Vol.

44 (2001), 3, 359-366
TRIBOLOGY TRANSACTIONS

Friction-Reducing Surface-Texturing in Reciprocating

Automotive Components
AVIRAM RONEN and IZHAK ETSION (Fellow, STLE)
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
Technion
Haifa, 32000, Israel
and
YURI KLIGERMAN
Surface Technologies Ltd.
Nesher, 36601, Israel

A model is presented to study the potential use of micro-surface structure in the form of micro pores to improve tribological
properties of reciprocating automotive components. The Reynolds
equation and the equation of motion are solved simultaneously for
a simplified piston/cylinder system with surface texturing. The
solution provides the time behavior of both the clearance and the
friction force between the piston ring and cylinder liner surfaces. It is shown that surface texturing can efficiently be used to

maintain hydrodynamic effects even with nominally parallel surfaces. It is also shown that optimum surface texturing may substantially reduce the friction losses in reciprocating automotive
components.
KEY WORDS
Automotive; Friction; Hydrodynamic Lubrication; Piston
Rings; Surface Texturing
INTRODUCTION

Presented at the 56th Annual Meeting

Orlando, Florida
May 20-24, 2001
Final manuscript approved April 11, 2001
Review led by Luis San Andrs

About 40 percent of the total energy developed by a typical

automotive engine is consumed by engine friction (1). Reducing
this friction loss is a key factor in improving fuel consumption and
environment protection. Of all the various engine components that

NOMENCLATURE
A
c
C
Fe
Ff(t)
Ff
Fh

F
h
hp
H
Lc
L
m
Np
p
pa
pt
pb

P
rp
r1
rc
Sp
t
U
W
L
x
X
z
Z
P

1
2

= contact area
= nominal clearance between mating surfaces
= dimensionless clearance, c/hp
= external force acting on the stationary specimen
= instantaneous friction force between the sliding table and
the specimen
= average friction force
= hydrodynamic opening force acting between the sliding
table and the specimen
= dimensionless force, F/(paA)
= instantaneous local film thickness
= pore depth
= dimensionless instantaneous local film thickness, h/hp
= connecting rod length
= axial length of specimen
= specimen mass
= number of pores
= pressure
= ambient pressure
= pressure above ring
= pressure below ring

359

= dimensionless pressure, p/pa

= base radius of the pore
= half side of imaginary square cell
= crankshaft radius
= area density of the pores
= time
= sliding velocity
= specimen width
= specimen length
= Cartesian coordinate
= dimensionless Cartesian coordinate, x/rp
= Cartesian coordinate
= dimensionless Cartesian coordinate, z/rp
= dimensionless pressure differential, Pb-Pt
= crankshaft radius over connecting rod length ratio, rc /Lc
= pore diameter over crankshaft radius ratio, 2rp/rc
= bearing number, 3 /pa
2
= dimensionless inertia parameter, 2mrppa/( A)
= dynamic viscosity
= pore depth over diameter ratio, hp/2rp
= dimensionless time, tpa/
= crank angular velocity

360

A. RONEN, I. ETSION AND Y. KLIGERMAN

Fig. 1Simple model of piston rings and cylinder liner simulation.

contribute to the friction losses the piston and piston ring system
accounts for about 50-60 percent. It is not surprising therefore that
engine friction in general and the friction of the piston/cylinder
system in particular was the focus of many research work, e.g. (2)(4).
Proper lubrication and surface roughness are key issues in
reducing friction in the piston/cylinder system and, hence,
received great deal of attention in the relevant literature. Some of
the previous studies (5) and (6), which predicted the oil film thickness between a piston ring and cylinder liner, assumed that the
liner and the ring surfaces were smooth. The first to develop a piston ring lubrication model, which included surface roughness
effect, was Rohde (7), in 1980. Sanda and Someya (8) examined
theoretically and experimentally the effect of surface roughness
on lubrication between a piston ring and a cylinder liner regarding
four different magnitudes and directions of roughness. It was
found that the effect of the roughness is significant only near the
top and bottom dead centers when the oil film is thinner. Higher
friction peaks were observed in the case of larger (high RMS) and
longitudinal roughness (asperities ridges parallel to the sliding
direction) than in the case of smaller (low RMS) and transverse
roughness.
Michail and Barber (9), (10) developed a theoretical piston
ring/cylinder wall model, based on the average Reynolds equation
developed by Patir and Cheng (11), to study the effects of cylinder wall roughness, crosshatched angle and plateau honing on the
oil film thickness between a piston ring and a cylinder wall. It was
found that for a given set of operating parameters, the oil film
thickness is largest for transversely oriented surfaces. This corresponds to crosshatch angles of less than 45 degrees for the honed
surface considered. It was also found that for equal roughness, the
oil film thickness is largest for unskewed surfaces. From the

above it is clear that microstructure of the sliding surface plays an

important role in friction control. This is probably due to the
microstructure effect on the build up of hydrodynamic fluid film
between the mating surfaces.
Anno, et al. (12), (13) show that the use of micro asperities is
an effective and controllable technique for obtaining hydrodynamic operation in face seals. Hamilton, et al. (14) demonstrate
how micro irregularities and cavities can be intimately involved in
the hydrodynamic process between two parallel surfaces and
Etsion, et al. (15) show similar effects while using spherical pores.
Burstein and Ingman (16) applied the concept of pore ensemble to
piston ring lubrication. They solved the case of reciprocating
motion of a compression piston ring with cylindrical micropores
while assuming that the distance between neighboring pores is
large enough to neglect the interaction between them.
The present paper presents a novel idea with a potential to
reduce the friction force between the piston rings and cylinder
liner. For simplicity the piston/cylinder system is modeled by two
nominally flat surfaces simulating segments of two piston rings
and reciprocating relative to a flat (see Fig. 1) that simulates the
cylinder liner. The piston ring faces are laser textured to contain
micro-pores that act as micro hydrodynamic bearings to enhance
hydrodynamic lubrication (Etsion, et al. (15)). This model,
although very simplistic, was selected to permit simple presentation of the potential of the novel idea and to allow a comparison
of the theoretical results with experimental ones that will be
obtained on a test rig very similar to the schematic description of
Fig. 1.
ANALYTICAL MODEL
The geometrical model of the two piston ring segments surfaces is displayed in Figs. 2(a) and 3. The pores are uniformly distributed, with an area density Sp. Each pore is modeled by an
axisymmetric spherical segment with a base radius rp and depth hp
and is located in the center of an imaginary square cell of sides 2r1
x 2r1 (see Fig. 2(a)) where:
r1 =

rp
2

Sp

[1]

Assuming a slider-crank mechanism, as shown schematically

in Fig. 4, the sliding velocity U corresponding to the crankshaft
angle may be expressed as (Mabie and Ocvirk, (17)):
U = rc( )

[2]

where () is a trigonometric function given by:

sin 2

pa

( ) = sin
+

pa

2 1 2 sin 2

pa

[3]

Friction-Reducing Surface-Texturing in Reciprocating Automotive Components

361

Fig. 3Film thickness and geometry of pores.

Fig. 2aGeometrical model of laser textured surface. Pores distribution

and individul cell with a single pore.

Fig. 4Slider-crank mechanism.

X=
Fig. 2bGeometrical model of laser textured surface. Longitudinal
pores column with its system of coordinates and boundary
conditions.

where = pat/ is a dimensionless form of the time. The twodimensional, time dependent form of the Reynolds equation for an
incompressible Newtonian fluid in laminar flow is given by:
3 p 3 p
h
h
+ 12
h
+ h
= 6 U
x x z z
x
t

[4]

where z and x are lateral and longitudinal direction Cartesian

coordinates, respectively, and h (see Fig. 3) is the local film thickness at a specific point of the textured surface:
h = c( t )

2 + 2 rp2
2

h2 + r 2
r 2 hp2
h = c(t ) + p p ( 2 + 2 ) p
2 hp
2 hp

2 + 2 < rp2

Here c(t) is the time dependent nominal clearance between the

mating surfaces (see Fig. 3); and (see Fig. 2(a)) are the local
Cartesian coordinates for a single pore cell. In order to reduce Eq.
[4] to nondimensional form the nondimensional Cartesian coordinates X and Z, nondimensional local film thickness H, and nondimensional pressure P are defined as:

x
z
h
p
; Z= ; H= ; P= ;
rp
rp
hp
pa

[5]

After substituting Eqs. [2] and [5] into Eq. [4] the Reynolds
equation in its nondimensional form becomes:
3 P 3 P 1
H 3 H
( )
+
H
+
H
=
X
X Z
Z 2
X 2

[6]

where the nondimensional parameters, 1, and are given as

follows:
2r
h
3
1 =
; = p; = p ;
2rp
pa
rc
[7]
By specifying the film thickness distribution H(X,Z), and the
relevant boundary conditions the Reynolds equation, Eq. [6], can
be solved for the pressure distribution in the film between the mating surfaces. Integrating the pressure over the area gives the opening force acting in the perpendicular direction to prevent contact
between the moving parts.
Assuming that the width, W, of a piston ring segment is significantly larger than its length L (see Fig. 2(a)) allows to neglect
the end effects in the z direction. This means that the pressure distribution over each longitudinal pores column is the same, repeating itself in the z direction with a period equal to the imaginary
square cell size 2r1. Because of this periodicity it is sufficient to
consider the pressure distribution within just one longitudinal
pores column shown in Fig. 2(b). It is further assumed that the
mating surfaces are nominally parallel (see Fig. 3), and, hence,
due to the symmetry of the pores column about its X axis (see Fig.

362

A. RONEN, I. ETSION AND Y. KLIGERMAN

Reynolds equation to simulate the effect of a piston assembly with

a mass m and a radial force Fe. The force diagram is shown in Fig.
5 and the dynamic equation is given by:
m

2c
= Fh Fe
t 2

[10]

In order to reduce Eq. [10] to nondimensional form, the

nondimensional forces are defined as:
Fh =

2(b)) the pressure distribution will be symmetric about this axis.

Therefore, for the complete pressure distribution it is sufficient to
consider only one half of one pores column (with Z varying from
0 to r1/rp). From the periodicity, symmetry and continuity of the
pressure distribution it follows that:

[8]

The following nondimensional boundary conditions in the X

direction are applied to the Reynolds equation [6]:

L
P( Z , X = 0) = Pt ; P Z , X = = Pb ;
rp

[11]

After substitution of Eq. [11] into Eq. [10] the dynamic equation in its nondimensional form becomes:

Fig. 5Force diagram.

P
P
r
( Z = 0, X ) = Z = 1 , X = 0
Z
Z
rp

Fh
F
; Fe = e ;
pa A
pa A

[9]

The boundary conditions [8] and [9] should be complemented

by the conditions at the boundaries of possible cavitation regions
associated with each individual pore. The Reynolds condition
(also known as the Swift-Steiber or continuity boundary condition) implies that, on the cavitation boundary the pressure gradient with respect to the direction normal to the boundary is zero.
Using iterative solution, it is very simple to apply this boundary
condition to the Reynolds Eq. [6]. If sub-ambient pressures are put
to zero in each iterative cycle the process converges to the
required boundary condition (18).
The Reynolds Eq. [6] with its boundary conditions [8] and [9]
was solved by a finite difference method using a nonuniform grid
over the pores column where a dense grid is applied within the
pores areas (about five times denser than that outside of the
pores).
The finite difference method leads to a set of linear algebraic
equations for the nodal values of the pressure. These were solved
using the successive over-relaxation Gauss-Seidel iterative
method, (19).
Since the sliding velocity and, hence, the hydrodynamic pressure in the fluid film between the mating surfaces are changing in
time a dynamic equation should be solved simultaneously with the

2C
= Fh Fe
2

[12]

where the dimensionless clearance, C, is c/hp and the nondimensional inertia parameter 2 is given as follows:
2 =

2 mrp pa
2 A

[13]

The dynamic equation is solved simultaneously with the

Reynolds equation using the fourth order Runge-Kutta method
with arbitrary initial conditions for the dimensionless clearance,
C, and the squeeze velocity, C/. The time progression of the
iterative procedure continues until the difference in the clearance
C() in two consecutive periods of reciprocating motion converges to a preset small value.
The instantaneous friction force due to shear stresses in the
fluid film during the reciprocation is calculated from:
Ff (t ) = U

dA
h

[14]

Expressing the friction force in dimensionless form (see

Nomenclature) and using Eqs. [2] and [7] the instantaneous
dimensionless friction force is:

Ff ( ) =

1 ( )
3 H ( )

[15]

where
1 1 dA
=
H A A H ( )

and A is a dimensionless area of half the pores column in the form

A = r L/r 2.
1
p
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The following dimensionless parameters of the problem were

Friction-Reducing Surface-Texturing in Reciprocating Automotive Components

363

0
Fig. 7Dimensionless clearance, C, variation with crank angle.

Fig. 6Dimensionless pressure distribution over three pores.

considered for a parametric investigation:

Number of pores, Np;
Area density of the pores, Sp;
External force acting on the stationary specimen, Fe ;
Bearing number, 1;
Dimensionless inertia parameter, 2;
Pore diameter over crankshaft radius ratio, ;
It is important to notice, from Eq. [1] and from the relation L
= 2r1 Np, that changing of Sp or Np can be related to variation of
the axial length of the specimen, L.
Figure 6 is an example of the instantaneous dimensionless
pressure distribution over one column with three pores. From Fig.
6 it is clear that the pressure distribution is strongly affected by the
pressures at the two ends of the specimen. Also due to interaction
between neighboring pores the pressure does not drop to zero
along the width boundaries (perpendicular to the sliding direction). Hence, this interaction cannot be neglected when calculating the pressure distribution, contrary to the assumption in Ref.
(16).
A typical case having a bearing number 1 = 1.0E-3, inertia
parameter 2 = 1.0E+6, = 0.002, pores density Sp = 10%, number of pores Np = 12, pore depth over diameter ratio = 0.12, pressure differential P = 0 and external force Fe = 5 was selected for
presenting the time variations of the nominal clearance and the
friction force. It should be noted here that the external force in a
realistic firing engine is a time dependent variable and not a constant. However, it is a common practice to use motoring engines
with floating sleeves, e.g. (20) and other laboratory test rigs with
a constant ring loading for preliminary investigations of the friction between the piston rings and cylinder liner. Since the authors
intend to use such a test rig to validate the model it was decided
to use a constant external force in the model as well.
Figure 7 presents the time variation of the dimensionless clearance, C, over two consecutive cycles for the above typical case.
Depending on the initial conditions of the dimensionless clear-

Fig. 8Dimensionless friction force, Ff ( ) , variation with crank angle.

ance, C, and the squeeze velocity, C/ it typically takes about

three to four cycles of the reciprocating motion before the iterative
procedure converges to the steady-state clearance variation with
time. As can be seen the clearance changes from bout 0.79 hp at a
crank angle just prior to 90 when U reaches its maximum value,
to about 0.66 hp just before 270 when U = 0. The decrease in C
as U approaches zero causes a squeeze effect that maintains
enough hydrodynamic pressure in the fluid film to prevent its collapse at U = 0.
The corresponding time variation of the dimensionless friction
force over the same two consecutive cycles is shown in Fig. 8. As
can be seen the friction force varies almost sinusoidally in spite of
the non-sinusoidal variation in the clearance. This is mainly due to
the fact that the time variation in C and, hence, in the average
clearance, h , is very small. Thus, according to Eq. [14] the main
effect on the friction force is due to the velocity U that varies
almost sinusoidally in time.
The parametric investigation considered a range of the dimensionless parameters of the problem as shown in Table 1. The effect
of each dimensionless parameter on the average friction force,
which is the time average absolute value of Ff ( ) over one complete cycle, was studied regarding a wide range of pore depth over

364

A. RONEN, I. ETSION AND Y. KLIGERMAN

TABLE 1VALUES OF DIMENSIONLESS PARAMETERS OF THE PROBLEM CONSIDERED FOR THE ANALYTICAL
INVESTIGATION
DIMENSIONLESS
PARAMETER
Np
Sp
Fe

1
2

LOWER LIMIT
6
5%
2.5
5.0E-4
5.0E+5
0.001

RANGE OF VARIATION
REFERENCE CASE
12
10%
5
1.0E-3
1.0E+6
0.002

UPPER LIMIT
24
20%
10
2.0E-3
2.0E+6
0.004

Fig. 9Dimensionless average friction force, vs. depth over diameter

ratio, , for various pores number, Np.

Fig. 10Dimensionless average friction force, Ff ( ) , vs. number of

pores, Np.

diameter ratio, , values. The analysis was done on the reference

case in Table 1 by changing only one parameter at a time, while
all the other parameters remain constant, according to the lower
and upper limits shown in Table 1.
From a large number of numerical simulations it was found
that the area density of the pores, Sp, and the inertia parameter,
2, have little effect on the average friction force. Changing Sp
from 5% to 20% changes the average friction force by less than
6.7%. Changing the value of 2 from 2 = 0.5E+6 to 2 = 2.0E+6
caused less than 0.03% change in the average friction force.
Further investigation revealed that even a few orders of magnitude
change from 2 = 0.5E+5 to 2 = 1.0E+8 caused only 2% change
in the average friction force.
Figure 9 presents the effect of the pore depth over diameter
ratio, , on the dimensionless average friction force. The results in
Fig. 9 are presented for several values of the number of pores, Np.
It can be seen that at a given , the effect of Np diminishes when
the number of pores increases. This is well demonstrated in Fig.
10, where the effect of the number of pores on the average friction
force for a specific depth over diameter ratio, = 0.1, is presented. Similar behavior was obtained for other values of as well. It
can be seen, from Fig. 10, that above 12 pores the rate of reduction in the average friction is very small. Hence, in case of Np >
12 it is possible to save computation time by considering Np = 12
only. This phenomenon was found also valid for the other values
of 1 in Table 1 and can be explained by the vanishing influence
of the ends of the column as its length, L, increases. Above a certain number of pores the effect of the boundary pressures at the

two ends of the specimen is confined to a few pores close to these

ends. The rest of the pores further away from the ends generate the
same pressure distribution as their neighbors. Hence, the average
pressure over these pores as well as the resulting clearance and
friction force become independent of Np.
An interesting finding in Fig. 9 is the existence of an optimum
value that minimizes the average friction force. This demonstrates the potential of friction reduction with the surface texturing
as compared to non-textured surfaces where = 0. For example,
for Np=24 there is a reduction of 28% in the dimensionless average friction force as is increased from = 0.02 (which is closer
to non-textured surfaces) to its optimum value of = 0.14. It
should be noted that the present simple model with the flat and
parallel piston rings and cylinder liner of Fig. 1 cannot be
used with = 0 since no hydrodynamic load capacity can be
obtained in this case. However, as can be seen from Fig. 9 the friction force gradient increases rapidly at very small values of as
deceases. Hence, the actual friction reduction with the surface texturing as compared to totally non-textured surfaces is expected to
be much higher than 28%.
Figure 11 presents the effect of the bearing number, 1, on the
dimensionless average friction force for a wide range of values.
As can be seen the average friction force at a given increases
with 1. Since 1 depends linearly on the crank angular velocity,
, and the lubricant viscosity, , (see Eq. [7]) the increase in the
friction force with 1 is expected. Again the existence of an optimum value that minimizes the average friction force can be seen.
This optimum value depends on the bearing number 1 and

Friction-Reducing Surface-Texturing in Reciprocating Automotive Components

Fig. 11Dimensionless average friction force, Ff ( ) , vs. depth over

diameter ratio, , for various bearing number, 1.

365

Fig. 13 Dimensionless average friction force, Ff, vs. depth over

diameter ratio, , for various external force, Fe .

ton/cylinder system with a constant external normal force was

analyzed demonstrating that hydrodynamic effects can be generated by surface texturing even for nominally parallel mating surfaces. The time variation of the clearance and the friction force at
any given operating conditions were obtained by simultaneously
solving the Reynolds equation and a dynamic equation.
The main parameters of the problem were identified and an
intensive parametric investigation was performed. The following
conclusions summarize the outcome of the investigation:

Fig. 12 Dimensionless average friction force, Ff, vs. depth over

diameter ratio, , for various pore diameter over crankshaft
radius ratio number, .

varies from about 0.1 at 1 = 0.5E-3 to about 0.18 at 1 = 2.0E-3.

Figure 12 presents the effect of the pore diameter over crankshaft radius ratio, , on the dimensionless average friction force
for the range of . As can be seen the average friction force at a
given increases with a decrease of . Since depends linearly on
1/rc, Eq. [7], and because the sliding velocity, U, depends linearly
on rc (see Eq. [2]) the increase in the friction force with the
decrease of is expected. The optimum value again is clearly
shown.
Figure 13 presents the effect of the external force, Fe , on the
dimensionless average friction force. As expected the average
friction force at a given increases with Fe since this force is acting to reduce the average clearance between the mating surfaces
and thus increases the friction force (see Eq. [14]). As in Figs. 9,
11 and 12 the optimal pore depth over diameter ratio is clearly
demonstrated.
CONCLUSION
A model was developed to demonstrate the potential of reducing friction losses in reciprocating systems by surface texturing in
the form of multiple spherical micro-pores. A simplified pis-

1. The interaction between adjacent pores is significant and

hence, its effect on the hydrodynamic pressure distribution
cannot be neglected.
2. The maximum variation of the fluid film clearance over one
revolution is small being less than 30 percent of the pores
depth. Hence, the variation in the friction force with the
crank angle is mainly due to the variation in the sliding
speed.
3. A change of the area density of the pores, Sp, in the range
between 5% to 20% changes the friction force by less than
7%.
4. The effect of the inertia of the piston rings is negligible.
Changing the inertia parameter by 3 orders of magnitude
causes only 2% change in the average friction force.
5. Increasing the number of pores over the axial length of the
piston ring reduces the friction sharply up to Np = 12.
Thereafter the reduction in friction becomes much more
moderate.
6. An optimum value of the pore depth over diameter ratio
was found, which yields a minimum friction force. This
optimum ratio varies from about = 0.1 to about = 0.18
for all the relevant parameters of the problem.
7. Although the model does not allow direct comparison with a
system that does not include the pores (the case of = 0) it
is clear that a friction reduction of 30% and even more is
feasible with textured surfaces.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The research reported here was supported in parts by Surface
Technologies Ltd., by the GM-UMI Foundation and by the

366

A. RONEN, I. ETSION AND Y. KLIGERMAN

German-Israeli Project Cooperation (DIP). This support as well

as the permission by Surface Technologies to publish the work is
gratefully acknowledged by the authors.
REFERENCES
(1) Nakada, M., Trends in Engine Technology and Tribology, Trib. Intl., 27, pp
3-8, (1994).
(2) Knoll, G. D and Peeken, H. J., Hydrodynamic Lubrication of Piston Skirts,
Trans. ASME Jour. of Lubr. Tech., 104, pp 504-509, (1982).
(3) Mitsuru, H. and Yasukazu, B., A Study of Piston Friction Force in an Internal
Combustion Engine, ASLE Trans., 30, pp 444-451, (1987).
(4) Takiguchi, M., Machida, K. and Furuhama, S., Piston Friction Force of A Small
High Speed Gasoline Engine, Trans. ASME Jour. of Trib., 110, pp 112-118,
(1988).
(5) Ting, L. L. and Mayer, J. E., Piston Ring Lubrication and Cylinder Bore Wear
Analysis, Part I Theory, Trans. ASME Jour. of Lubr. Tech., 86, pp 305-314,
(1974).
(6) Wakuri, Y., Hamatake, T., Soejima, M. and Kitahara, T., Piston Ring Friction
in Internal-Combustion Engines, Trib. Intl., 25, pp 299-308, (1992).
(7) Rohde, S. M., A Mixed Friction Model for Dynamically Loaded Contacts with
Application to Piston Ring Lubrication, AGARD Lecture Series, Surface
Roughness Effects in Hydrodynamic and Mixed Lubrication, ASME, New York,
pp 19-50, (1980).
(8) Sanda, S. and Someya, T., The Effect of Surface Roughness on Lubrication
Between a Piston Ring and a Cylinder Liner, in Proc. of the Institution of
Mechanical Engineers, Intl. Conf., Tribology-Friction, Lubrication and Wear,
IMechE, 1, pp 135-143, (1987).
(9) Michail, S. K. and Barber, G. C., Effects of Roughness on Piston Ring
Lubrication Part I: Model Development, Trib. Trans., 38, pp 19-26, (1995).
(10) Michail, S. K. and Barber, G. C., The Effects of Roughness on Piston Ring
Lubrication Part II: The Relationship between Cylinder Wall Surface

Topography and Oil Film Thickness, Trib. Trans., 38, pp 173-177, (1995).
(11) Patir, N. and Cheng, H. S., An Average Flow Model of Determining Effects of
Three-Dimensional Roughness on Partial Hydrodynamic Lubrication, Trans.
ASME Jour. of Lubr. Tech., 100, pp 12-16, (1978).
(12) Anno, J. N., Walowit, J. A. and Allen, C. M., Microasperity Lubrication,
Trans. ASME Jour. of Lubr. Tech., 91, pp 351-355, (1968).
(13) Anno, J. N., Walowit, J. A. and Allen, C. M., Load Support and Leakage from
Microasperity-Lubricated Face Seals, Trans. ASME Jour. of Lubr. Tech., 90, pp
726-731, (1969).
(14) Hamilton, D. B., Walowit, J. A. and Allen, C. M., A Theory of Lubrication by
Microirregularities, Trans. ASME Jour. of Basic Eng., 88, pp 177-185, (1966).
(15) Etsion, I., Kligerman Y. and Halperin, G., Analytical and Experimental
Investigation of Laser-Textured Mechanical Seal Faces, Trib. Trans., 42, pp
511-516, (1999).
(16) Burstein, L. and Ingman, D., Pore Ensemble Statistics in Application to
Lubrication Under Reciprocating Motion, Trib. Trans., 43, pp 205-212,
(2000).
(17) Mabie, H. H. and Ocvirk, F. W., Mechanisms and Dynamics of Machinery, 3rd
Ed., John Wiley and Sons Inc., New York, pp 19-20, (1975).
(18) Dowson, D. and Taylor, C. M., Cavitation in Bearings, Ann. Rev. Fluid Mech.,
11, pp 35-66, (1979).
(19) Gerald, C. F. and Wheately P. O., Applied Numerical Analysis, 5th ed., AddisonWesley Publishing Co., New York, pp 157-159, (1994).
(20) Cho, S. -W., Choi, S. -M. and Bae, C. -S., Frictional Modes of Barrel Shaped
Piston Rings Under Flooded Lubrication, Trib. Intl., 33, pp 545-551, (2000).