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D ETECTION OF R ADIOACTIVITY
E NERGETICS OF N UCLEAR R EACTIONS
N UCLEAR P OWER : F ISSION
N UCLEAR P OWER : F USION
E FFECT OF N UCLEAR R ADIATION ON M ATTER
R EFERENCES
N UCLEAR C HEMISTRY
R ADIOACTIVITY
N UCLEAR E QUATIONS
A LPHA PARTICLES
An alpha () particle is a combination of two protons and two
neutrons identical to the helium ion ( 4He2+ ). Alpha particles are
emitted in some radioactive decay processes.
234
90Th
+ 42He
B ETA PARTICLES
B ETA E MISSION
represented as either
0
-1e
or
G AMMA R ADIATION
1
0n
1
1H
131
54Xe
0
-1e
0
-1e
n p +
or
S UMMARY OF P ROPERTIES
charge
2+
-1
0
0
mass (g)
6.64 1024
9.11 10 28
relative penetrating
power
nature of radiation
100
10,000
Electrons
High-energy
photons
4
2He
nuclei
P OSITRON E MISSION
E LECTRON C APTURE
11
5B
0
+1e
1
0n
0
+1e
30
15P
30
14Si
0
+1e
Generally
1
1p
or
0
-1e
-1e or
0
+
+1e or
81
36Kr
202
81Tl
0
-1e
202
80Hg
p n + +
particle
neutron
proton
electron
alpha particle
beta particle
positron
0
-1e
1
0n
type
nuclear equation
alpha decay
A
ZX
A-4
Z -2Y
beta emission
A
ZX
A
Z +1Y
positron emission
A
ZX
A
Z -1Y
electron capture
A
ZX
0
-1e
+ 42He
+
0
-1e
0
+1e
A
Z -1Y
change
in Z
change
in A
-2
-4
+1
unchanged
-1
unchanged
-1
unchanged
EC
+
p
n
N
E.g.,
Parent
atom
Z
12
6C
(n/p = 1),
55
22Mn
(n/p = 1.2),
197
79Au
(n/p 1.49)
B ELT OF S TABILITY
14
7N
0
-1e
118
54Xe
118
53I
0
-1e
0
+1e
118
53I
N UCLEAR T RANSMUTATIONS
S HORTHAND N OTATION
+ 42He
17
8O
+ 11H
or
14
7N
17
8O
+p
(,p)
17
8O
target nucleus
bombarding particle
ejected particle
product nucleus
14
7N
p
17
8O
ANSWER
27
13Al
+ 10n
24
11Na
+ 42He
or
27
13Al
+n
24
11Na
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fermilab.jpg
Neutrons, because they are neutral, are not repelled by the nucleus
and do not need to be accelerated to cause nuclear reactions. The
neutrons are produced in nuclear reactors.
T RANSURANIUM E LEMENTS
Transuranium elements are elements that follow uranium in the
periodic table.
238
1
239
239
0
92U + 0n 92U 93Np + -1e
239
1
239
0
93Np + 0n 94Pu + -1e
+ 10n
59
26Fe
+ 10n
59
26Fe
59
27Co
60
27Co
0
-1e
239
94Pu
208
82Pb
+ 42He
+
70
30Zn
242
96Cm
+ 10n
277
112Cn
+ 10n
R ADIOACTIVE D ECAY
Radioactive decay is a first-order kinetic process, which has a
characteristic half-life.
The half-life t1/2 of a reaction is the time required for one-half of a
reactant to be consumed. In a nuclear decay process, it is the time
required for one-half of the atoms present in a sample to undergo
radioactive decay.
Isotope
238
92U
235
92U
232
90Th
40
19K
14
6C
239
94Pu
137
55Cs
90
38Sr
131
53I
half-life (yr)
4.5 109
7.0 108
1.4 101 0
1.3 109
5700
24,000
30.2
28.8
0.022
type of decay
alpha
alpha
alpha
beta
beta
alpha
beta
beta
beta
R ADIOACTIVE D ECAY L AW
Nt
= kt
N0
0.693
t1/2
using the value ln(Nt /N0 ) = ln(0.5) = 0.693 for one half-life.
G EIGER C OUNTER
G EIGER C OUNTER
Cathode
Input
Window
Gamma
Radiation
Counter
Resistor
Voltage
Source
234
90Th
+ 42He
The mass change is the total mass of the products minus the total
mass of the reactants.
233.9942 g + 4.0015 g 238.0003 g = 0.0046 g
The energy change per mole associated with this reaction is
E
= (mc 2 ) = c 2 m
= (2.9979 108 m/s)2 0.0046 g = 4.1 1011 J
M ASS D EFECT
Mass (m) defects and binding energies (BE) for three nuclei
(masses in amu, energy in J).
m of nucleus
mtot of nucleons
mass defect m
BE
BE per nucleon
4
2He
56
26Fe
238
92U
4.00150
4.03188
0.03038
4.53 1012
1.13 1012
55.92068
56.44914
0.52846
7.90 1011
1.41 1012
238.00031
239.93451
1.93420
2.89 1010
1.21 1012
C HAIN R EACTIONS
235
92U
137
52Te
142
56Ba
1
+ 97
40Zr + 2 0n
1
+ 91
36Kr + 3 0n
N UCLEAR R EACTORS
F USION IN THE S UN
2
0
1H + +1e
3
2He
4
1
2He + 2 1H
4
0
2He + +1e
Even with the current technology, scientists have not yet been able
to generate more power than is consumed over a sustained period
of time.
I ONIZING R ADIATION
I ONIZATION OF WATER
Most living tissue contains at least 70% water by mass. Water
absorbs most of the energy of the radiation. Thus, it is common to
define ionizing radiation as radiation that can ionize water, > 1216
kJ/mol.