L15c05

Page 1 of 13

Previous | Next | Contents

ESDEP WG 15C
STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS: MISCELLANEOUS

Lecture 15C.5: Chimneys

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE:
To outline the specific characteristics of wind loading of chimneys; to give current methods for shell
buckling calculation; and to outline the importance of tolerances.
PREREQUISITES:
Lectures 8: Plates and Shells
RELATED LECTURES:
Lecture 15C.1: Design of Tanks for the Storage of Oil and Water
Lecture 15C.2: Structural Design of Bins
SUMMARY:
The types of steel chimney and their associated equipment, e.g. liner, are described.
The specific aspects required in the calculation of actions are introduced, in particular, wind loads
and the dynamic effects in the wind direction and perpendicular to the wind direction, and
temperature loads.
Force calculations and the design of the structural shell are discussed. Specific items of design
covered include buckling of cylindrical unstiffened shells, buckling of cylindrical stiffened shells,
openings in cylindrical shells, and fatigue.
Fabrication and erection tolerances are introduced.

1. INTRODUCTION
More and more chimneys are required to carry vertically and discharge to the atmosphere gaseous
products of combustion, chemical waste gases, exhaust air, etc.
There are several types of steel chimneys

self-supporting chimney
guyed chimney
stayed chimney (on a supporting column)
bracketed chimney (on a nearby building).

This lecture covers only self-supporting chimneys. The principles of calculation which are given
here would have to be modified for application to other types of chimney.

http://www.kuleuven.be/bwk/materials/Teaching/master/wg15c/l0500.htm

11/30/2006

L15c05

Page 2 of 13

There are also several types of self-supporting chimney

bare steel shell

double-skin chimneys in which the steel is internally covered with a liner
multi-flue chimneys in which the steel shell contains several liners.

In double-skin or multi-flue chimneys, it is recommended that the liners are allowed to deform
independently from the structural shell. If they are not independent the effects of structural
deformations of the structural shell on the behaviour of the liners should be studied.
The mechanical properties and the chemical composition of structural steels should comply with the
European Standard EN 10025 [1].
For high temperatures, the yield stress and the Young's modulus of steel are modified as shown in
Section 2.5.
In order to limit the corrosion allowances (see Section 2.6) stainless or alloy steels should be used.
Ordinary stainless steels have poor corrosion resistance in the presence of condensing sulphuric or
other acids and are therefore not recommended in chimneys burning fuels containing sulphur under
conditions of medium or high chemical load. They are acceptable when steel temperature is less than
65C and acid concentration is less than 5%.
Where it is not possible to avoid high chemical loads, the use of high nickel alloy steels is a solution.

2. ACTIONS
2.1 Permanent Load
The permanent load includes the weight of all permanent parts, i.e. shell, fittings, linings, flues, and
insulation and any permanent equipment.

2.2 Dust Load (Temporary load)

In many cases, it is necessary to consider the carry over of ash or dust. Ash and dust may adhere to
the interior surface of the structural shell or liner and cause an additional load.

2.3 Wind
The calculation of the wind actions is described according to the Model Code for Steel Chimneys
edited by CIC.IND [2].
2.3.1 Basic wind speed Vb
The basic wind speed, corresponding to the chimney site, is defined as the mean hourly speed at 10m
above ground level in open country which occurs once every 50 years. Although steel chimneys are
normally replaced after a shorter period than 50 years, the basic recurrence period is taken as 50
years and the factor of safety is determined according to a design life period (20 years for instance).
The determination of the factor of safety according to a design life period is not discussed further in
the present lecture.
2.3.2 Design wind speed

http://www.kuleuven.be/bwk/materials/Teaching/master/wg15c/l0500.htm

11/30/2006

L15c05

Page 3 of 13

The design wind speed at level z above ground is obtained from the basic wind speed Vb multiplied
by three factors:
V (z) = Vb k(z) kt ki... (m/s)
where
* k(z) is the height factor: k(z) = max [1 , (z/10)]
is equal to 0,14 if the chimney is erected in open terrain or projects well above the
surrounding buildings.
* kt is the topographical factor:
kt is generally fixed by the contract. The following method for the determination of kt is
valid for situations in which the chimney (height h above its foundation) is erected on a
hill or escarpment which is described by:
u : the upwind slope 0,05
d : the downwind slope 0,05
U : the horizontal length of upwind slope
Then kt = 1 + 1,2 E [1 - x/UE - h/UE] 1
where:
x is the distance of the chimney from the crest of the escarpment
E = u and UE = U if u < 0,3
E = 0,3 and 3,3 UE = U u if u > 0,3
* ki is the interference factor:
- if the height of the interferance object is less than half the chimney height: ki = 1
- if the interference object is an almost cylindrical structure:
ki = 1,25 - a (0,15/9d') for 6d a 15 d
ki = 1 for a > 15 d
where
a is the distance of chimney from the interference object

http://www.kuleuven.be/bwk/materials/Teaching/master/wg15c/l0500.htm

11/30/2006

L15c05

Page 4 of 13

d' is the diameter of the interference object

- if a 6 d, ki should be determined by a wind tunnel test.
2.3.3 Mean hourly wind load in the direction of the wind
The mean hourly wind load per unit length of shell is:
Wm (z) = a [V(z)]2 CD d (z) / 2 ... (N/m)
where is the density of air: a = 1,25 - (h1/8000) .. (kg/m3)
h1 is the altitude of the chimney site (m)
d (z) is the outside diameter of the chimney at height z (m)
CD is the shape factor which depends on Reynolds number Re:
Re = 6,9.104 V(z) d(z)
CD = 1,2 if Re 3.105
CD = 1,2 - 1,36 (log Re - 5,48) if 3.105 Re 7.105
CD = 0,7 if Re 7.105
For chimneys with vanes (see Section 2.3.7), CD = 1,4 applied to the outer diameter of the chimney
in the vaned part and not to the outer dimension of the vanes.
For attachments (such as ladders), the area presented to the wind is factored by 1,2 for circular
members and by 2 for other shapes.
2.3.4 Design wind load in the direction of the wind
W (z) = Wm (z) G ... (N/m)
where
G is the gust factor which represents the influence of the fluctuating part of wind actions.

G=

g is the peak factor =

(1 + 2 g i)

with T =

http://www.kuleuven.be/bwk/materials/Teaching/master/wg15c/l0500.htm

11/30/2006

L15c05

Page 5 of 13

i is the turbulence intensity = 0,311 - 0,089 log h ... (h in m)

B is the background turbulence = [1 + (h/265)0,63]-0,88

E is the energy density spectrum =

S is the size reduction factor = [1 + 5,78 (f1/Vb)1,14 x h0,98]-0,88
f1 is the natural frequency in s-1 of the chimney oscillating in its first mode; care must be taken to
include the stiffness of the foundation in the calculation of f1.
is the damping expressed as a fraction of critical damping
if all connections are executed by welding or prestressed bolts:

=
if connections are executed by ordinary bolts:

=
if a lining is continuously attached to the shell:

=
where
V is the design wind speed at the top of the chimney
t is the thickness of the wall in the top third (equivalent thickness in the case of lined chimneys
calculated as the total mass per square metre divided by 7850 kg/m3
2.3.5 Vortex shedding
Forces due to vortex shedding cause a response of the chimney perpendicular to the wind direction.
Important amplitudes occur when the shedding frequency coincides with a structural frequency.
Vortex shedding occurs at the critical wind speed:
Vcr = f1 d/St
where

http://www.kuleuven.be/bwk/materials/Teaching/master/wg15c/l0500.htm

11/30/2006

L15c05

Page 6 of 13

St is the Strouhal number, equal to 0,2 if there is no interference object nearer to the chimney than 15
times its diameter.
If there is a cylindrical interference object - diameter d' - at a distance a which is smaller than 15 d
from the chimney, the Strouhal number decreases to:

St 0,1 + 0,1
If a is smaller than 6d, wind tunnel tests are necessary.
Vortex shedding can be neglected if the critical wind speed exceeds 1,2 times the maximum design
speed at the top of the chimney.
If not, the amplitude y of the movement of the top of the chimney in the cross-wind direction is
calculated as follows:

= F (K)
where:
d1 is the diameter of shell averaged over the top third of its height

K=

with mo =

where
x1 (z) is the mode shape of the first resonance frequency.
is the damping ratio calculated from Section 2.3.4 with V=0

Table 1 Values of
K

= F (k)
0,47

Re < 6.105

-0,23 K + 0,565

6.105 Re
3.106

-0,28 K + 0,565

3.106 < Re

-0,24 K + 0,285

0,70

0,86

1,27
- 1,33 K +
1,723

- 1,465 K +
1,585
-0,609 K +
0,458

0,032

0,032

0,032

Bending moments are calculated from the first mode shape normed on y at the top of the
chimney

http://www.kuleuven.be/bwk/materials/Teaching/master/wg15c/l0500.htm

11/30/2006

L15c05

Page 7 of 13

2.3.6 Ovalling
The uneven wind pressure distribution around the circumference of a circular cylinder causes
bending moments in vertical cross-sections of the shell:
Mmax = 0,09 W5 sec (z) d2 (z) ... (N)
where
W5 sec is the pressure averaged over 5 seconds:

W5 sec (z) = a (1,4 Vb)2

/ 2 ... (N/m2)

To avoid ovalling vibrations caused by vortex excitation resulting in amplified bending moments, the
use of stiffening rings is suggested.

The maximum distance between rings equals:

The minimum second moment of area about a vertical axis is:
0,4 10-5 103,5 t0,5
2.3.7 Aerodynamic stabilizers
Cross-wind vibrations usually can be reduced by aerodynamic stabilizers. The useful effect of three
helical vanes has been proved; the radial width of the vanes is 10% of the diameter, the pitch of
vanes is 5d and the vanes are fitted over the upper third of the height of the chimney.
The extra wind drag must be considered.
If there is no object causing interference to the wind flow within an effective distance, cross-wind
actions on a fitted chimney can be neglected. In other cases, e.g. where there are nearby chimneys,
the fitting of aerodynamical stabilizers remains beneficial but cannot be calculated.

2.4 Earthquake Loading

The earthquake stress on a steel chimney is usually less than the wind loading stress. Normal steel
chimneys can generally resist earthquake with an intensity of up to Mercalli scale 10 without serious
damage.
However, in cases where a heavy mass is fitted at the top of the chimney, a special investigation is
necessary.

2.5 Thermal Effects

The main effect of high temperature in self-supporting chimneys is the modification of the
mechanical properties of the steel:

http://www.kuleuven.be/bwk/materials/Teaching/master/wg15c/l0500.htm

11/30/2006

L15c05

Page 8 of 13

(1) Young's modulus: for temperature T between 100 and 400C

ET = E (1 + (15,9 10-5) T - (34,5 10-7) T2 + (11,8 10-9) T3 - (17,2 10-12) T4)
(2) Yield stress: for temperature T between 100 and 400C

fy.T = fy
When a chimney is restrained from adopting a distorted shape under differential expansion, bending
stresses are introduced in the shell.
Stresses are high when a single unlined chimney carries gases from several sources at different
temperature or when a single side entry source introduces gases at high temperature. In addition, the
resulting differential steel temperature introduces secondary thermal stresses. Typically restraint
occurs in bracketed, stayed or guyed chimneys.
For bare steel chimneys, the metal temperature can be assumed to be midway between ambient air
temperature and that of the flue gas over the range of flue gas velocity 5 - 15m/s.

2.6 Chemical Effects

The degree of chemical load is in relation with the number of operating hours (n) when the
temperature of the surface in contact with flue gases is below the estimated acid dew point + 20C:
(1) For a S03 content of 15 ppm, the chemical load is low if n 25, medium if 25 < n 100, and
high if n > 100
(2) For a different S03 contents, limit values of n vary inversely with S03 content.
(3) Where chlorides or fluorides are present in the flue gas, chemical load is high if n 25.
Depending on the degree of chemical load, thickness of the steel shell is increased by an internal
corrosion allowance as follows:
Temperature of metal in
contact with flue gas

Chemical load

< 65C

high

not recommended

65C - 345C

low

1mm

1mm

medium

2mm

4mm

high

not recommended

low

1mm

> 345C

Design life
10 yrs

http://www.kuleuven.be/bwk/materials/Teaching/master/wg15c/l0500.htm

20 yrs

1mm

11/30/2006

L15c05

Page 9 of 13

The thickness of steel shell is, in the same way, increased by an external corrosion allowance as
follows:
Exposure

Design life
10 yrs

20 yrs

painted carbon steel

nil

1mm

carbon steel protected by insulation/cladding

nil

1.5 mm

unprotected carbon steel

1,5mm

3mm

unprotected "corten" or similar steel

1mm

2mm

unprotected stainless steel

nil

nil

3. DESIGN OF THE STRUCTURAL SHELL

During design of the structural shell the following verifications are required:
(1) a check of the load resistance, in order to show that the stresses resulting from the service loads
multiplied by the partial factors i do not exceed the resistance of the shell (strength and stability).
(2) a check of serviceability in order to show that the deformations of the shell under service loads is
acceptable.
(3) a fatigue check which is carried out if the loads due to vortex shedding cannot be neglected.

3.1 Resistance Check

The main equations for checking the resistance are:
(1) N* + M* K/m
where N* is the normal stress due to simultaneous factored loads
M* is the bending stress due to simultaneous factored loads (if vortex shedding effects cannot be
neglected). It results from the combination of bending moments in two directions).
m is the partial safety factor for steel: m = 1,1
K is the critical buckling stress, where
K = (1 - 0,4123 1,2) fy when 2
K = 0,75 fy /2 when > 2
fy is the yield stress of steel at design temperature

http://www.kuleuven.be/bwk/materials/Teaching/master/wg15c/l0500.htm

11/30/2006

L15c05

Page 10 of 13

= (fy/ cr)0,5
cr = 0,605 Et/r
E is the Young's modulus of steel at design temperature
t is the corroded shell thickness
r is the radius of shell for the section considered.

=
N and M are in relation with maximal imperfection Wmax of the shell (see Section 5)
If Wmax is less than 0,04

N =

N =

, then:

for r/t 212

for r/t 212

M = 0,189 + 0,811 N
If Wmax is between 0,04

and 0,08

, then:

calculated as above is multiplied by

(2)

<

where x* = N* + M*
y* is the factored bending stress due to ovalling
T* is the factored shear stress.

Second order effects are taken into consideration if the value of h

exceeds 0,6,

http://www.kuleuven.be/bwk/materials/Teaching/master/wg15c/l0500.htm

11/30/2006

L15c05

Page 11 of 13

where h is the height of the chimney

N is the total axial load
EI is the stiffness of the cross-section at the base of the chimney.

3.2 Serviceability Check

The deflection at the top of the chimney is limited to

The deflection due to vortex shedding should not be greater than 0,3 d from centreline.

3.3 Fatigue Check

The fatigue check ascertains that the loading due to vortex shedding will not result in initiation and
propagation of cracks in the steel material.
It shows that the difference = |max - min| of nominal stresses in the construction detail
considered does not exceed the fatigue strength R divided by the factor of safety R:

R = 1,10 if the steel temperature is less than 200C;
R = 1,32 if temperature is more than 200C.
R is given by the following equation:

log R = -

log N + C

where N is the number of stress cycles

N = 0,4 x 108 x A2 e-A f1

where A = 3,5
Vcr is the critical wind speed for vortex shedding
Vh is the design wind-speed at the top of the chimney
m = 3 for N 5.107 and m = 5 for N > 5.107
C = log [cat] + 2,1

http://www.kuleuven.be/bwk/materials/Teaching/master/wg15c/l0500.htm

11/30/2006

L15c05

Page 12 of 13

where [cat] is the category number of the constructional detail for which the fatigue check is
required, see Eurocode 3 [3].

4. SOME SPECIFIC ITEMS OF STEEL CHIMNEY DESIGN

4.1 Connections Between the Different Sections of the Cylindrical Shell
These connections are generally welded "shell on shell".
In some cases, they are bolted connections with external flanges.
For welded connections, the design should be such that the fatigue strength is as high as possible.
The welding process is designed in order to limit shell deformation.
For bolted connections, the design of the bolts and the flanges takes account of the prying effect in
the tension zone.

4.2 The Support at the Base

At the base, the cylindrical shell is welded onto a ring which is connected to the reinforced concrete
foundation by anchor bolts.
The best design is a ring with bolts on the inner and the outer sides of the shell. The forces in the
anchor are calculated by considering a mixed section, compressed concrete and extended bolts. The
axis of this section is determined by calculation.
Where the ring is an external one, the prying effect is considered to amplify the bolt forces.

4.3 Large Apertures

Where large apertures are cut in the shell plates, as for inlets or inspection panels, a structural
analysis is made.
The shell is reinforced around the aperture by a frame which consists of U sections having their two
flanges welded on the shell.
The profile is chosen by calculating the frame for the wind blowing parallel to the aperture on the
one hand, and perpendicularly to the aperture on the other hand.

5. FABRICATION AND ERECTION TOLERANCES

The importance of the value W of the shell imperfections is indicated in Section 3.1. The loadcarrying resistance of the shell depends on Wmax.
After the erection of a chimney, shell imperfections must be measured systematically. A ruler should
be used which has a length of 4
, where r is the radius of shell and t its thickness. W is the
distance between the shell and the ruler. The ruler which is placed vertically is straight. The ruler
which is placed horizontally is curved at the nominal radius of the shell.

6. CONCLUDING SUMMARY

http://www.kuleuven.be/bwk/materials/Teaching/master/wg15c/l0500.htm

11/30/2006

L15c05

Page 13 of 13

There are several types of steel chimney, the main ones being self-supporting, guyed, stayed
(on a supporting column) and bracketed (on a nearby building).
Self-supporting chimneys may consist of a bare steel shell, a double skin in which the steel is
internally covered with a liner, or multi-flue chimneys in which the steel shell contains several
liners.
Actions which have to be taken into account in the design of self-supporting chimneys include
permanent and dust loads, wind loads including vortex shedding and ovalling, earthquake
loading and thermal and chemical effects.
In some cases the effects of uneven wind pressure distribution and vortex shedding may have
to be limited by the use of stiffening rings or aerodynamic stabilisers. Chemical effects require
the use of an appropriate corrosion allowance on the thickness of the steel shell.
Verification of design requires checks of load resistance (strength and stability), serviceability
and fatigue.
Specific consideration in the detail design is required concerning connections, large apertures
and anchors at the base.

7. REFERENCES
[1] BS EN 10025, 1990, Hot Rolled Products of Non-Alloy Structural Steels and their Technical
Delivery Conditions, British Standards Institution, London.
[2] Model Code for Steel Chimneys
CIC.IND (Comit International des Chemines Industrielles).
[3] Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures": ENV 1993-1-1: Part 1.1: General Rules and Rules for
Buildings, CEN, 1992.
Previous | Next | Contents

http://www.kuleuven.be/bwk/materials/Teaching/master/wg15c/l0500.htm

11/30/2006