Characterization of Spot W e l d i n g

Behavior by Dynamic Electrical

Parameter M o n i t o r i n g
The use of two parametersdynamic
resistance and critical
expulsion
energyis proposed for controlling
resistance spot
welding

BY D. W. DICKINSON, J. E. FRANKLIN A N D A. STANYA

ABSTRACT. A program was undertaken to develop techniques for studying

the resistance spot welding process. A
dynamic electrical parameter monitoring device was designed to simultaneously record the instantaneous values of voltage, current, power, and
resistance during spot welding. The
data obtained using this technique
have been analyzed in terms of the
relationships of these parameters to
the phenomena occurring during the
formation of a spot w e l d , to the effects
of changes in welding variables on
electrical parameters, and to the
effects of variations in steel composition and properties.
The phenomena occurring during
spot weld formation (surface breakd o w n , asperity collapse, heating of the
work pieces, molten nugget formation,
nugget growth, and mechanical collapse) can be understood through
analysis of dynamic resistance curves.
If expulsion occurs during a spot w e l d ,
it also is readily detected from this
parameter. A generalized resistance
curve consists of an initial very rapid
drop in resistance to a minimum value
within the first few cycles of current
flow. This is followed by a rise to a
maximum and finally a gradual decrease.
Dynamic resistance measurements
can be used in obtaining a better
understanding of lobe curves. The
shape of the dynamic resistance curve
for welds near the lobe boundary is
correlated to the observed characteristics of these welds. The effects of
changes in welding current and electrode force can also be related to the
dynamic resistance curves. Spot w e l d ability varies as a function of steel
chemistry, and an improved understanding of these material effects is

170-sl JUNE 1980

obtained
by comparing
dynamic
resistance curves for various high
strength steels.
Expulsion is analyzed in terms of
power curves integrated to obtain
total weld energy input. It was found
that expulsion occurs when the total
useful energy into the weld exceeds a
critical value. It is proposed that these
two parameters, dynamic resistance
and critical expulsion energy, can be
used to control the spot welding process.
Introduction
It has long been known that the
process of spot welding
occurs
through the localized melting and
coalescence of a small volume of
material due to the heating caused by
the passage of electric current. This
heating is equivalent to the product of
the current squared times the total
resistance of the material to be spot
welded. During the process of spot
welding, however, both the current
and the resistance continually change
as the material is heated and melts.
Until recently, spot weld characteristics have been determined by measurement of the initial or static
resistance and the initial current surge
at the onset of welding, or an average
RMS current value obtained during
welding. Recent papers,'" 6 however,
have indicated that in order to fully
characterize the spot welding process,
Based on a paper presented at the AWS
60th Annual Meeting held in Detroit,
Michigan, during April 2-6, 1979.
D. W. DICKINSON, I. E. FRANKLIN and A.
STANYA are with the Research Center,
Republic Steel Corporation, Independence,
Ohio 44131

a continuous or dynamic monitoring

system is needed. This system w o u l d
monitor and record instantaneous
changes in the electrical functions
during welding.
Several authors 1 5 6 report continuous variations in the electrical parameters during welding of mild steel
sheet to be typified by the sketches
presented in Fig. 1. After approximately the first cycle, an increase in voltage
across the welding electrodes and a
decrease in current flowing through
the weld zone occurs until a "peak
region" is reached. Throughout the
remaining portion of the weld cycle,
the voltage decreases to a constant
value while the current increases to a
constant value.
These changes in voltage and current can also be represented as instantaneous or dynamic resistance. Several
authors 1,56 have calculated the dynamic resistance changes throughout
the welding cycle by dividing the
instantaneous voltage by the instantaneous current (R = E/l). This dynamic
resistance trace is also plotted in Fig. 1.
After an initial drop, it too rises to a
peak in the first portion of the weld
cycle, dropping off later in the cycle.
The appearance of this dynamic
resistance trace and hence the basic
welding mechanisms can be altered by
changes in welding variables such as
weld time, electrode force, and overall
weld current. Bhattacharya and Andrews 1 have made the following
observations:
1. W i t h low current values, the
resistance trace does not show a prominent peak; with increased welding
current, however, a well-defined peak
appears.
2. W i t h higher current values, the
maximum or peak resistance occurs

earlier during a weld.

3. For welds produced w i t h high
currents, the resistance trace indicates
a lower value of resistance towards the
completion of weld time.
4. A splash weld (expulsion), caused
by excessive welding current, is characterized by a sudden step in the
resistance trace.
Savage6 has attempted to explain the
shape of the resistance curve on theoretical grounds. When analyzing the
resistance after each half cycle of current, he noted rectification which is
believed to indicate the presence of
oxide films for times as long as 6 to 8
cycles on some welds. He has also
attributed the rise in resistance after
the initial few cycles to be the result of
the material heating. The latter decrease in resistance appears to coincide with the growth of the fused
zone. The sudden drop in resistance
upon expulsion was attributed to the
increase effective contact area provided by the expelled metal trapped
between the sheets.
These observations lay a pathway for
effective utilization of dynamic electrical measurements in monitoring and
control of spot welding. However,
before such control can be utilized, a
characterization of these electrical
measurements throughout the entire
range of acceptable spot weld parameters must be made.
One method for determining the
range over which acceptable spot
welds are obtained on plain carbon
sheet is through the use of spot weld
lobe curves. A typical spot weld lobe
curve is presented in Fig. 2. A lobe
curve is a graphical representation of
ranges of welding variables over which
acceptable spot welds are formed on a
specific material welded w i t h a preselected electrode force. The lobe curve
is determined by making spot welds
using different weld t i m e / w e l d current combinations. Welds made with
currents and/or times exceeding the
upper curve experience expulsion on
welding and are, therefore, considered
unacceptable. Welds made w i t h currents or times below the lower curve
have insufficient size nuggets or ex-

Table 1 - Chemical Analyses,

changes in these basic electrical measurements thus confirming some earlier speculations and developing new
insight.
3. Characterize the dynamic electrical measurements over the range of
weld parameters giving acceptable
spot welds (i.e., over the lobe curve
area) as a first step to using these
electrical measurements for control of
the spot welding process.

NO EXPULSION

WELD T I M E , CYCLES

Fig. 1 Schematic representation of dynamic electrical parameters during spot

welding of mild steel'

'

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- :

"

:'

'

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LU
_l

a
;:\

o
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2
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EXPULSION
LEVEL

SMALL OR
\
BRITTLE NUGGETS'fe-

V:I I I.^-^yk
RMS SECONDARY CURRENT, AMPS
Fig. 2Typical spot weld lobe curve

Materials
The spot weldability of several heats
of plain carbon and high strength hot
rolled and cold rolled steels was investigated. Specific chemical compositions of the materials for this investigation are listed in Table 1. These include
plain carbon, rimmed, renitrogenized,
Cb-added, Cb + V-added and Cb 4Mn-added steels. Also, some welds
were made on a Type 304 stainless
steel.
Except where specifically noted,
most of the data discussed are related
to the welding of a 0.032 in. (0.8 mm)
thick plain carbon aluminum-killed
material (material A in Table 1).
Equipment

hibit brittleness during tearing and are

likewise
considered
unacceptable.
Only welds made with weld currents
and times lying within the lobe area
are acceptable.
Once the lobe curve is k n o w n , characterization of the dynamic electrical
measurement can be made at critical
areas on the curve. Such critical areas
are a) around the lower limit line, b) at
expulsion, and c) within the acceptable region.

Investigation Procedure

All welding was performed on t w o

Taylor-Winfield air-operated electric
resistance spot welding machines.
These are equipped w i t h Weldtronic
controllers for electronic phase control (heat adjustment) and Duffers current analyzers for simultaneous measurements of weld time and secondary
RMS weld currents. Electrode forces
were accurately set at the recommended force 7 for the sheet thickness
being welded and checked several
times throughout the welding program
using a universal force gauge.

Objective
The objectives of this investigation
were to:
1. Build a spot weld monitoring system capable of measuring dynamic
values of voltage, current, resistance,
and power.
2. Relate the phenomena occurring
during spot weld formation to the

Electronic Circuits for Monitoring

the Dynamic Electrical Parameters
A schematic of the circuits used to
develop the welding parameters is
shown in Fig. 3.
The instantaneous voltage across
the electrodes is sensed by probes
attached to the electrode holders.

Materia

Type

Nominal
gage, in.

Mn

Si

Cu

Ni

Cr

Cb

Al

A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H"

Plain C, AK
Renitrogenized
High Cb, low M n
Low Cb, high M n
High Cb, high M n
Plain C
Cb-V
304 stainless

0.032
0.032
0.032
0.032
0.032
0.053
0.056
0.053

.071
.11
.04
.081
.069
.075
.087
.092

.34
.66
.37
.90
.92
.39
1.40
1.40

.01
.01
.01
.01
.015
<.01
.54
.60

.020
.040
.027
.018
.017
.017
.011
.014

<.008
.009
<.0O8
<.0O8
.01
<.008
<.008
<.01

.01
.02
.04
.03
.04
.03

.02
.02
.02
.01
.02
.03
.04
7.6

<.01
.02
.02
.01
.01
.02
.03
17.8

<.01
<.01
.076
.028
.072
<.01
.15
<.01

<.01
<01
<.01
<.01
<.01
<.01
.08
<.01

.05
<.01
.044
.022
.039
.098
.017
<.01

.006
.032
.004
.003
.003

.007
.022
.006
.006
.003

.017

0.35, Co -

.35

0.12.

W E L D I N G RESEARCH S U P P L E M E N T I 171-s

RESISTANCE
+
TO
RECORDER

6000

7000

8000

9000

IO0O0

WELD CURRENT, AMPERES

Fig. 4Lobe curve for plain carbon AK steel

(0.032 in., i.e., 0.81 mm)

Fig. 3Schematic of circuits used to develop spot welding dynamic electrical

parameters

Probes in this location sense the entire

voltage drop attributed to the electrodes and the work pieces. Other
workers 6 have attached probes at different locations, such as the sheets
being welded; however, probes permanently mounted to the electrodes
or electrode holder are more durable
and perform over long weld campaigns. The sensed voltage is amplified
for proper scaling. The amplified voltage signal is then simultaneously sent
to a switch (SW1) and an analog c o m puting module which converts the
instantaneous voltage into a signal
that is proportional to the root-meansquare or effective voltage. The output
of the voltage RMS module is then
sent to SW1, an analog divider module
input, and a recorder channel.
The instantaneous current is sensed
by a Hall-Effect device, amplified for
proper scaling and sent to SW1 and the
input of an analog RMS module which
converts the instantaneous signal into
a signal that is proportional to the
effective or heating value of the w e l d ing current. The RMS current signal is
then sent to SW1, the input of an
analog divider module and a recorder
channel.
When SW1 is in position 1, the
instantaneous voltage and current signals are connected to an analog m u l t i plier module whose output is proportional to the product of the instantaneous voltage and current which is the
instantaneous power dissipated across
the welding electrode. W h e n SW1 is in
position 2, the outputs of the voltage
and current modules are connected to
the inputs of the multiplier and the
output signal is the product of the
effective voltage times the effective
current. The product of the instantaneous voltage and current is equal to
the product of the effective voltage
and current when voltage and current
are in time synchronization
("in

172-s I JUNE 1980

phase"). The output of the multiplier is

sent to a channel of the recorder.
The signals from the current and
voltage RMS modules are also connected to the inputs of an analog
divider module. This module divides
the voltage signal by the current signal
and develops a new signal which is
proportional
to
the
changing
resistance (dynamic resistance) between the electrodes during the w e l d ing cycle. This signal is then sent to a
recorder channel.
The high speed strip chart recorder
can then simultaneously record the
effective welding current, effective
voltage across the welding electrode,
power dissipated during the welding
cycle, and the changing resistance
between the electrodes during the
welding cycle.
Determination of Lobe Curve for Plain
Carbon Steel
The 0.032 in. (0.81 mm) plain carbon
aluminum-killed material was selected
as the base material. The spot w e l d ability lobe curve was determined for

this material using conventional procedures.7 (Lobe curves were determined for all materials; only the plain
carbon material is presented.) The
weld times, in half cycles, and the
secondary RMS weld current were
measured w i t h a Duffers current analyzer.
The lobe curve determined is presented in Fig. 4. As expected, this plain
carbon material exhibited a wide range
of acceptable welding currents and is
considered to be weldable. No "brittle" centerline nugget failures were
noted for this material; therefore, the
lower boundary of the lobe curve represented the limit of acceptable size
nuggets as required in specifications. 7
Dynamic Electrical M e a s u r e m e n t
Dynamic Resistance Measurements around
Lower Lobe Boundary
As a means of characterizing the
dynamic electrical parameters in relation to the spot weldability lobe curve,
several welds were made w i t h a weld
current held constant (at approximately 8000 A) and varying weld time from
2 to 12 cycles. A full complement of
dynamic electrical measurements was
made. This allowed the characterization of electrical parameters around
the lower lobe boundary (insufficient
nugget size line) of the lobe curve
presented in Fig. 4.

RESISTANCE

2 CYCLES

TIME

RESISTANCE

6 CYCLES

RESISTANCE

4 CYCLES

TIME

TIME

RESISTANCE

I 2 CYCLES

Fig. 5Dynamic resistance curves around lower lobe boundary

TIME

TEMPERATURE
INCREASE
ASPERITY
SOFTENING

NUGGET GROWTH
MECHANICAL COLLAPSE

5000

Fig. 6Theoretical dynamic resistance curve

The electrical parameter proving the

most
useful
was
the
dynamic
resistance. Figure 5 shows the dynamic
resistance curves determined along
with metallographic cross-sections of
the respective welds. The curves presented throughout are those obtained
by connecting the peak points of the
dynamic resistance for each half cycle
of weld time.
The weld made for t w o cycles
showed evidence of heating, but no
melting was seen on the weld cross
section. The dynamic resistance curve
dropped from its initial high value to a
minimum and just started to increase
again at the termination of the two
cycle weld time. On the four cycle
weld some melting was noted. This
was accompanied by further development of the dynamic resistance curve.
The resistance showed a substantial
increase after passing through the
minimum point.
The six cycle weld developed a
nugget diameter approximately equal
to the minimum acceptable diameter
and, therefore, fell close to the lower
limit of the lobe curve. The resistance
curve for this weld was fully developed with weld termination near the
peak in the curve. The weld made at
twelve cycles fell well w i t h i n the
acceptable region of the lobe curve.
The weld nugget was fully developed
and the dynamic resistance curve
exhibited the full characteristic shape
as observed by others. 1 ""
Interpretation of Dynamic Resistance
Curves
Based on the above analysis and
upon similar analyses of other authors,1"6 the following interpretation
for the typical shape of the dynamic
resistance curves is given. W i t h reference to Fig. 6, the stages of spot weld
formation can be described as follows:
Stage /. The work pieces are brought

6000

7000
8000
9000
10,000
WELD CURRENT, AMPS
Fig. 7Effect of secondary RMS current level on dynamic resistance

into contact under the pressure provided by the electrode force. This creates areas of electrical contact at the
points where asperities on the surfaces
meet. Voltage is applied between the
electrodes causing current to flow at the
microcontact
points.
The
resistance between electrodes at this point
is equal to the sum of the bulk resistance of the t w o work pieces, the t w o
electrode-to-work
contact
resistances, and the work-to-work contact
resistance.
Under normal conditions, surface
films, oxide layers, or other contaminants will be present on the work
pieces. Since these are essentially insulators, the initial contact resistance will
be very high. Therefore, the initial
generation of heat will be concentrated at the surfaces, especially at the
work-to-work contacts. This heat will
cause the surface contaminants to
break d o w n , resulting in a very sharp
drop in resistance.
Stage II. Immediately after the
breakdown of surface contaminants,
metal-to-metal contact exists. H o w ever, the surface resistance may still
remain relatively high due to the limited area for current flow provided by
the asperity contacts. Heating then is
concentrated at the work-to-work surface, and temperature in this region
and in the bulk material will increase.
As heating progresses, the asperities
soften and the contact area increases
thus causing resistance to decrease. At
the same time increasing temperature
results in increasing resistivity, thus
providing an opposite effect. The c o m petition between these t w o mechanisms determines whether resistance
is increasing or decreasing and thus
determines the position of the a minimum. Eventually, the increase in contact area will be overcome by the
increasing temperature effect, and the
total resistance will begin to rise.
Stage ///. During this period, the

increase in resistivity resulting from

increasing temperature dominates the
resistance curve. The end of Stage III
should correspond to local melting
beginning to occur at the asperity contacts. The transition to Stage IV w i l l
probably occur near the inflection
point in the curve (d L R/dt 2 = 0).
Stage IV. Three mechanisms influence Stage IV. The bulk of the work
pieces continue to increase in temperature, thus causing resistivity and
resistance to increase. But, the heat
being generated also causes additional
melting to occur at the surfaces,
increasing the size of the molten
region and the cross-sectional area
available for current flow. This mechanism causes a resistance decrease.
Also, increased softening w i l l result in
some mechanical collapse, shortening
the path for current flow and decreasing resistance. The P peak is a consequence of the temperature beginning
to stabilize, while nugget growth and
mechanical collapse begin to d o m i nate, and therefore resistance starts to
decrease.
Stage V. Beyond the fi peak, the
growth of the molten nugget and
mechanical collapse continue to cause
resistance to decrease. If the nugget
grows to a size such that it can no
longer be contained by the surrounding solid metal under the compressive
electrode force, expulsion will occur.
This series of events, Stages I
through V, offers a consistent interpretation of the shape of the dynamic
resistance curves observed for spot
welds made in the plain carbon AK
material. Variables expected to cause
significant variation in the shape
include current level, electrode force,
and material being welded. These factors are considered below.
Effect of Current Level on Dynamic
Resistance Curve
In order to examine me effect of

W E L D I N G RESEARCH S U P P L E M E N T 1173-s

u.

n.
UJ

QC

IB cc

o
<

UI

IS
TIME

Fig. 8Effect of electrode force on dynamic

resistance curve

varying current level upon the shape

of the dynamic resistance curve, a
number of welds were made in the
0.032 (0.81 mm) plain carbon AK steel
at 12 cycle weld time w i t h varying
current levels. The current levels investigated were:
1. Those that fell just below the
acceptable lobe region, where molten
nuggets were formed but were of
insufficient size.
2. Those that fell w i t h i n the acceptable region of the lobe curve.
3. Those experiencing expulsion.
Thus, a full range of current levels
were studied. The results are presented in Fig. 7.
At low currents, when an undersize
or brittle nugget forms, the curves
show a distinct initial resistance spike
which decays within the first t w o
cycles. At currents near the middle of
the acceptable welding range, the initial spike is still present but the decay
is more rapid. At expulsion level currents the decay is so rapid that the
initial spike is barely detected. Since
the resistance spike is believed to be a
result of the breakdown of surface
films and the collapse of asperities
during the initial stages of the welding
pulse, the time required for it to decay
will depend on the rate at which heat
is supplied to the w e l d , i.e., the power
(E X I). Therefore, at low currents a
measurable amount of time is required
for sufficient heat to be supplied;
hence, a distinct decaying spike is
detected. At high currents, surface film
breakdown and asperity collapse are
so rapid that the instrument is not
capable of recording the initial spike.
In this case, Region I of the curve in
Fig. 6 is just barely observed and the a
minimum is reached almost immediately after current begins to flow.
W i t h regard to the /3 maximum, Battacharya and Andrews 1 indicate that
this is the point at which melting of
sheet-to-sheet contacts first occurs.
They also propose that the decreasing
slope of the curve near /? is a result of
partial collapse of the sheet-to-sheet
interface brought about by softening.
The present work indicates that
melting occurs prior to the /3 peak and
that the peak itself merely signifies the

174-s I JUNE 1980

to

UI
QC

Lu

III

SE

I ' M

% to
oce
o

<
a. Z
O LU
O CO

11111

M . I

K*

_l_l_

u.*

'

l^\A

u^
LU-LJ

" \

0
12
0
12
0
12
MATERIAL A
MATERIAL B
MATERIAL C
PLAIN
RENITROGENIZED LOW M n /
CARBON AK
HIGH Cb

la.

i m i
0
12
MATERIAL D
HIGH Mn/
LOWCb

0
12
MATERIAL E
HIGHMn/
HIGH Cb

WELD T I M E , CYCLE
Fig. 9Comparison of dynamic resistance curves for five different materials
(A = acceptable nugget, U = undersize nugget, B = brittle nugget, E = expulsion)

point at which resistance drop due to

molten nugget growth and mechanical
collapse overcomes the resistance rise
resulting from increasing temperature.
Figure 5 supports the hypothesis that
melting occurs prior to the /3 peak. The
/? peak in Fig. 5 occurs at about 6
cycles, but this Fig. 5 shows that a
substantial amount of melting has
occurred after only 4 cycles. No melting occurred up to 2 cycles.
Therefore, because the /J peak is a
balance point between a resistance
increase and a resistance drop, the
position of the ft peak must be dependent upon heating rate (i.e., current
level). At very high currents (expulsion
level), the ft peak is reached early in
the welding pulse (after 4-5 cycles in
Fig. 7). In the middle current range /? is
reached after 5-6 cycles. At low currents, 7 or more cycles pass before the
maximum. This behavior indicates that
at lower currents heating rate is slower; therefore, more time is required for
nugget growth and mechanical collapse to occur. Since heating is proportional to power input (P = l*R), faster
rates of heating and shorter times to
reach j3 should be associated w i t h
higher
current
levels
or
higher
resistance.
Effect of Electrode Force
on Dynamic Resistance Curve
In order to examine the effect of
electrode force on the shape of the
dynamic resistance curve, spot welds
were made in the 0.032 in. (0.81 mm)
plain carbon AK material with electrode forces varying from 350 to 1500
lb (159 to 680 kg). The dynamic
resistance traces obtained from three
of these welds are presented in
Fig. 8.
As the force was increased, the
curve flattened such that the maxi-

mum resistance decreased and /? was

shifted to later times in the welding
pulse. Also, as the force increased,
there was a general decrease in the
resistance level. Since all the welds
were made at identical tap and heat
control settings, w h i c h resulted in similar current levels (6200-6700 A Duffers
current), decreasing resistance results
in a decrease in the rate at which
energy is supplied to the weld
(P = I-R). Thus, the fi peak is shifted to
longer times, and nugget formation is
delayed as electrode force is increased.
Lower electrode forces, therefore,
should favor nugget formation. This
hypothesis is confirmed by the results
of nugget pullout tests on the welds
represented in Fig. 8. Ductile nugget
pullout occurred only at the lowest
electrode forces. At higher forces,
nuggets were brittle, and at the highest
electrode forces no nugget was
formed. This confirms earlier work 8
which indicated that higher electrode
forces tended to move the lobe curve
to the right.
Effect of Material on Dynamic
Resistance Curve
The material variable may include
not only the composition of the steels,
but also the surface condition. Surface
effects have been studied 6 - 8 and have
been found to have noticeable effects
on spot weldability. Likewise, chemistry variations have also been found to
have noticeable effects on spot w e l d ability. 3 8
To demonstrate the effect of material on the shape of the dynamic
resistance curve, full lobe curves (not
presented herein) were determined for
materials A through E (Table 1). Using
the lobe curves as a baseline, dynamic
resistance traces were determined for

ACCEPTABLE
NUGGET

a.

..''<y

ii

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ACCEPTABLE,
NUGGET

EXPULSION

UJ
LOW TAP SETTING

UJ
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rn

ri

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1
0

10

15

3
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70
FULL

SINE

80

90

100

a range of n u g g e t c o n d i t i o n s f r o m
u n d e r s i z e n u g g e t t o e x p u l s i o n at 12
c y c l e w e l d c u r r e n t , e x a c t l y as i n d i c a t e d f o r m a t e r i a l A in Fig. 7.
T h e d y n a m i c resistance c u r v e s o b t a i n e d at t h r e e d i f f e r e n t s e c o n d a r y
RMS c u r r e n t levels f o r all f i v e m a t e r i a l s
are c o m p a r e d in Fig. 9. For e a c h w e l d ,
t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e n u g g e t is also
indicated. Comparisons between the
f i v e steels r e p r e s e n t e d in Fig. 9 c a n be
m a d e by c o n s i d e r i n g :
1. The
shape
of
the
dynamic
resistance c u r v e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h acceptable welds.
2. Shape d i f f e r e n c e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h
a c c e p t a b l e w e l d s in d i f f e r e n t m a t e r i als.
T h e g e n e r a l s h a p e of t h e d y n a m i c
resistance c u r v e as p r o p o s e d earlier,
c o n s i s t i n g o f an i n i t i a l s p i k e w h i c h
decays rapidly f o l l o w e d by a s e c o n d ary j3 p e a k , is o b s e r v e d f o r all five
m a t e r i a l s . It is clear t h a t t h e c u r v e s
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a c c e p t a b l e w e l d s in all
m a t e r i a l s e x h i b i t a p r o n o u n c e d /? p e a k .
Undersized welds resulted w h e n the
w e l d c y c l e w a s t e r m i n a t e d b e f o r e or
j u s t s l i g h t l y after r e a c h i n g t h e /? p e a k .
E x p u l s i o n r e s u l t e d in a s h a r p d r o p in
resistance.
It s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t t h e l o w
c u r r e n t ( u n a c c e p t a b l e ) w e l d in t h e
r e n i t r o g e n i z e d steel r e s u l t e d in a " b r i t tle" nugget w h o s e failure occurred
along the weld counterline during
t e s t i n g . T h e resistance c u r v e , h o w e v e r ,
e x h i b i t e d a d i s t i n c t /? p e a k . As w o u l d
h a v e b e e n p r e d i c t e d , it is clear f r o m
metallographic
sections
that
large
w e l d nuggets w e r e o b t a i n e d o n this
w e l d . The
problem, therefore,
in
achieving g o o d welds in the renitrog e n i z e d steel is n o t r e l a t e d t o t h e
inability to f o r m a nugget, but rather t o
the brittleness of the nugget.
Since, at t h i s p o i n t , w e are a b l e t o
interpret
the
dynamic
resistance
c u r v e s o n l y in t e r m s o f n u g g e t f o r m a t i o n a n d n o t in t e r m s o f w e l d m e t a l

30
C)

2<l

0 3 0 4 SS

\
V

60

W A V E , % (HEAT CONTROL)

Fig. 10 Input energy as a function of heat control (% full since wave)

and tap setting. The RMS voltage is also included for reference

25

\J

^o

60

20

cc THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY AT I600F (CAL cm/SEC cm

LU
Z
1
o 008 A :> ROLLED
LU

z
o

HIGH TAP SETTING

o
>

I**

'Gy

,.*"'"

v~""

ass*

..."'"

QC
UJ

-?

80

100

120

S.

140

160

180

200

220

ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY AT I600"F (MICROHM cm)

Fig. 11Expulsion energy as a function
and thermal
conductivity

p r o p e r t i e s , it is d i f f i c u l t t o
relate
resistance b e h a v i o r t o t h e w e l d a b i l i t y
of t h e r e n i t r o g e n i z e d steel. F u r t h e r
w o r k including the investigation of
c o m p o s i t i o n a l e f f e c t s , as m e n t i o n e d
a b o v e , w i l l be r e q u i r e d t o d e t e r m i n e if
a d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n can be d e r i v e d
f r o m t h e d y n a m i c resistance c u r v e s .
The
variation
in
the
dynamic
resistance c u r v e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h d i f f e r e n t m a t e r i a l s is also c l e a r l y e v i d e n t
in Fig. 8. T h e h i g h e r m a n g a n e s e - c o n t a i n i n g steels a n d t h e r e n i t r o g e n i z e d
steel s h o w h i g h e r o v e r a l l resistance
levels t h a n d o e s t h e p l a i n c a r b o n
m a t e r i a l . This is p r o b a b l y t h e result of
t h e h i g h b u l k resistance of t h e s e m a t e rials. Even m o r e d i s t i n c t , is t h e r a p i d
d e c a y o f t h e i n i t i a l s p i k e in m a t e r i a l D.
T h i s m a y be t h e result o f an early
surface b r e a k d o w n f o r t h i s m a t e r i a l . In
all cases, h o w e v e r , t h e h i g h e r a l l o y e d
m a t e r i a l s d e v e l o p t h e ft p e a k o f earlier
w e l d t i m e s . T h u s , t h e e v a l u a t i o n of t h e
e f f e c t o f v a r i a t i o n in m a t e r i a l c h e m i s try a n d s u r f a c e c o n d i t i o n is p o s s i b l e b y
means of
analyzing the
dynamic
resistance c u r v e s .

Analysis of Dynamic Electrical

Parameters at Expulsion
As i n d i c a t e d earlier in Fig. 1 , t h e
expulsion
point
on
the
dynamic
resistance c u r v e is n o t e d b y a s h a r p
d r o p in e l e c t r i c a l resistance. T h i s d r o p
in resistance is p r o b a b l y t h e result o f
mechanical collapse around the nugget r e d u c i n g t h e t h i c k n e s s o f m a t e r i a l
through w h i c h additional current must
flow together with
the
increased
e f f e c t i v e c o n t a c t area p r o v i d e d by t h e
expelled metal trapped between the
sheets.
In o r d e r t o o b t a i n a d d i t i o n a l i n s i g h t
i n t o t h e c r i t e r i a for e x p u l s i o n , t h e
dynamic electrical parameters were
measured. Values of
instantaneous
p o w e r w e r e r e c o r d e d f o r a series o f
spot welds and the energy input was

of electrical

resistivity,

d e t e r m i n e d by m e a s u r i n g t h e area
u n d e r t h e p o w e r vs. t i m e c u r v e . D u r i n g t h e c o u r s e o f this i n v e s t i g a t i o n , it
b e c a m e a p p a r e n t t h a t t h e best d a t a
were obtained on the welds with the
l o n g e r w e l d t i m e s . For this r e a s o n ,
t h i c k e r p l a i n c a r b o n sheet (0.053 i n . , or
1.3 m m ) , m a t e r i a l F, w a s s e l e c t e d so
t h e 15 c y c l e w e l d t i m e s c o u l d be u s e d .
Welds were made w i t h t w o different
t r a n s f o r m e r t a p s e t t i n g s a n d heat sett i n g s ( p e r c e n t o f f u l l sine w a v e ) r a n g i n g f r o m 60 t o 100%.
T h e results o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e p o w e r
a n d e n e r g y d e t e r m i n a t i o n s are p r e s e n t e d in Fig. 10. H e r e , t h e t o t a l w e l d
e n e r g y i n p u t is p l o t t e d as a f u n c t i o n o f
t h e heat c o n t r o l s e t t i n g ( p e r c e n t f u l l
sine w a v e ) u p t o t h e e x p u l s i o n p o i n t .
T h e r e a f t e r , f o r h i g h e r heat c o n t r o l settings, b o t h the total energy i n t o the
s p o t w e l d as w e l l as t h e e n e r g y i n t o
t h e w e l d u n t i l e x p u l s i o n o c c u r r e d is
plotted.
It is clear f r o m t h e s e d a t a t h a t
a c c e p t a b l e w e l d n u g g e t s are o b t a i n e d ,
irrespective of transformer t o p setting
o r heat c o n t r o l s e t t i n g , u p t o a c r i t i c a l
e n e r g y . It is s p e c u l a t e d t h a t t h e o n s e t
o f e x p u l s i o n in steels c a n b e r e l a t e d t o
t h e critical energy input. At that p o i n t ,
a b a l a n c e b e t w e e n e n e r g y i n p u t by l2R
heating and energy o u t by c o n d u c t i o n ,
c o n v e c t i o n or r a d i a t i o n is n o l o n g e r
maintained.
The
molten
nugget
g r o w t h o c c u r s u n c o n t r o l l e d t h u s res u l t i n g in e x p u l s i o n . This b e i n g t h e
case, t h e c r i t i c a l e x p u l s i o n
energy
s h o u l d be a f u n c t i o n o f
material
p a r a m e t e r s s u c h as e l e c t r i c a l resistivity
and thermal conductivity.
M a t e r i a l s w i t h h i g h e l e c t r i c a l resistivity and lower thermal conductivity
w i l l t e n d to d e v e l o p t h e u n s t a b l e c o n d i t i o n at l o w e r e n e r g y i n p u t v a l u e . As a
means of c o n f i r m i n g this, critical
e x p u l s i o n e n e r g y values w e r e d e t e r m i n e d for a Cb-V material (material C)
a n d a T y p e 304 stainless steel ( m a t e r i a l
H ) . T h e results p r e s e n t e d in Fig. 11

WELDING RESEARCH SUPPLEMENT 1175-s

clearly show the effect of the higher

resistivity-lower conductivity materials.
Use of D y n a m i c Electrical
Parameters for Control of Spot

ues w i t h preset values, and then control the spot weld heat control and/or
weld time to maintain the parameters
within the boundary limits will control
the spot welding process.

Welding

Conclusions

Throughout the work described

herein, correlations have been made
between the dynamic electrical parameter observations for spot welds
and the location of those spot welds
relative to the acceptable weld lobe
region. For welds exhibiting undersized nuggets (i.e., for welds made
w i t h weld parameters below the
acceptable lobe range), the dynamic
resistance curve does not show an
obvious yS peak. Acceptable welds are
those w h i c h have welding parameters
set such that an obvious /3 peak in the
dynamic resistance curve is obtained,
but also such that the critical expulsion energy input is not reached. Thus,
the lower and upper boundary on
acceptable spot welds is known.
Equipment which can monitor the
dynamic parameters, compare the val-

1. A dynamic electrical monitor system was built which allowed the continuous monitoring of voltage, current,
resistance, and power during the spot
welding process.
2. The shape of the
dynamic
resistance curve was related to the
phenomena occurring during spot
welding. The occurrence of the predominant ft peak signified the production of an acceptable size nugget.
3. Variations in the shape of the
dynamic resistance curve were related
to variations in material, secondary
RMS current, and electrode force.
4. A critical energy level for expulsion was observed.
5. Using information established for
dynamic resistance and critical expulsion energy, a spot weld control mechanism was proposed.

References
1. Bhattacharya, S., and Andrews, D. R.,
"Resistance-Weld Quality Monitoring,"
Sheet Metal Industries (July 1972), pp. 400466.
2. Andrews, D. R., and Bhattacharya, S.,
"Quality Control-Resistance-Weld Monitoring for Production," Metal Construction
and British Welding lournal (May 1973), pp.
172-175.
3. Johnson, K. I., "Quality
ControlResistance Welding QualityControl
Techniques," Metal Construction and British Welding lournal (May 1973), pp. 176181.
4. Hayward, B. P., British Welding lournal, 1967, 14 (11), pp. 582-591.
5. Roberts, W. L., "Resistance Variations
During Spot Welding," Welding lournal,
30(11), Nov. 1951, pp. 1004-1019.
6. Savage, W. F., Nippes, E. F., and Wassell, F. A., "Dynamic Contact Resistance of
Series Spot Welds," Welding lournal, 57(2),
Feb. 1978, Research SuppL, pp. 43-s to
50-s.
7. Ford Motor Company Spot Welding
Specification BA 13-14.
8. Dickinson, D. W Haser, J. M., Ries, G.
D., "Spot Weldability Comparison of
Selected HSLA Steels," Republic Steel
Research Report 12055-8 (January 1975).

WRC Bulletin 254

November 1979
(1) A Critical Evaluation of Plastic Behavior Data and a Unified Definition of
Plastic Loads for Pressure Components
by J. C. Gerdeen
(2) Interpretive Report on Limit Analysis and Plastic Behavior of Piping
Products
by E. C. Rodabaugh

(3) Interpretive Report on Limit Analysis of Flat Circular Plates

by W. J. 0'Donnell

These three reports summarize a four-year effort by the PVRC Task Group on "Characterization of the
Plastic Behavior of Structures" to meet the need for unified and standardized methods for limit analysis on
plastic collapse determinations.
Publication of this report was sponsored by the Pressure Vessel Research Committee of the Welding
Research Council.
The price of WRC Bulletin 254 is $13.50 per copy. Please include $3.00 for postage and handling. Orders
should be sent with payment to the Welding Research Council, 345 East 47th St., Room 8 0 1 , New York,-NY
10017.

1 7 6 - s l JUNE 1980