony
Namakarana () the naming ceremony took place 100 days after the birth of a prince or princess.[65] Food was
also offered for the dignitaries and entertainers in attendance.[67] The infant's name was inscribed on a gold plate or on palm
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leaf.[67] The night before the ceremony, a pwe was held for the attendees.[67] The dawn of the ceremony, Buddhist monks
delivered a sermon to the court.[66] Afterward, at the Chief Queen's apartment, the infant was seated on a divan with the Chief
Queen, with respective attendees from the royal court seated according to rank.[68] A Minister of the Interior then presided
over ceremonial offerings () made to the Triple Gem, the 11 deva headed by Thagyamin, 9 Hindu deities, indigenous nat,
and the 100 Phi.[69][68] A protective prayer was then recited.[70] After the prayer, a pyinnyashi prepared and 'fed' Nandi. At the
auspicious moment calculated by astrologers, the name of the infant was read out thrice by the royal herald.[70] Afterward,
another royal herald recited an inventory of presents offered by the dignitaries in attendance.[70] At the closing of the
ceremony, a feast ensued, with attendees fed in the order of precedence.[70] Offerings to the Buddha were shuttled to the
pagodas, and those to Nandi, to the sacrificial Brahmins.[70]
Royal Ploughing Ceremony
Lehtun Mingala (

)[71] - the Royal Ploughing Ceremony was an annual
festival of breaking ground with ploughs in the royal fields east of the royal capital, to
ensure sufficient rainfall for the year by propitiating the Moekhaung Nat, who was
believed to control rain.[37][72] The ceremony was traditionally linked to an event in
Gotama Buddha's life. During King Suddhodana's royal ploughing of the fields, the
infant Buddha rose to stand, sat cross-legged and began to meditate, underneath the
shade of a rose apple tree.[73]
The ceremony was held at the beginning of June, at the break of the southwest
A depiction of the Royal Ploughing
monsoon.[74] For the ceremony, the king, clad in state robes (a paso with the peacock
emblem (daungyut)), a long silk surcoat or tunic encrusted with jewels, a spire-like
Ceremony by Saya Chone, a painter
crown (tharaphu), and 24 strings of the salwe across his chest, and a gold plate or
at the royal court.
frontlet over his forehead) and his audience made a procession to the leya (royal
fields).[75] At the ledawgyi, a specially designated plot of land, milk-white oxen were
attached to royal ploughs covered with gold leaf, stood ready for plowing by ministers, princes and the kings.[76] The oxen
were decorated with gold and crimson bands, reins bedecked with rubies and diamonds, and heavy gold tassels hung from the
gilded horns.[76] The king initiated the ploughing, and shared this duty among himself, ministers and the princes.[77] After the
ceremonial ploughing of the ledawgyi was complete, festivities sprung up throughout the royal capital.[77]
Head-washing ceremony
At Thingyan and at the end of the Buddhist lent, the king's head was ceremonially washed with water from Gaungsay Gyun
(lit. Head Washing Island) between Martaban and Moulmein, near the mouth of the Salween River.[78] After the Second
Anglo-Burmese War (which resulted in Gaungsay Gyun falling under British possession), purified water from Irrawaddy River
was instead procured. This ceremony also preceded the earboring, headdressing, and marriage ceremonies of the royal
family.[79]
Obeisance ceremony
The Obeisance ceremony was a grand ceremony held at the Great Audience Hall thrice a year where tributary princes and
courtiers laid tribute, paid homage to their benefactor, the Konbaung king, and swore their allegiance to the monarchy.[37] The
ceremony was held 3 times a year:
1. Hnit Thit Gadaw ( ) [80] - Beginning of the Burmese New Year (April)[45]
2. Wa-win Gadaw () [80] - Beginning of the Buddhist Lent (June or July) - required the attendance of princes,
ministers and city officials[45]
3. Wa-gyut Gadaw ( ) [80] - End of the Buddhist Lent (October) - required the attendance of provincial
governors and tributary princes (sawbwa)[45]
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During this ceremony, the king was seated at the Lion Throne, along with the chief queen, to his right.[45] The Crown Prince
was seated immediately before the throne in a cradle-like seat, followed by princes of the blood (min nyi min tha).[45]
Constituting the audience were courtiers and dignitaries from vassal states, who were seated according to rank, known in
Burmese as Neya Nga Thwe () :[45]
1. Taw Neya ();[81]
2. Du Neya ();[81]
3. Sani ();[81]
4. Atwin Bawaw ( );[81]
5. Apyin Bawaw ()[81]
There, the audience paid obeisance to the monarch and renewed their allgeiance to the monarch.[45] Women, barring the chief
queen, were not permitted to be seen during these ceremonies.[45] Lesser queens, ministers' wives and other officials were
seated in a room behind the throne: the queens were seated in the centre within the railing surrounding the flight of steps,
while the wives of ministers and others sat in the space without.[45]
Ancestor worship
Throughout the Konbaung Dynasty, the royal family performed ancestral rites to honor their immediate ancestors. These rites
were performed at the thrice a year at the Zetawunsaung (Jetavana Hall or "Hall of Victory"), which housed the Goose Throne
(), immediately preceding the Obeisance Ceremony.[82] On a platform in a room to the west of hall, the king
and members of the royal family paid obeisance to images of monarchs and consorts of the Konbaung dynasty. Offerings and
Pali prayers from a book of odes were also made to the images.[82] The images, which stood 6 to 24 inches (150 to 610 mm)
tall, were made of solid gold.[83] Images were only made for Konbaung kings at their death (if he died on the throne) or for
Konbaung queens (if she died while her consort was on throne), but not of a king who died after deposition or a queen who
survived her husband.[83] Items used by the deceased personage (e.g. sword, spear, betel box) were preserved along with the
associated image.[83] After the British conquest of Upper Burma, 11 images fell into the hands of the Superintendent at the
Governor's Residence, Bengal, where they were melted down.[83]
Funerals
When a king died, his royal white umbrella was broken and the great drum and gong at
the palace's bell tower (at the eastern gate of the palace), was struck.[57] It was custom
for members of the royal family, including the king, to be cremated: their ashes were
put into a velvet bag and thrown into the river.[84] King Mindon Min was the first to
break tradition; his remains were not cremated, but instead were buried intact,
according to his wishes, at the place where his tomb now stands.[84] Before his burial,
the King Mindon's body was laid in state before his throne at the Hmannandawgyi
(Palace of Mirrors).[46][45]
Foundation sacrifice
The tomb of King Mindon on the

grounds of Mandalay Palace in 1903.
The Foundation Sacrifice was a Burmese practice whereby human victims known as
myosade ( ) were ceremonially sacrificed by burial during the foundation of a royal capital, to propitiate and appease
the guardian spirits. in order to ensure impregnability of the capital city.[85] The victims were crushed to death underneath a
massive teak post erected near each gateway, and at the four corners of the city walls, to render the city secure and
impregnable.[86] Although this practice contradicted the fundamental tenets of Buddhism, it was in alignment with prevailing
animistic beliefs, which dictated that the spirits of persons who suffered violent deaths became nats (spirits) and protective and
possessive of their death sites.[86] The preferred sites for such executions were the city's corners and the gates, the most
vulnerable defence points.[86]
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The Konbaung monarchs prescribed to ancient precedents and traditions to found the new royal city. Brahmins were tasked
with planning these sacrificial ceremonies and determining the auspicious day according to astrological calculations and the
signs of individuals best suited for sacrifice.[86] Usually, victims were selected from a spectrum of social classes, or
unfortuitiously apprehended against will during the day of the sacrifice.[86] Women in the latter stages of pregnancy were
preferred, as the sacrifice would yield two guardian spirits instead of one.[86]
Such sacrifices took place at the foundation of Wunbe In Palace in Ava in 1676 and may have taken place at the foundation of
Mandalay in 1857.[85] Royal court officials at the time claimed that the tradition was dispensed altogether, with flowers and
fruit offered in lieu of human victims.[86] Burmese chronicles and contemporary records only make mention of large jars of oil
buried at the identified locations, which was, by tradition, to ascertain whether the spirits would continue to protect the city
(i.e., so long as the oil remained intact, the spirits were serving their duty).[86] Shwe Yoe's The Burman describes 52 men,
women and children buried, with 3 buried under the post near each of the twelve gates of the city walls, one at each corner of
those walls, one at each corner of the teak stockade, one under each of the four entrances to the Palace, and four under the
Lion Throne.[87] Taw Sein Ko's Annual Report for 1902-03 for the Archaeological Survey of India mentions only four victims
buried at the corners of the city walls.
Devotional rituals
Brahmins at the Konbaung court regularly performed a variety of grand devotional
rituals to indigenous spirits (nat) and Hindu deities.[43] The following were the most
important devotional cults:
Ganesha (Maha Peinne in Burmese) - During the Burmese month of Nadaw
(November to December), a festival for Ganesha, the god of prudence and good
policy, was held. Grain first reaped from the royal fields was sent to the
Mahamuni Buddha Temple as an offering to Ganesha, in three huge containers in
the shape of a buffalo, bullock and prawn, in which paddy, millet, and bulrush
The Guardians of the Four Cardinal
[88]
Directions (Lokapala) in Burmese
millet were respectively placed.
Ganesha, mounted on a peacock, was placed
depiction.
on a ceremonial procession and was then brought before the king, who after
[88][89]
paying homage, scattered pieces of silver and clothes among the poor.
Ganesha occupied a prominent place in royal ceremonies, especially as he was considered a guardian deity of the
elephants.[90] Offerings to Ganesha, made in the Burmese month of Tazaungmon were established during Bodawpaya's
reign.[91]
Phaya Ko Zu (, lit. "Nine Deities") - This was a devotional rite performmed by Khettara Brahmins. The
deities referenced were either Buddhist: Buddha and the 8 arahats, or non-Buddhist: 5 Hindu deities, including Candi
and Ganesha, and 4 nats).[92]
Skanda (Sakanta or Sakanta Tattika) - King Bodawpaya reformed the annual ceremonial procession to honor Ganesha to
instead honor Skanda, the god of war (and a son of Shiva and Candi), following the advice of a Brahmin from Benares.
[93][94] This procession was held in the Burmese month of Tabaung.[91] Skanda was closely linked with a deity called
Citrabali-mara (Cittarapali-mar[a]), both of whom were connected to rituals mentioned in Rajamattan, a standard
reference for ceremonies at the royal court compiled during Bodawphaya's reign.[91]
Hindu deities: Candi (Canni), Indra (Thagyamin), Shiva, Vishnu, Asuras and the 4 Lokapala - These deities were placed
at specific locations, at the entrances of the capital city, the royal palace, or in temples, to ward off evil.[93]
Other spirits (nat): Planets, Sky, Sun, Moon, Hon (the fire spirit)[91][95]
Society and culture

Social classes
During the Konbaung dynasty, Burmese society was highly stratified. Loosely modeled on the four Hindu varnas, Konbaung
society was divided into four general social classes ( ) by descent:[81]
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1. Rulers ( ) or Khattiya ()[96]

2. Ritualists ( ) or Brahmana ()[96]
3. Merchants ( ) or Vessa ()[96]
4. Commoners ( ) or Sudda ()[96]
Society also distinguished between the free and slaves ( ), who were indebted
persons or prisoners of war (including those brought back from military campaigns in
Burmese court officials in 1795.
Arakan, Ayuthaya, and Manipur), but could belong to one of the four classes. There
was also distinction between taxpayers and non-taxpayers. Tax-paying commoners
were called athi (), whereas non-taxpaying individuals, usually affiliated to the royal court or under government
service, were called ahmudan ().
Outside of hereditary positions, there were two primary paths to influence: joining the military () and joining the
Buddhist Sangha in the monasteries.
Sumptuary laws
Sumptuary laws called yazagaing dictated life and consumption for Burmese subjects in the Konbaung kingdom, everything
from the style of one's house to clothing suitable to ones social standing from regulations concerning funerary ceremonies and
the coffin to be used to usage of various speech forms based on rank and social status.[97][98][99] In particular, sumptuary laws
in the royal capital were exceedingly strict and the most elaborate in character.[100]
For instance, sumptuary laws forbade ordinary Burmese subjects to build houses of stone or brick and dictated the number of
tiers on the ornamental spired roof (called pyatthat) allowed above ones residence the royal palace's Great Audience Hall
and the 4 main gates of the royal capital, as well as monasteries, were allowed 9 tiers while those of the most powerful
tributary princes (sawbwa) were permitted 7, at most.[101][102]
Sumptuary laws ordained 5 types of funerals and rites accorded to each: the king, royal family members, holders of ministerial
offices, merchants and those who possessed titles, and peasants (who received no rites at death).[103]
Sumptuary regulations regarding dress and ornamentation were carefully observed. Designs with the peacock insignia were
strictly reserved for the royal family and long-tailed hip-length jackets () and surcoats were reserved for
officials.[104] Velvet sandals () were worn exclusively by royals.[105] Gold anklets were worn only by the royal
children. [97] Silk cloth, brocaded with gold and silver flowers and animal figures were only permitted to be worn by members
of the royal family and ministers wives. [97] Adornment with jewels and precious stones was similarly regulated. Usage of
hinthapada (), a vermilion dye made from cinnabar was regulated.[97]
Demography
Throughout the Konbaung Dynasty, cultural integration continued. For the first time in
history, the Burmese language and culture came to predominate the entire Irrawaddy
valley, with the Mon language and ethnicity completely eclipsed by 1830. The nearer
Shan principalities adopted more lowland norms.
Captives from various military campaigns in their hundreds and thousands were
brought back to the kingdom and resettled as hereditary servants to royalty and nobility
or dedicated to pagodas and temples; these captives added new knowledge and skills to
Burmese society and enriched Burmese culture. They were encouraged to marry into
the host community thus enriching the gene pool as well.[106] Captives from Manipur
Konbaung era Myinkhin Thabin.
formed the cavalry called Kath myindat (Cassay Horse) and also Kath a hmyauk tat
(Cassay Artillery) in the royal Burmese army. Even captured French soldiers, led by
Chevalier Milard, were forced into the Burmese army.[107] The incorporated French troops with their guns and muskets played
a key role in the later battles between the Burmese and the Mons. They became an elite corps, which was to play a role in the
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Burmese battles against the Siamese (attacks and capture of Ayutthaya from 1760 to
1765) and the Manchus (battles against the Chinese armies of the Qian Long emperor
from 1766 to 1769).[107] Muslim eunuchs from Arakan also served in the Konbaung
court.[108][109][110][111][112]
A small community of foreign scholars, missionaries and merchants also lived in
Konbaung society. Besides mercenaries and adventurers who had offered their services
since the arrival of the Portuguese in the 16th century, a few Europeans served as
ladies-in-waiting to the last queen Supayalat in Mandalay, a missionary established a
school attended by Mindon's several sons including the last king Thibaw, and an
Armenian had served as a king's minister at Amarapura.
An 1855 watercolor of a Kathe

horseman from Manipur.
Among the most visible non-Burmans of the royal court were Brahmins. They typically originated from one of four locales:
Manipur - acquired with the conquest of Manipur; perhaps from Bengal, since Manipur was Hinduized by Bengali
Brahmins in the 1700s[113]
Arakan - acquired with the conquest of Arakan in 1785 by King Bodawpaya's son, Thado Minsaw[113]
Sagaing - long-established lines of Brahmins at Burman and Mon royal courts, who traced their origins to 9th century
Sri Ksetra or 14th century Sagaing[113]
Benares - Indian Brahmins from Benares who arrived in upper Burma between the late 1700s to early 1800s.[114]
Literature and arts

The evolution and growth of Burmese literature and theater continued, aided by an extremely high adult male literacy rate for
the era (half of all males and 5% of females).[115] Foreign observers such as Michael Symes remarked on widespread literacy
among commoners, from peasants to watermen.[106]
The Siamese captives carried off from Ayutthaya as part of the BurmeseSiamese War (176567) went on to have an outsize
influence on traditional Burmese theatre and dance. In 1789, a Burmese royal commission consisting of Princes and Ministers
was charged with translating Siamese and Javanese dramas from Thai to Burmese. With the help of Siamese artists captured
from Ayutthaya in 1767, the commission adapted two important epics from Thai to Burmese: the Siamese Ramayana and the
Enao, the Siamese version of Javanese Panji tales into Burmese Yama Zattaw and Enaung Zattaw.[116] One classical Siamese
dance, called Yodaya Aka (lit. Ayutthaya-style dance) is considered one of the most delicate of all traditional Burmese dances.
Architecture
Religion
Monastic and lay elites around the Konbaung kings, particularly from Bodawpaya's
reign, also launched a major reformation of Burmese intellectual life and monastic
organization and practice known as the Sudhamma Reformation. It led to amongst
other things Burma's first proper state histories.[117]
Rulers
The royal palace of Mandalay.
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No
Title
Literal meaning
Future
Buddha-King
Lineage
village chief
Reign
17521760
Notes
founder of the dynasty and the Third Burmese
Empire, invaded Ayutthaya
Alaungpaya
Naungdawgyi Royal Elder Brother son
Hsinbyushin
Lord of the White

Elephant
brother
invaded and sacked Ayutthaya, invaded Chiang Mai

17631776 and Laos, invaded Manipur, successfully repulsed 4
Chinese invasions
Singu
King Singu
son
17761781
Phaungka
Younger Brother
cousin (son of
(Lord of Phaungka) Naungdawgyi)
1782
Bodawpaya
Royal Lord
Grandfather
uncle (son of
Alaungpaya)
17821819 invaded and annexed Arakan, invaded Ayutthaya
Bagyidaw
Royal Elder Uncle
grandson
invaded Ayutthaya with his grandfather, invaded

18191837 Assam and Manipur, defeated in the First AngloBurmese War
Tharrawaddy King Tharrawaddy
brother
18371846
fought in the First Anglo-Burmese War as Prince of

Tharrawaddy
Pagan
King Pagan
son
18461853
overthrown by Mindon after his defeat in the

Second Anglo-Burmese War
10 Mindon
King Mindon
half-brother
sued for peace with the British; had a very narrow

18531878 escape in a palace rebellion by two of his sons but
his brother Crown Prince Ka Naung was killed
11 Thibaw
King Thibaw
son
the last king of Burma, forced to abdicate and

18781885 exiled to India after his defeat in the Third AngloBurmese War
17601763 invaded Ayutthaya with his father
the shortest reign in Burmese history of just over

one week
Note: Naungdawgyi was the eldest brother of Hsinbyushin and Bodawpaya who was the grandfather of Bagyidaw who was
Mindon's elder uncle. They were known by these names to posterity, although the formal titles at their coronation by custom
ran to some length in Pali; Mintayagyi paya (Lord Great King) was the equivalent of Your/His Majesty whereas Hpondawgyi
paya (Lord Great Glory) would be used by the royal family.
Family tree
1
Alaungpaya
(17521760)
Me Hla
Yun San
Hsinbyushin
(17631776)
Bodawpaya
(17821819)
Naungdawgyi
(17601763)
Shin Hpo
U
Singu Min
(17761781)
Phaungka
(1782)
Thado Minsaw
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Bagyidaw
(18191837)
Tharrawaddy
(18371846)
10
Pagan[N 1]
(18461853)
Mindon[N 2]
(18531878)
Princess
of
Laungshe
11
Thibaw
(18781885)
Notes
1. Half brother of Mindon, son of Princess Me Myat Shwe.
2. Half brother of Pagan, son of Queen Me Nu.
Royal house
Konbaung dynasty
Founding year: 1752
Deposition: 1885
Preceded by
Taungoo dynasty
Dynasty of Burma
29 February 1752 29 November 1885
Vacant
Monarchy abolished
British rule
See also
History of Burma
Notes
1. Harvey 1925, p. 333.
2. Phayre 1883, p. 153.
3. Lieberman 1996, p. 184-187.
4. Myint-U 2001.
5. Lieberman 2003, p. 184187.
6. Dai 2004, p. 145189.
7. Wyatt 2003, p. 125.
8. Myint-U 2006, p. 109.
9. Christopher Buyers. "The Konbaung
Dynasty Genealogy"
(http://www.royalark.net/Burma
/konbau11.htm). royalark.net.
Retrieved 19 September 2009.
10. Sanderson Beck. "Burma, Malaya and
Siam 18001950"
(http://www.san.beck.org/20-8BurmaMalaya1800-1950.html#a1).
Retrieved 2007-04-22.
11. Surakiat 2006, p. 8, 11, 25.
12. Bird 1897, p. 104.
13. Seekins 2006, p. 51.
14. Nisbet 1901, p. 153.
15. Nisbet 1901, p. 154.
16. Nisbet 1901, p. 154-155.
17. Myint-U 2001, p. 77.
18. Philips 1951, p. 117, 121.

19. Scott 1882, p. 102.
20. Seekins 2006, p. 50.
21. Nisbet 1901, p. 152.
22. Taw 1913, p. 47.
23. Nisbet 1901, p. 156.
24. Myint-U 2001, p. 157-158.
25. Myint-U 2001, p. 133.
26. Myint-U 2001, p. 65.
27. Myint-U 2001, p. 66.
28. Nisbet 1901, p. 159.
29. Nisbet 1901, p. 160.
30. Nisbet 1901, p. 160-161.
31. Nisbet 1901, p. 161.
32. Myint-U 2001, p. 67.
33. Nisbet 1901, p. 157.
34. Nisbet 1901, p. 158.
35. Working People's Daily 1988.
36. Myint-U 2001, p. 70.
37. Nisbet 1901, p. 205.
38. Leider 2005, p. 160-161.
39. Leider 2005, p. 159.
40. Leider 2005, p. 168.
41. Leider 2005, p. 169.
42. Leider 2005, p. 177.
43. Myint-U 2001, p. 57.

44. Leider 2005, p. 175.
45. DAS 1963, p. 27.
46. DAS 1963, p. 29.
47. Yi 1982, p. 136.
48. Scott 1882, p. 450.
49. Leider 2005, p. 174.
50. Yi 1982, p. 147.
51. Yi 1982, p. 137.
52. Yi 1982, p. 137-138.
53. Yi 1982, p. 138.
54. Yi 1982, p. 139.
55. Harvey 1925, p. 325.
56. Yi 1982, p. 140.
57. Nisbet 1901, p. 204.
58. Yi 1982, p. 141.
59. Yi 1982, p. 142.
60. Yi 1982, p. 129.
61. Yi 1982, p. 129-135.
62. Yi 1982, p. 131-135.
63. Yi 1982, p. 135.
64. Yi 1982, p. 105.
65. Yi 1982, p. 106.
66. Yi 1982, p. 108.
67. Yi 1982, p. 107.
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68. Yi 1982, p. 109.

69. Yi 1982, p. 106-7.
70. Yi 1982, p. 110.
71. Also known as Mingala Ledaw
() or Ledwin
Mingala.
72. Scott 1882, p. 257.
73. Scott 1882, p. 257-258.
74. Scott 1882, p. 258.
75. Scott 1882, p. 259.
76. Scott 1882, p. 260.
77. Scott 1882, p. 261.
78. Nisbet 1901, p. 206.
79. Yi 1982, p. 124.
80. Scott & 1900 94.
81. MLC 1993.
82. DAS 1963, p. 28.
83. Hall 1925, p. 327-328.
84. DAS 1963, p. 23.

85. Harvey 1925, p. 321.
86. DAS 1963, p. 19.
87. Scott 1882, p. 482.
88. DAS 1963, p. 34.
89. Scott 1900, p. 103.
90. Leider 2005, p. 171.
91. Leider 2005, p. 173.
92. Leider 2005, p. 170-171.
93. Leider 2005, p. 172.
94. Said Brahmin had the following issue:
, by the Govinda-maharajindaaggamahadhammarajaguru.
95. Leider 2005, p. 170.
96. Myint-U 2001, p. 31.
97. Scott 1882, p. 411.
98. Scott 1882, p. 406-407.
99. Andrus 1947, p. x.
100. Scott 1882, p. 406.

101. Nisbet 1901, p. 15.
102. Cocks 1919, p. 161.
103. Scott 1882, p. 411-412.
104. Scott 1882, p. 409.
105. Scott 1882, p. 409-10.
106. Symes 1800.
107. Findlay 2007, p. 277.
108. Myint-U 2006, p. 126.
109. Yegar 1972, p. 10.
110. MHRJ 2007, p. 57.
111. Fleischmann 1981, p. 49.
112. Peletz 2007, p. 73.
113. Leider 2005, p. 178.
114. Leider 2005, p. 182.
115. Lieberman 2003, p. 202206.
116. Brandon, p. 27
117. Charney 2006: 96107
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External links
Forty Years in Burma (http://anglicanhistory.org/asia/burma/forty/18.html) John
Wikimedia Commons has
Ebenezer Marks, London: Hutchinson & Co., 1917
media related to Konbaung
The Last Queen of Burma (http://www.irrawaddymedia.com
dynasty.
/article.php?art_id=3011) Kenneth Champeon, The Irrawaddy, July 2003
Ayutthaya and the End of History:Thai Views of Burma Revisted (http://www.irrawaddymedia.com
/article.php?art_id=1967) Min Zin, The Irrawaddy, August 2000
A rare meeting with the last of Burma's royals (http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2008/02/11
/wburma211.xml) The Daily Telegraph, 26 February 2008
Myanmar's last royal laments a crumbling nation (http://uk.reuters.com/article/topNews/idUKBKK8341620080310)
Reuters, 10 March 2008
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The Konbaung Dynasty (Burmese: , pronounced: [kb

Early modern period