ARTICLE IN PRESS

Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing 23 (2009) 27122721

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jnlabr/ymssp

Determination of fragments of multiaxial service loading strongly

inuencing the fatigue of machine components
Adam Nies"ony 
Department of Mechanics and Machine Design, Opole University of Technology, ul. Miko!ajczyka 5, 45-271 Opole, Poland

a r t i c l e i n f o

abstract

Article history:
Received 15 April 2009
Received in revised form
18 May 2009
Accepted 20 May 2009
Available online 30 May 2009

The paper presents a method for determination of multiaxial load segments from original
service histories, where the loaded machine part is meaningfully subjected to fatigue
damage. These load segments are directly separated from a service-loading history, which
can be of a random character. Typical procedures used for fatigue life assessment under
multiaxial random loading are implemented to perform this task. While reduction from
the multiaxial stress state to the equivalent uniaxial one, application of the linear
multiaxial fatigue failure criteria was proposed. The equivalent stress history is subjected
to the rainow cycle-counting method, which allows to determine the amplitudes and
mean values of counted cycles, their occurrence moment and time of duration. Inuence of
the stress mean value was taken into consideration with the Morrows model. On the
assumption of the linear PalmgrenMiner hypothesis of damage accumulation and the
stresslife fatigue characteristics of the material, the damage-time function was
determined. The load segments, where the inuence on the material fatigue was
signicant, were determined on the basis of the xed damage-intensity level and the
proposed damage-intensity function. The presented method was studied on a hook loaded
with two independent forces. FEM program which has the possibility to perform fatigue
analysis was used during the computation for determining the expected place of crack
initiation. The service-loading course was compressed to shorter one, so that only a small
decrease of the fatigue damage in comparison with full length of the original service
loading was observed. The proposed method seems to be right for preparing multiaxial
loading histories in order to cut down the fatigue tests, especially in the case when the
correlation between particular loading channels is very important.
& 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords:
Service loading
Fatigue test
Multiaxial fatigue
Rainow counting
Standard loading

1. Introduction
Fatigue life analysis plays an important role in a modern designing process. Such kind of analysis is performed by
simulations at the early designing stage, during so-called virtual prototyping or in laboratories performing real tests of
machine components. In both cases, appropriate loading history must be applied, and it should provide the same fatigue
effects on the material as service loading. The main problem during fatigue tests of machine parts is the selection
of suitable loading level and their character. Because of the kind of tested element, its geometry and environment
where the element is going to work, there are various factors that should be taken into account while experiments. One of
the ways to preserve real-loading conditions, it is to use registered service loading during the tests. However, it leads to

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E-mail address: a.nieslony@po.opole.pl

0888-3270/$ - see front matter & 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ymssp.2009.05.010

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A. Nies!ony / Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing 23 (2009) 27122721

Nomenclature

Nf
Ni

F1(t), F2(t) histories of forces loading the hook considered in the example
correlation coefcient between histories F1(t)
rF1,F2
and F2(t)
C
cumulative damage
I
damage intensity
limit level of damage intensity
Ilim
D
damage
damage for ith cycle
Di
t
time
T
time to failure
length of the loading history
To
number of cycles with sai and smi counted
ni
from random history

sa
sm
s0 f, b
seq(t)
sij(t)
ln,mn,nn

2713

number of cycles to failure

number of cycles computed from uniaxial
fatigue characteristic for known mean value
smi and amplitude sai
cycle amplitude
cycle mean value
fatigue strength coefcient and exponent
respectively in the Morrow stress-life characteristic
equivalent stress history obtained from multiaxial fatigue failure criterion
stress history of particular stress tensor components, where ij (xx,yy,zz,xy,xz,yz)
direction cosines used in multiaxial fatigue
failure criterion

time-consuming fatigue tests, often equal to real life to the tested object. Of course, such a solution is unacceptable from
the economical and practical points of view. Thus, many standardized loading histories are proposed for application at the
test stands [13]. They are usually obtained by numerical processing of the registered service histories, where the
amplitude distribution is changed [35]. In consequence of the changes, the compressed loading history is required to
generate much greater damages in the material at the same time but the general characteristic of the loading should be
kept. However, in some cases it is necessary to apply non-standard loading, or to perform tests under near to real-loading
conditions. In such a case, the only way to shorten time of the tests is neglecting the loading intervals when no signicant
damage can be observed [3,6]. This can be acceptable for tests performed in so-called high-cycle regime, where the
sequence of loading is unimportant and can be neglected.
While fatigue tests of machine elements or structures under multiaxial loading, the stress state at a given point depends
on a considerable degree on geometry. In such a case, application of standardized loadings which do not include correlation
between components of multiaxial loading can cause generation of the stress state strongly different than that observed
while real-service loading. It can be hazardous to use loading prepared in such a way, especially in the case of new solutions
based on foredesigns. Therefore, also the geometry of the tested element should be taken into account while preparation of
loading history for fatigue tests.
The main purpose of this paper is to present a method for preparation of multiaxial service loading for performing
fatigue tests. By elaborating of the method, special emphasis was placed on preserving the original character of the
multiaxial service loading.
1.1. Multiaxial fatigue life assessment
In the case of multiaxial random loadings, fatigue life assessment on the basis of uniaxial material characteristics
requires specialised tasks, which have been discussed in many books and papers [713]. One of the well-known methods of
fatigue life calculations under multiaxial stress state includes reduction of the three-dimensional stress state to the
equivalent uniaxial state with use of a suitable fatigue failure criterion [7,913]. The idea of this method is shown in Fig. 1.
Application of the multiaxial fatigue failure criterion allow to obtain equivalent stress history. Next, the obtained histories

Time history of
the equivalent
stress

Stress tensor components

xx(t)
yy(t)
zz(t)
xy(t)
xz(t)

Multiaxial
fatigue
failure
criterion

Cycle
counting,
e.g. rainflow

Damage
accumulation,
e.g. PalmgrenMiner rule
(a-Nf)

eq(t)

yz(t)
Multiaxial stress state

Equivalent uniaxial stress state

Fig. 1. Transformation of the multiaxial stress state to the uniaxial one during fatigue life assessment.

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A. Nies!ony / Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing 23 (2009) 27122721

of the equivalent stress are analysed in the same way as those for the uniaxial case, i.e. the cycle counting and accumulation
of the fatigue damage can be performed. The algorithm shown in Fig. 1 can use only those criteria, which realize reduction
of the three-dimensional stress state at any time, continuously, and do not change frequency range of the equivalent stress
in relation to the stress-state components. These requirements are satised by linear criteria using the concept of the
critical plane, proposed among others by Macha [911] or agoda and Ogonowski [11,12]. The three-dimensional stress
state should be correctly reduced to the uniaxial equivalent one. If the stress-state components are random, what can be
observed for a large majority of service loadings, also equivalent stress history of random character is expected. In order to
calculate damage on the basis of such equivalent stress history, the number of load cycles must be distinguished. There are
several algorithms for cycle counting from a random history [14]. The rainow algorithm seems to be the most popular and
widely used in practice. It allows to determine half- and full-cycles with their amplitudes sai and mean values smi. It is
generally accepted, that two equal half-cycles counted by rainow method form one full-cycle. Damage from the ith cycle
of stress can be computed from
Di

1
,
Nf i sai ; smi

(1)

where N f i sai ; smi is the function returning a number of cycles to failure according to the amplitude sai and mean value
smi form the determined stress cycle and uniaxial fatigue characteristics of the material. After performing the cycle
counting at the xed time interval To of the random history a certain number of cycles with various amplitudes and
mean values is distinguished. Computation of the fatigue damage caused by the considered loading interval To is
usually realised with the assumption of hypothesis of the linear fatigue damage accumulation. The widely used
PalmgrenMiner hypothesis assumes that the total damage can be expressed as the sum of particular damages caused by
distinguished cycles
D

k
X

Di ,

(2)

i1

where k is a number of cycles determined from the history using cycle-counting algorithm. The expected life time of the
machine component T can be calculated from the accumulated damage D caused by distinguished cycles in time interval To
of the stress history
T

To
.
D

(3)

Selection of a suitable multiaxial fatigue failure criterion, fatigue characteristics of the material and hypothesis of
damage accumulation allows to determine fatigue life under multiaxial random loading rightly.
Part of time history

stress, MPa

stress, MPa

Part of time history

t, s
Rainflow matrix

t, s
Rainflow matrix

Fig. 2. A part of the time history and rainow matrices of the stresses registered under service conditions: stresses registered at the bus frame during
typical road drive (a), and stress history of the arm of the excavator (b).

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1.2. Rainow counting

The rainow algorithm is the most used algorithm of cycle counting [13,14]. It makes possible to assign amplitudes and
mean values of distinguished cycles from random loading history. Under high-cycle fatigue, it is assumed that the effect of
the material memory connected with plastic strains generated while successive loading cycles can be neglected. From the
assumption, it appears that time of the cycle occurrence and its period is not important while determination of fatigue life.
This assumption is widely applied in considerations on fatigue, for example, in the damage accumulation hypothesis
proposed by PalmgrenMiner. Neglecting the inuence of the loading sequence while fatigue life assessment makes it
possible to present the distinguished cycles as the rainow matrix. The exemplary rainow matrices determined for stress
histories from measurements at real-machine components are presented in Fig. 2. A number of counted cycles with the
given amplitude and mean value distinguished in the considered stress history can be readout from this matrix. Rainow
matrices are widely applied in fatigue calculations because their compact form allows to reduce time necessary for such
calculations, and their visualization gives general information about the loading character. The rainow matrix does not
include information when the distinguished loading cycle occurred in the considered history. It can be easily seen that it is
possible to write down the time of the cycle starting, and approximate its duration (period). Fig. 3 shows an exemplary time
interval subjected to cycle counting. The obtained values have been presented in Table 1. The software used in this paper
allows to count the cycles according to the rainow algorithm, and to state time of the cycle occurrence and the cycle
periods. Suitable software function was elaborated by the author of this paper in the MATLAB environment and it is
available free of charge on the web [15].

6
signal
turning points

4
2
0
2
4
6
0

5
time, s

10

6
turning points connected with line

4
2
0
2

C4

C7

4
C1

6
8

C3

C2

C6

C5

10
0

5
time, s

10

Fig. 3. Exemplary signal with turning points unequally distributed at time (a), and turning points with cycles and half-cycles counted using the rainow
algorithm (b) [11].

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2. The proposed algorithm

The calculation algorithm is formulated for determination of fragments of loading of strong inuence on the structure
fatigue, taking into account geometry of the element, fatigue properties of the material and time relations between
multiaxial loading histories. Thus, correlations between the stress tensor components formed during the service-loading
action are preserved. The algorithm shown in Fig. 4 includes three basic blocks.
In the rst block, the input data for calculations are dened. The typical input data are material constants characterizing
static and fatigue properties of the material, and the registered service-loading histories. The registered loading histories
should be of good quality and subjected to low-pass ltration eliminating noises generated while measurements and
registration. Next, the loading levels, total mean values, length of the interval and physical quantities represented by the
particular loading histories should be precisely determined.
In the next block, a suitable criterion of multiaxial fatigue failure should be selected depending on a material of the
tested machine element. Details concerning selection of a criterion can be found in the literature [913]. Next, the critical
point related to the material fatigue should be determined. It is usually the place where the fatigue crack initiation is
expected it can be dened from the service data for machine elements working under real conditions. At the designing
stage, it is difcult to point out this place on the machine elements because of the lack of such data. In this case, special
software for fatigue analyses based on nite element method can be used, for example, MSC Fatigue, Fe-Safe,
LMS.Durability, FemFat, Ansys Workbench, etc. Such software allows to nd the place where the fatigue crack could initiate
with satisfactory accuracy for further calculations of signal edition.
At the third block, stress histories are determined in the element point dened while fatigue analysis. This should be
done for the successive loading values by FEM analysis. Next, the chosen criterion of multiaxial fatigue failure is applied for
calculations of the reduced stress history. It can be, for example, the criterion of maximum normal stress on the critical
plane [911], which is dedicated for a wide range of brittle materials. According to this criterion, the reduced stress history
is calculated from

seq t l2n sxx t m2n syy t n2n szz t 2ln mn sxy t 2ln nn sxz t 2mn nn syz t,

(4)

where ln, mn and nn are suitable direction cosines of the unit vector ~
n ln ; mn ; nn normal to the critical plane.
Table 1
Values readout and computed for the counted cycles presented in Fig. 3.
Number of the cycle or half-cycle

C1

C2

C3

C4

C5

C6

C7

Amplitude
Mean value
Cycle or half-cycle
Cycle beginning time (TCB, s)
Period (TCP, s)
Accepted occurrence time (TC, s)

1
1
1
1
2
2

3
2
0.5
0
8
4

1.5
0.5
1
5.5
2
6.5

0.5
2.5
1
7.5
1
8

5
0
0.5
4
9
8.5

2.5
2.5
0.5
8.5
2
9.5

1
1
0.5
9.5
1
10

Block1. Setting the input data

- geometry of the structure or machine part
- multiaxial service loading histories,
- parameters and characteristics determining material behaviour,
Block2. Pre-calculation procedures
- determining the area on the geometry for which
the calculation will be done,
- selection of suitable multiaxial fatigue failure criterion,
Blok 3. Calculation
- determination of the stress tensor component histories,
- computation of thee quivalent uniaxial stress history,
- advance drain flow cycle counting,
- calculation of damage value for each extracted cycle / half cycle,
- estimation of cumulative damage function,
- estimation of damage intensity function,
- finding the damaged fragments of histories on the basis of fixed
damage intensity level.
Fig. 4. Proposed algorithm for determination of multiaxial loading history fragments that strongly inuence on the material fatigue.

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At the next step, cycles are distinguished from equivalent stress history seq(t). The general form of the proposed
algorithm, Fig. 4, allows to apply any cycle-counting algorithm, which enables to count cycles/half-cycles with their
occurrence times. However, the author recommends the extended rainow algorithm presented in Section 1 where the
cycle occurrence time is calculated as the sum of the cycle occurrence time and a half-time of the cycle period. Next, the
particular values of damages Di are determined for each cycle or half-cycle
Di

ni
Nf i

for i 1; . . . ; k,

(5)

where ni is equal to 1 for a cycle and 0.5 for a half-cycle, k is a number of cycles and half-cycles distinguished from the
history, Nf i is a number of cycles to the material failure computed from a uniaxial fatigue characteristic. If the equivalent
stress history with mean value is considered, the well-known Morrow stress-life characteristic can be used [8]

sa s0 f  sm 2Nf b ,

(6)

from which
Nf i


1=b
sai
1
,
2 s0 f  smi

(7)

where s0 f is the fatigue strength coefcient (intercept at 1 reversal), and b is the fatigue strength exponent. In the next step,
particular values of damage Di are classied according to time of cycle/half-cycle occurrence. The cumulative damage
function is estimated on the assumption that damage accumulates in the material in a linear way
Ci

i
X

Dn

for i 1; . . . ; k.

(8)

n1

Let us note that for time ti a value of the accumulated damage is equal to Ci, and the total damage caused by one loading
block is equal to Ck. Assuming that the cumulative damage function C(t) is continuous, differentiable and dependent on
time t the damage-intensity function I(t) is estimated
It

d
Ct.
dt

(9)

Let us note that the function C is obtained in a numerical way, and its value changes in jumps because of summation of
successive damages. However, numerical determination of the damage-intensity function I(t) is unproblematic, since
discrete values of the function Ci and their occurrence times ti are known. There are many algorithms that can be efciently
and precisely used for such task solving [16]. The loading intervals not inuencing the material damage are dened at the
next step. In this order, the limit level of damage-intensity Ilim is established. The fragments of the service-loading history
with damage intensity lower than the limit one are understood as the unimportant intervals their inuence on the
material fatigue is small.
3. Example: hook loaded with two forces
Fig. 5(a) shows geometry of the hook for which calculations were performed. It was assumed that the top surface of the
hook was fully restrained, and the loading was realized by two independent forces F1(t) and F2(t) acting at a part of hole

constrained
plane

45

F2(t)
F1(t)
Fig. 5. Model of the hook with marked restrained plane and direction of loading forces action (a), and the FEM mesh applied while calculations (b).

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A. Nies!ony / Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing 23 (2009) 27122721

surfaces. Direction of force action was xed so as the fatigue crack initiation occurred in another place, depending on the
correlation between forces F1(t) and F2(t). In such a case, it is difcult to show the place of fatigue crack initiation on the
basis of the stresses obtained with use of static loading. Thus, this place can be found in a proper way only with use of
special software [17]. In this paper, the software Comsol and Matlab was applied. Results obtained from the fatigue analysis
of the hook are presented in Fig. 6, where the fatigue damage maps are shown. Taking the advantage of damage maps it is
easy to determine the places of expected fatigue crack initiation. For further calculations, the case where the force
correlation coefcient rF1,F2E0 was chosen. In this case, it is expected that the fatigue failure should occur at the edge of the
top surface of the hook, Fig. 6(a). Thus, while determination of loading intervals strongly inuencing fatigue of the material,
the stress state occurring only in that place should be considered. The forces loading the hook, Fig. 7, were generated so as
their mean value and variance varied at time and the correlation coefcient rF1,F2E0.
It was assumed that fatigue properties were described by the stress-life relationship (saNf), and the material constants
for Morrow characteristic, Eq. (6) were: s0 f 1200 MPa, b 0.12. Numerical calculations were performed strictly
according to the algorithm shown in Fig. 4 with use of the Matlab program.

F1(t) F2(t)
rF1,F2 0

F1(t) = F2(t)
rF1,F2 = 1

Fig. 6. Results of the fatigue calculations for the hook with the marked places of the maximum material damage; the calculations was done for
uncorrelated (a) and correlated forces (b).

150

F1 (t), kN

signal
mean
mean + standard deviation
mean - standard deviation

100

50

0
0

100

200

300

400

500
time, s

600

700

800

900

1000

150

F2 (t), kN

signal
mean
mean + standard deviation
mean - standard deviation

100

50

0
0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

time, s
Fig. 7. Force histories applied for calculations with their variable mean value and standard deviation.

1000

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eq (t), MPa

400
200
0
-200
-400
0

100

200

300

400

500
time, s

600

700

800

900

1000

100

200

300

400

500
time, s

600

700

800

900

1000

100

200

300

400

500
time, s

600

700

800

900

1000

100

Di

10-10
10-20
10-30

2.5

x10-3

C (t)

2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0
1.5

x10-4

1
I (t)

Limit level of damage intensity

Ilim = 0.05 max[I(t)]

0.5
0
0

100

200

300

400

500
time, s

600

700

800

900

1000

100

200

300

400

500
time, s

600

700

800

900

1000

eq (t), MPa

400
200
0
-200
-400

Fig. 8. Equivalent stress (a), damage values for particular cycles (b), cumulative function of damage (c), damage-intensity function (d), stress course with
marked fragments strongly inuencing the fatigue of hook material (e).

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Table 2
Results obtained for nine Ilim values.
Limit level
(Ilim/max[I(t)])

Number of determined
fragments

Total length of determined

fragments (s)

Computed damage
value D

Calculated fatigue
life T (h)

0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.05
0.01
0.005
0.0a

3
3
3
3
4
5
5
5
7
8
9
9
1

10.9
15.7
19.8
23.9
28.8
45.0
57.9
71.7
105.9
175.6
293.7
337.2
1000.0

0.79079
0.79080
0.79328
0.87601
1.1880
1.5000
1.5001
1.5021
1.5513
1.6243
1.7122
1.7913
2.3675

3.8
5.5
6.9
7.6
6.7
8.3
10.7
13.3
18.9
30.1
47.6
52.2
117.3

Limit level value Ilim 0.0 lead to classify the whole loading history as a fragment strongly inuencing the fatigue of machine components.

At rst, the equivalent stress history was computed with use of the criterion of multiaxial fatigue failure. That history
was shown in Fig. 8(a). The criterion of maximum normal stress on the critical plane was applied, Eq. (4).
While determination of the critical plane position, the mean value of the stress history was also taken into account.
Next, the turning points of the equivalent stress history were determined, and cycles were counted with the
rainow algorithm [14,15]. The fatigue damage value for the counted cycles was calculated directly by rearrangement of
Eqs. (5) and (7)
Di 2ni

sai
s f  smi
0

1=b

for i 1; . . . ; k.

(10)

Time values of the beginning and period of the counted cycles were used for calculation of their time of occurrence ti
corresponding to the damage values Di. It allowed to present particular damage values in Fig. 8(b). Estimation of the
cumulative damage function C(t) was done with the numerical integration by the trapezoid method [16]. The obtained
function C(t) is presented in Fig. 8(c) after interpolation and smoothing.
The damage-intensity function I(t) was determined as a derivative of smooth and interpolated cumulative damage
function C(t), Fig. 8(d). The intervals of important inuence on the material fatigue were distinguished for the assumed
nine values of the damage-intensity level Ilim. Summary of the calculation results was shown in Table 2. For the value Ilim/
max[I(t)] 0.05 eight intervals were obtained and selected for presentation in Fig. 8(e). The marked fragments correspond
to loading histories F1(t) and F2(t) determining the fragments strongly inuencing the fatigue of the material. As a result, in
considered case, the loading history was shortened from 1000 to 175.6 s. Using this shortened multiaxial loading history
during the calculation of the fatigue life, 26% of the initial fatigue life is expected.
4. Conclusions
From the performed calculations it appears that the proposed algorithm for determination of fragments of service
loading strongly inuencing the material fatigue is a good tool for preparation of fatigue tests at the early designing stage.
The proposed method includes the element geometry and time relations between channels of multiaxial loading history.
Namely, calculations are performed in the place where the fatigue crack initiation is expected. It can be easily adapted to
actual needs and requirements, i.e. the selection of algorithm of cycle counting, suitable fatigue characteristics, inuence of
the loading mean value. The nal result is also inuenced by a way of smoothing of the accumulated damage function,
necessary for correct calculation of its derivative. Let us note that the algorithm programmed in Matlab acted very
efciently, and the computation was performed in a short time.
The proposed algorithm could be applied while preparation of the registered service histories for direct application at
the fatigue test stands or while preliminary preparation for further processing. A shortened service history has the same
frequency characteristic as the service history, and it is an important advantage of the method.

Acknowledgment
Article is co-nanced by the European Union within European Social Fund within the framework of the IV priority
Tertiary Education and Science under the Human Capital Operational Programme.

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