Electric Power System Laboratory Exercise 1

Power Transfer in AC Circuits and Analysis of System Faults

Two different issues are studied in this laboratory exercise. The transport of active
and reactive power from a generator to a customer load is investigated firstly. The
attention is focused on concepts such as voltage stability, transfer limits, load-voltage
dependency and reactive compensation. Secondly, the standard types of short-circuits
faults that occur in three-phase systems are investigated. The measured values of fault
currents will be verified through calculations later in the course. Section I in this
manual reviews the necessary theory to solve this lab exercise, Section II includes
several preparatory exercises, which must be made before you come to the lab. The
practical exercises are described in Section III.

Section I: Theory
I.1. Active and Reactive Power Transfer
Consider the system in Figure 1. An ideal generator supplies a load through a
transmission line, represented by series impedance. The sending end is considered to
be a stiff point in the network with a fixed voltage and angle. The receiving end
voltage and angle depend on the active and reactive power transmitted through the
line. The active and reactive (P and Q) power received at the load end can be written
as in (1) and (2).

Figure 1: Single line diagram of the examined network

P PLG

EV
sin
X

(1)

EV
V2
cos
X
X

Q QLG

(2)

By eliminating we obtain (3). Solving for V2 yields to (4):

2
2

Q V P 2 EV

X
X

V2

E2
QX
2

E4
4X

P2 Q

E2
X

(3)
(4)

Thus, the problem has real positive solutions if (and only if):
P2 Q

E2
E4

X
4X 2

(5)

The expression (5) can be normalized by using the short-circuit power Ssc= E2/X, and
the inequality (6) is then obtained.

S
P 2 QS SC SC
2

(6)

By setting P = 0 in (6), we get the maximum reactive power, notation Qmax, that can
be received at the load end. We find that
Q max

S sc
.
4

In a similar way, we set Q = 0 in (6) and get the maximum active power, notation
Pmax, that can be received at the load end. We find that
Pmax

S sc
2

Figure 2 shows the relation between load voltage and load power for different reactive
loadings. We see that the reactive power strongly influences the line drop as well as
the maximum capability of the line. This representation of the PV characteristic is
often called PV-curves. These curves are characterized by a parabolic shape, which
describes how a specific power can be transmitted at two different voltage levels, high
and low voltage. The desired working points are those at high voltage, in order to
minimize power transmission losses due to high currents at low voltages. The vertex
of the parabola determines the maximum power that can be transmitted by the system
and it is often called the point of maximum loadability or point of collapse. When the
point of collapse is reached, the system becomes unstable, and the voltage starts
decreasing quickly since the reactive support of the system is not longer enough to
maintain system stability.

Figure 2: PV-characteristic (nose curve), illustrates the dependency of receiving end voltage to load power for a
transmission line.

I.2. Load-voltage dependency

The mathematical description presented in the previous section takes into account the
characteristics of generators and transmission lines. However, the load characteristic,
which often depends on the supplying voltage, has not been considered. A common
way of modeling the load-voltage dependency is constant impedance or constant
power, or a combination of the two. Typical examples of constant impedance load are

light bulbs and heating devices without thermostats. Typical examples of constant
power loads are motor drives equipped with power-electronics and thermostatically
controlled heating devices. The load seen from the transmission level can always be
considered as constant power since it is connected through tap changers that keep the
load voltages close to their nominal values. A common trait of all constant power
loads is that they respond to a voltage drop by lowering their impedance.
From the PV-characteristic in Figure 2, we see that for each given active power
loading there are two possible solutions:
1. The load operates on the upper part of the PV-characteristic. Suppose that the
voltage drops a small amount. The constant power load will get an energy
deficit, and lower its impedance to remedy this. The operating point will
therefore move to the right on the PV-characteristic. If the stability limit is not
reached, i.e. if the system is able to supply the load, the operating point is
stable.
2. On the other hand, consider a case where the system operates on the lower part
of the PV characteristic. Suppose again that the voltage drops a little. The load
will again get an energy deficit, which it will to compensate by lowering its
impedance. The lowered impedance will now move the operating point to the
left, the power supplied will be even smaller and the load energy deficit will
continue growing. The operating point is unstable.
1.3. Reactive Power Compensation
Power system lines are frequently operated quite a bit above their natural loading,
whereas cables (with their high capacitance) are operated below their natural loading.
Consider the standard pi-link (e.g. Glover-Sarma-Overbye fig. 5.3) representation of a
lossless transmission line terminated by a resistive load (R). The reactive power losses
absorbed and the reactive power generated by the line are given by equations (7) and
(8) respectively.
Qloss jwLI 2

Qgen jwCV

(7)
(8)

Note that Equation 8 is only exactly true if the line has a flat voltage profile, i.e. the
voltage is V all along the line. This is true if the generation and absorption of reactive
power of the line are in exact balance:
jwLI 2 jwCV 2 Ro

V
L

I
C

(9)

R=R0 is called the characteristic impedance, and the corresponding active power
transported P0=V2/R, is called natural loading or surge impedance loading (SIL). In a
line operating at natural loading there is no reactive power transport whatsoever, and
this is therefore its most economical operating point.
The purpose of reactive power compensation is to reduce the amount of reactive
power transported over the lines, and thereby reduce active as well as reactive losses.
There are several ways of accomplishing this:
Series capacitance, lowers the line reactance and thereby increases the natural
loading
Shunt reactance, lowers the line capacitance and thereby lowers the natural
loading

Shunt capacitance, increases the line capacitance and thereby increases the
natural loading

Series reactance is not used for line compensation. It is used instead to limit shortcircuit currents if they are excessive.
The approximate amount of shunt compensation necessary to adjust the voltage at a
bus is calculated from equation (10), the sensitivity of the bus voltage to injection of
(positive or negative) reactive power: Describe the system behind the bus by a
Thvenin equivalent as in Figure 1.
V Q

Q V

2V
E
cos

X
X

(10)

The equivalent system is unloaded and therefore =0 and E=V=1. Since the p.u.
short-circuit capacity is SSC=1/X, the expression can be simplified:
V Q

Q V

E 2V

X
X

X
1
X ( p.u )
E
S SC ( p.u )

(11)

Increasing the voltage by 0.01 p.u, requires connecting a load of 0.01SSC p.u., i.e. a
capacitor bank rated 1% of the short-circuit capacity.
I.4. The p.u. system
The p.u. system has been already introduced during the lectures. A brief description is
included in this laboratory report. Further information can be found in the course
textbook, in Chapter 3 in page 88. This p.u system is often used to present the voltage,
current, power and impedance as a function of selected base quantities, in order to
simplify calculations and avoid numerical errors. The method also avoids the
manipulation of the component values, which are located on one side or another of the
transformers. The per-unit quantity is given by equation (12):
per unitquantity

actualquantity
basevalue

(12)

Both the actual quantity and the base value have the same units; the actual quantity is
the value of a quantity in the real system. The base value is a real number, which
means that the transformation does not change the angle of the actual quantity. By
selecting the voltage base, Vbase (line-to-line voltage) and the power base, Sbase, at one
point, other base quantities like Ibase (line current) and Zbase can be easily obtained
from equations (13)-(16). The value of Sbase is the same for the entire power system,
while the Vbase is different for each voltage level, and therefore it is selected so that
the ratio of the voltage bases on either side of a transformer is the same as the ratio of
the transformer voltage ratings.
Pbase Qbase S base

I base

(13)

S base

(14)

3Vbase

Z base Rbase X base

V2
base
3 I base S base

Vbase

(15)

Ybase Gbase Bbase

1
Z base

(16)

I.5. System Matrix Reduction

The bus impedance and admittance matrices are often used to simplified calculations
in the determining the system voltages and power flows. They can also be used for
calculating reduced equivalents of a large system. In this case, buses without current
injection can be removed yielding a reduction in matrix size.
Reduced bus admittance matrix: The bus admittance matrix is sparse and easy to
set up by visual inspection. To remove buses with no current injection, the current and
voltage vectors must be partitioned into elements corresponding to buses to keep and
buses to remove. The bus admittance matrix is reorganized accordingly, and
partitioned into sub matrices:
I keep I keep Y11 Y12 Vkeep

Y21 Y22 Vskip

I skip 0

(17)

The lower part of the matrix equation can be solved for Vskip, equation (18). Inserting
this expression in the upper part of equation (17) a new bus admittance matrix Yred
with smaller dimensions is obtained.
1
Vskip Y22
Y21 Vkeep
1
I keep (Y11 Y12 Y22
Y21 ) Vkeep Yred Vkeep

(18)
(19)

An alternative to this procedure is to invert Ybus, which gives Zbus. This matrix can be
then reduced to Zred, and finally invert to obtain Yred. Reduction of the bus impedance
matrix is described below.
Reduced bus impedance matrix: Setting up the bus impedance matrix Zbus is more
complicated than setting up Ybus. However, it is much easier to remove from Zbus the
buses with no current injection, by removing the rows and columns related to the
buses to eliminate. The reduced bus impedance matrix Zred can then be inverted, and
from there the reduced bus admittance matrix Yred is obtained.
I.6. Symmetrical and Unsymmetrical Faults
Power systems are designed to be symmetric or balanced, i.e. in a three-phase system,
the three line-to-neutral voltages have the same magnitude and differ in phase by
120o, and the line currents have the same magnitude and differ in phase by 120o.
Therefore, if a system is balanced the sum of the 3-phase currents will be equal to
zero. Sometimes asymmetry can occur in currents and voltages due to unbalanced
loads connected to the system. In Sweden, residential loads are single-phase and since
these are connected to different phases, three-phase currents and voltages at the
lowest distribution voltage level are not balanced, i.e. the sum of the 3-phase currents
will not be zero. This sum will be equal to the current that circulates through the
neutral of the system (if it exists). Loads at higher voltage levels are balanced.
At higher voltage levels the asymmetries are mainly due to system faults. The main
two types of faults are shunt faults, where a (low) impedance is (shunt) connected
between line and ground, and series faults, where a (high) impedance is connected in
series with the line. The most extreme, but also most common, series fault is the opencircuit. This occurs for example when a circuit breaker or disconnector is opened or

when a line is broken (but does not hit ground). Series faults will not be treated in this
course. The most extreme, and also most common, shunt fault is the short-circuit.
Short-circuits faults ordered by occurrence are classified into:
Single-line-to-ground (SLG); Unsymmetrical fault between one phase and
ground. The phase magnitudes will be no longer identical. The Swedish power
system can still deliver power to the load through the other two phases.
Line-to-line (LL); Unsymmetrical fault between two phases.
Double-line-to-ground or Line-to-line-to-ground (LLG); Unsymmetrical fault
between two phases and ground.
Three-phase short-circuit (3); It is a symmetrical fault that affects the 3phases of the power system. The most severe short-circuit.
For all the above faults, the path of the fault current may be limited by nonzero
impedance, If the impedance is equal to zero, the short-circuit is called bolted. Shortcircuit faults often occur as a consequence of damage to cables and lightning strikes
or trees falling on overhead lines. One of the most common reasons for three-phase
short-circuit to occur is when a line or busbar is energized with grounding equipment
left connected. This equipment is used for safety reasons while repairmen work on the
power equipment, and it should be removed after the work is completed, and before
the equipment is energized.

Section II: Preparatory Exercises

Consider Figure 3:

Figure 3: Single line diagram of the examined network (X=L, B=C).

1. Form the p.u. bus admittance matrix for the network part of the system in
Figure 3. Do not include the load resistor. Use the base quantities Sbase 100
VA and Vbase = 24 V.
2. Invert the bus admittance matrix in Matlab to get the corresponding bus
impedance matrix. Reduce the impedance matrix to 2x2, keeping only the load
and generator buses. Invert the reduced bus impedance matrix to get the
reduced bus admittance matrix.
3. At no-load, the feeding voltage E (nominal) and the load current (zero) are
known. Calculate the no-load value of V and active and reactive power
injected into by the generator. Do this by setting up appropriate equations
using rows from the reduced impedance and admittance matrices. Work in p.u,
and then convert to engineering units (V, W and Var).
4. At short-circuit, the feeding voltage E (nominal) and the load voltage V (zero)
are known. Calculate the short-circuit impedance (no-load voltage divided by
short-circuit current) and short-circuit power (no-load voltage multiplied by
short-circuit current) at the load bus. Do this by setting up appropriate
equations using rows from the reduced impedance and admittance matrices.
Work in p.u. and then convert to engineering units (V and VA).
5. Compute the natural loading of the line as P0=E2/R0 where Ro L / C .
6. Plot the P-V characteristic of the load bus by varying the parameter R. Use R
equal to 0, 50%, 100%, 200% of X and also infinity (no-load) to properly
capture the shape of the P-V curve.
7. Repeat 6 with a 32 F shunt capacitor at the load bus. Represent the capacitor
by including it in element Y22 of the reduced Ybus matrix as follows:
Y22,New=Y22,Original+jC.
8. Repeat 6 with a 250 mH shunt reactor at the load bus. Include the reactor like
you have done with the capacitor (Y22,New=Y22,Original-j/(L)).

Section III: Experiments

Connect the system as shown in Figure 3 with a variable transformer, three sections of
the line model in series and a variable resistance as load. Let the capacitor bank and
shunt reactance be unconnected.
III.1. PV-Curve and Reactive power compensation
1. Form the circuit seen in Figure 3. Use a Wattmeter to measure the active
power consumption in the variable resistor. Use an oscilloscope to measure the
voltage angle of the load bus relative to that of the generator bus. Use a
variable transformer and the mains to generate the fixed voltage equal to 24 V.
Note that this voltage has to be adjusted during the measurements, because of
the internal voltage drop in the transformer!
2. Plot the V-P and P- characteristic of the system for the three following cases:
a) with no reactive compensation, b) when a 32 F shunt capacitor is
connected at the load bus, and c) when a 250 mH shunt reactor is connected at
the load bus. What do you observe? How do the shunt reactor and the
capacitor affect the transfer limits and the voltage stability limit?
PVCurve
40

P [W]

30

20

10

10

15

20

25

30

35

Vload [V]

40

P [W]

30

20

10

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

110

Angle []

Figure 4. P-V characteristic for the proposed system a) with no reactive compensation, b) when a 32 F
shunt capacitor is connected at the load bus, and c) when a 250 mH shunt reactor is connected at the load
bus.

3. Determine the voltage sensitivity to reactive power compensation given by

equation (20), by using the reading of the voltage at P equal 0, for the three
proposed cases a), b) and c). Compare the results to those obtained by using
the rule of thumb V / Q 1 / S SC ( p.u ) .
V Vcomp Vuncomp

Qcomp
Q

(20)

4. Use the measured PV-characteristic for the uncompensated system to

determine the natural loading of the line. Compare it with the calculated value.
5. Plot the voltage as a function of the position on the line, when the line is
loaded below, at and above its natural loading.
III.2. Short-circuit impedance and power
Make a short circuit test on the load bus as follows (disconnect any shunt
compensation). Determine the short-circuit-power Ssc by measuring the no-load
voltage and the short-circuit current and multiply the two. The short-circuit
impedance is found by dividing the no-load voltage with the short-circuit-current.
Compare the values with those computed in the preparatory exercise.
III.3. Constant Power Loads- Voltage Collapse
The distribution system voltages, which are located in the neighborhood of the load,
are often controlled by tap changers such that they are always close the nominal
voltage. A tap changer is a device that changes the turns ratio of a transformer. In this
experiment we shall simulate the effect of a tap changer using the variable
transformer. Form the circuit seen in Figure 5. Use a Wattmeter to measure the active
power consumption in the resistive load. One person acts as control system in charge
of the variable transformer, aiming to keep the load voltage at the load bus constant at
100 V. Another person slowly increases the load on the system by lowering the load
resistance. Notice that increasing the tap ratio does not always increase the voltage at
the load bus. What happens (and why)?
V 100 V

Figure 5: Single line diagram of the examined network with X=L and V controlled to 100 V.

III.4. Measuring Fault Currents during Asymmetric Faults

The theory and the methods traditionally used for the analysis of symmetric and
asymmetric fault conditions will be study later in the course. The aim of this exercise
is to look at the different shunt faults, and to find out how serious they are.
1. Before you simulate any fault. Measure the currents and check if the system is
balanced. Which are the conditions for a system to be balanced?
2. Connect the following faults to a line model and measure the currents. The
voltage that is used is low, so that the current levels are reasonable.
3. Discussion questions:
a. Which one do you think is the most severe fault? Why?
b. Which one of them will be the most severe for the network equipment?
c. How does the location (distance and impedance to sources) of the fault
increase/decrease the severity of the disturbance? Why?

Single-line-to-ground fault
Ia

Current in faulted phase a:

a
+

Sys tem

Ib

Ic

Is the system balanced?

+
V ag
Vbg

+
Vcg

If

What happens with the voltage at phases a, b

and c?

Line-to-line fault
Ia
Sys tem

Ib

Current in faulted phase a:

a
If

+
Ic

Vbg
+
Vcg

Is the system balanced?

V ag

What happens with the voltage at phases a, b

and c?

Double-line-to-ground fault
Ia

Current in faulted phase a:

a
+

Sys tem

Ib

Current in ground connection:

b
+

Ic

c
+

V cg

V ag

Vbg

If

Is the system balanced?

What happens with the voltage at phase a, b
and c?

Three-phase fault
Ia

Current in faulted phase a:

a
+

Sys tem

Ib

Ic

Current in ground connection:

+

V ag

Is the system balanced?

What happens with the voltage at phase a, b

and c?

Vbg
Vcg