Jazz

For other uses, see Jazz (disambiguation).

Prominent jazz musician Louis Armstrong observed: At

one time they were calling it levee camp music, then in my
day it was ragtime. When I got up North I commenced
to hear about jazz, Chicago style, Dixieland, swing. All
renements of what we played in New Orleans... There
ain't nothing new.[5] Or as jazz musician J. J. Johnson
put it in a 1988 interview: Jazz is restless. It won't stay
put and it never will.[6]

Jazz is a genre of music that originated in African American communities during the late 19th and early 20th
century. It emerged in many parts of the United States
in the form of independent popular musical styles, all
linked by the common bonds of African American and
European American musical parentage with a performance orientation.[1] Jazz spans a period of over 100
years and encompasses a range of music from ragtime
to the present day, and has proved to be very dicult to dene. Jazz makes heavy use of improvisation,
polyrhythms, syncopation and the swung note,[2] as well
as aspects of European harmony, American popular music,[3] the brass band tradition, and African musical elements such as blue notes and ragtime.[1] The birth of
Jazz in the multicultural society of America has led intellectuals from around the world to hail Jazz as one of
Americas original art forms.[4]

1 Denitions
Jazz has proved to be very dicult to dene, since it encompasses such a wide range of music spanning a period
of over 100 years, from ragtime to the present day. Attempts have been made to dene jazz from the perspective of other musical traditions, such as European music history or African music. But critic Joachim-Ernst
Berendt argues that its terms of reference and its denition should be broader,[7] dening jazz as a form of art
music which originated in the United States through the
confrontation of the Negro with European music[8] and
arguing that it diers from European music in that jazz
has a special relationship to time dened as 'swing'", involves a spontaneity and vitality of musical production in
which improvisation plays a role and contains a sonority and manner of phrasing which mirror the individuality
of the performing jazz musician.[7]

As jazz spread around the world, it drew on dierent national, regional, and local musical cultures, giving rise
to many distinctive styles. New Orleans jazz began in
the early 1910s, combining earlier brass band marches,
French quadrilles, biguine, ragtime and blues with collective polyphonic improvisation. In the 1930s, heavily
arranged dance-oriented swing big bands, Kansas City
jazz, a hard-swinging, bluesy, improvisational style and
Gypsy jazz (a style that emphasized musette waltzes)
were the prominent styles. Bebop emerged in the 1940s,
shifting jazz from danceable popular music towards a
more challenging musicians music which was played at
faster tempos and used more chord-based improvisation.
Cool jazz developed in the end of the 1940s, introducing
calmer, smoother sounds and long, linear melodic lines.
The 1950s saw the emergence of free jazz, which explored playing without regular meter, beat and formal
structures, and in the mid-1950s, hard bop, which introduced inuences from rhythm and blues, gospel music,
and blues, especially in the saxophone and piano playing.
Modal jazz developed in the late 1950s, using the mode,
or musical scale, as the basis of musical structure and improvisation. Jazz-rock fusion appeared in the late 1960s
and early 1970s, combining jazz improvisation with rock
rhythms, electric instruments and the highly amplied
stage sound of rock. In the early 1980s, a commercial
form of jazz fusion called smooth jazz became successful, garnering signicant radio airplay. Other styles and
genres abound today, such as Latin jazz and Afro-Cuban
jazz.

Double bassist Reggie Workman, saxophone player Pharoah

Sanders, and drummer Idris Muhammad performing in 1978

A broader denition that encompasses all of the radically dierent eras of jazz has been proposed by Travis
Jackson: it is music that includes qualities such as
swing, improvising, group interaction, developing an
'individual voice', and being open to dierent musical
1

2
possibilities.[9] Krin Gibbard has provided an overview
of the discussion on denitions, arguing that jazz is a
construct that, while articial, still is useful to designate
a number of musics with enough in common to be understood as part of a coherent tradition.[10] In contrast
to the eorts of commentators and enthusiasts of certain
types of jazz, who have argued for narrower denitions
that exclude other types, the musicians themselves are
often reluctant to dene the music they play. As Duke
Ellington, one of jazzs most famous gures, said: Its
all music.[11]

2 ETYMOLOGY
ment the soloist.[14] In avant-garde and free jazz idioms,
the separation of soloist and band is reduced, and there
is license, or even a requirement, for the abandoning of
chords, scales, and rhythmic meters.

1.2 Debates

Since at least the emergence of bebop, forms of jazz that

are commercially oriented or inuenced by popular music
have been criticized by purists. According to Bruce Johnson, there has always been a tension between jazz as a
commercial music and an art form.[9] Traditional jazz
1.1 Importance of improvisation
enthusiasts have dismissed bebop, free jazz, the 1970s
jazz fusion era and much else as periods of debasement
Main article: Jazz improvisation
of the music and betrayals of the tradition. An alternative viewpoint is that jazz is able to absorb and transform
[15]
and that, by
Although jazz is considered dicult to dene, inuences from diverse musical styles,
improvisation is consistently regarded as being one avoiding the creation of 'norms, other newer, avant-garde
[9]
of its key elements. The centrality of improvisation in forms of jazz will be free to emerge.
jazz is attributed to inuential earlier forms of music: the To some African Americans, jazz has highlighted their
early blues, a form of folk music which arose in part from contribution to American society and helped bring attenthe work songs and eld hollers of the African-American tion to black history and culture, but for others, the music
workers on plantations. These were commonly structured and term jazz are reminders of an oppressive and racist
around a repetitive call-and-response pattern, but early society and restrictions on their artistic visions.[16]
blues was also highly improvisational. European classical
music performance is evaluated by its delity to the text,
with discretion over interpretation, ornamentation and
accompaniment: the classical performers primary goal 2 Etymology
is to play a composition as it was written. In contrast, jazz
is often characterized as the product of group creativity,
interaction, and collaboration, which places varying
degrees of value on the contributions of composer (if
there is one) and performers.[12] In jazz, the skilled
performer will interpret a tune in very individual ways,
never playing the same composition exactly the same
way twice: depending upon the performers mood and
personal experience, interactions with other musicians,
or even members of the audience, a jazz musician may
alter melodies, harmonies or time signature at will.[13]
The approach to improvisation has developed enormously
over the history of the music. In early New Orleans and
Dixieland jazz, performers took turns playing the melody,
while others improvised countermelodies. By the swing
era, big bands were coming to rely more on arranged music: arrangements were either written or learned by ear
and memorized, while individual soloists would improvise within these arrangements. Later, in bebop the focus shifted back towards small groups and minimal arrangements; the melody would be stated briey at the
start and end of a piece, but the core of the performance
would be the series of improvisations. Later styles such
as modal jazz abandoned the strict notion of a chord progression, allowing the individual musicians to improvise
even more freely within the context of a given scale or
mode. In many forms of jazz a soloist is often supported
by a rhythm section who accompany by playing chords
and rhythms that outline the song structure and comple-

Albert Gleizes, 1915, Composition pour Jazz, gouache on cardboard, mounted on Masonite, 73 x 73 cm, Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York

Main article: Jazz (word)

The question of the origin of the word jazz has resulted
in considerable research, and its history is well documented. The word began [under various spellings] as

3
West Coast slang around 1912, the meaning of which
varied but did not refer to music. The use of the word
in a musical context was documented as early as 1915
in the Chicago Daily Tribune.[17] Its rst documented use
in a musical context in New Orleans was in a November
14, 1916 Times-Picayune article about jas bands.[18]
The American Dialect Society named it the Word of the
Twentieth Century.

5 History
Jazz originated in the late 19th to early 20th century as
interpretations of American and European classical music entwined with African and slave folk songs and the
inuences of West African culture.[24] Its composition
and style have changed many times throughout the years
with each performers personal interpretation and improvisation, which is also one of the greatest appeals of the
genre.[25]

Race
5.1 Origins

Amiri Baraka argues that there is a distinct white jazz

music genre expressive of whiteness.[19] White jazz musicians appeared in the early 1920s in the Midwestern
United States, as well as other areas. Bix Beiderbecke
was one of the most prominent white jazz musicians.[20]
An inuential style referred to as the Chicago School
(or Chicago Style) was developed by white musicians
including Bud Freeman, Jimmy McPartland. Frank
Teschemacher, Dave Tough, and Eddie Condon. Others
from Chicago such as Benny Goodman and Gene Krupa
became leading members of big-band swing during the
1930s.[21]

5.1.1 Blended African and European music sensibilities

By 1808, the Atlantic slave trade had brought almost
half a million Africans to the United States. The slaves
came largely from West Africa and the greater Congo
River basin, and brought strong musical traditions with
them.[26] The African traditions primarily made use of
a single-line melody and call-and-response pattern, and
the rhythms had a counter-metric structure and reected
African speech patterns.

Women in jazz

When thinking of jazz music, women are normally the

singers of genre, however dating back to the early 1920s
women instrumentalists can be found, with the piano being one of the earliest instruments used which allowed female artists a degree of social acceptance.[22] Some well
known artists of the time consists of Sweet Emma Barrett, Mary Lou Williams , Billie Pierce, Jeanette Kimball Dance in Congo Square in the late 1700s, artists conception by
and Lovie Austin. These women have done a lot for the E. W. Kemble from a century later.
genre.
When the men got drafted for the war numerous all
women big band jazz bands took over.[22] However, with
the division of skin color, there was no real band that any
one society listened to. The International Sweethearts of
Rhythm was the all women jazz band best known during
these times. Despite the harsh dress code of women at the
time of strapless dresses and high heeled shoes, women
were being hired into many of the big league big bands
such as Woody Herman's and Gerald Wilson.

4.1

Womens Jazz Festival

Dr. Billy Taylor (1921-2010), late Kennedy Center

Artistic Director for Jazz, created this festival dedicated
to the composer and pianist Mary-Lou Williams, in honor
of her extraordinary talent.[23] The Mary-Lou Williams
Jazz Festival has existed for sixteen years, showcasing
women of any age or race.

In the late 18th-century painting The Old Plantation, AfricanAmericans dance to banjo and percussion.

Lavish festivals featuring African-based dances to drums

were organized on Sundays at Place Congo, or Congo
Square, in New Orleans until 1843.[27] There are historical accounts of other music and dance gatherings else-

HISTORY

where in the southern United States. Robert Palmer said and melodies from Cuba and other Caribbean islands into
of percussive slave music:
piano salon music. New Orleans was the main nexus
between the Afro-Caribbean and African-American cultures.
Usually such music was associated with annual festivals, when the years crop was harvested and several days were set aside for celebration. As late as 1861, a traveler in North
African rhythmic retention The "Black Codes" outCarolina saw dancers dressed in costumes that
lawed drumming by slaves, which meant that African
included horned headdresses and cow tails and
drumming traditions were not preserved in North Amerheard music provided by a sheepskin-covered
ica, unlike in Cuba, Haiti, and elsewhere in the
gumbo box, apparently a frame drum; triCaribbean. African-based rhythmic patterns were reangles and jawbones furnished the auxiliary
tained in the United States in large part through body
percussion. There are quite a few [accounts]
rhythms such as stomping, clapping, and patting juba.[31]
from the southeastern states and Louisiana datIn the opinion of jazz historian Ernest Borneman, what
ing from the period 18201850. Some of the
preceded New Orleans jazz before 1890 was Afro-Latin
earliest [Mississippi] Delta settlers came from
music, similar to what was played in the Caribbean at
the vicinity of New Orleans, where drumming
the time.[32] A three-stroke pattern known in Cuban muwas never actively discouraged for very long
sic as tresillo is a fundamental rhythmic gure heard in
and homemade drums were used to accompany
many dierent slave musics of the Caribbean, as well as
public dancing until the outbreak of the Civil
the Afro-Caribbean folk dances performed in New OrWar.[28]
leans Congo Square and Gottschalks compositions (for
example Souvenirs From Havana (1859)). Tresillo is
Another inuence came from the harmonic style of the most basic and most prevalent duple-pulse rhythmic
hymns of the church, which black slaves had learned and cell in sub-Saharan African music traditions and the muincorporated into their own music as spirituals.[29] The sic of the African Diaspora.[33][34]
origins of the blues are undocumented, though they can
be seen as the secular counterpart of the spirituals. However, as Gerhard Kubik points out, whereas the spirituals
are homophonic, rural blues and early jazz was largely
based on concepts of heterophony.[30]

Tresillo.[35][36] Play

Tresillo is heard prominently in New Orleans second line

music and in other forms of popular music from that city
from the turn of the 20th century to present.[37] By and
large the simpler African rhythmic patterns survived in
jazz ... because they could be adapted more readily to
European rhythmic conceptions, the Jazz historian Gunther Schuller observed. Some survived, others were discarded as the Europeanization progressed.[38]

The blackface Virginia Minstrels in 1843, featuring tambourine,

ddle, banjo and bones.

During the early 19th century an increasing number of

black musicians learned to play European instruments,
particularly the violin, which they used to parody European dance music in their own cakewalk dances. In
turn, European-American minstrel show performers in
blackface popularized the music internationally, combining syncopation with European harmonic accompaniment. In the mid-1800s the white New Orleans composer Louis Moreau Gottschalk adapted slave rhythms

In the post-Civil War period (after 1865), African Americans were able to obtain surplus military bass drums,
snare drums and fes, and an original African-American
drum and fe music emerged, featuring tresillo and related syncopated rhythmic gures.[39] This was a drumming tradition that was distinct from its Caribbean counterparts, expressing a uniquely African-American sensibility. The snare and bass drummers played syncopated cross-rhythms, observed the writer Robert Palmer
(writer), speculating that this tradition must have dated
back to the latter half of the nineteenth century, and it
could have not have developed in the rst place if there
hadn't been a reservoir of polyrhythmic sophistication in
the culture it nurtured.[40]

5.2
5.1.2

1890s1910s

Spanish tingethe Afro-Cuban rhythmic mic gure the Spanish tinge, and considered it an essential
inuence
ingredient of jazz.[52]

African-American music began incorporating AfroCuban rhythmic motifs in the 19th century, when 5.2 1890s1910s
the habanera (Cuban contradanza) gained international
popularity.[41] Musicians from Havana and New Orleans 5.2.1 Ragtime
would take the twice-daily ferry between both cities to
perform, and the habanera quickly took root in the mu- Main article: Ragtime
sically fertile Crescent City. John Storm Roberts states The abolition of slavery in 1865 led to new opportunities
that the musical genre habanera reached the U.S. twenty
years before the rst rag was published.[42] For the more
than quarter-century in which the cakewalk, ragtime,
and proto-jazz were forming and developing, the habanera was a consistent part of African-American popular music.[43]
Habaneras were widely available as sheet music, and
were the rst written music which was rhythmically
based on an African motif (1803),[44] From the perspective of African-American music, the habanera rhythm
(also known as congo,[45] tango-congo,[46] or tango.[47] )
can be thought of as a combination of tresillo and the
backbeat.[48] The habanera was the rst of many Cuban
music genres which enjoyed periods of popularity in the
United States, and reinforced and inspired the use of
tresillo-based rhythms in African-American music.

Habanera rhythm written as a combination of tresillo (bottom

notes) with the backbeat (top note). Play

New Orleans native Louis Moreau Gottschalk's piano

piece Ojos Criollos (Danse Cubaine)" (1860) was inuenced by the composers studies in Cuba: the habanera
rhythm is clearly heard in the left hand.[49] In Gottschalks
symphonic work A Night in the Tropics (1859), the tresillo variant cinquillo appears extensively.[50] The gure
was later used by Scott Joplin and other ragtime composers.

Cinquillo. Play

Scott Joplin in 1903

for the education of freed African Americans. Although

strict segregation limited employment opportunities for
most blacks, many were able to nd work in entertainment. Black musicians were able to provide entertainment in dances, minstrel shows, and in vaudeville, during
which time many marching bands were formed. Black
pianists played in bars, clubs and brothels, as ragtime
developed.[53][54]
Ragtime appeared as sheet music, popularized by
African-American musicians such as the entertainer
Ernest Hogan, whose hit songs appeared in 1895.
Two years later, Vess Ossman recorded a medley of
these songs as a banjo solo known as Rag Time
Medley.[55][56] Also in 1897, the white composer
William H. Krell published his "Mississippi Rag" as the
rst written piano instrumental ragtime piece, and Tom
Turpin published his "Harlem Rag", the rst rag published by an African-American.

Comparing the music of New Orleans with the music of

Cuba, Wynton Marsalis observes that tresillo is the New
Orleans clave, a Spanish word meaning 'code' or 'key',
as in the key to a puzzle, or mystery.[51] Although technically the pattern is only half a clave, Marsalis makes the The classically trained pianist Scott Joplin produced his
point that the single-celled gure is the guide-pattern of "Original Rags" in 1898, and in 1899 had an international
New Orleans music. Jelly Roll Morton called the rhyth- hit with "Maple Leaf Rag", a multi-strain ragtime march

with four parts that feature recurring themes and a bass

line with copious seventh chords. Its structure was the
basis for many other rags, and the syncopations in the
right hand, especially in the transition between the rst
and second strain, were novel at the time.[57]

Excerpt from Maple Leaf Rag by Scott Joplin (1899). Seventh

chord resolution. Play . Note that the seventh resolves down by
half step.

HISTORY

Many of the rural blues of the Deep South

are stylistically an extension and merger of basically two broad accompanied song-style traditions in the west central Sudanic belt:
A strongly Arabic/Islamic song style, as
found for example among the Hausa. It
is characterized by melisma, wavy intonation, pitch instabilities within a pentatonic framework, and a declamatory
voice.
An ancient west central Sudanic stratum
of pentatonic song composition, often associated with simple work rhythms in a
regular meter, but with notable o-beat
accents (1999: 94).[64]

African-based rhythmic patterns such as tresillo and its

variants, the habanera rhythm and cinquillo, are heard
in the ragtime compositions of Joplin, Turpin, and others. Joplins Solace (1909) is generally considered to
be within the habanera genre:[45][58] both of the pianists
hands play in a syncopated fashion, completely abandoning any sense of a march rhythm. Ned Sublette postulates
that the tresillo/habanera rhythm found its way into ragtime and the cakewalk,[59] whilst Roberts suggests that
the habanera inuence may have been part of what freed
black music from ragtimes European bass.[60]

5.2.2

Blues

Main article: Blues

WC Handy age 19, 1892

Play blues scale or pentatonic scale

African genesis Blues is the name given to both a

musical form and a music genre,[61] which originated in
African-American communities of primarily the "Deep
South" of the United States at the end of the 19th century
from their spirituals, work songs, eld hollers, shouts and
chants and rhymed simple narrative ballads.[62]
The African use of pentatonic scales contributed to the
development of blue notes in blues and jazz.[63] As Kubik
explains:

W. C. Handy: early published blues W. C. Handy

became intrigued by the folk blues of the Deep South
whilst traveling through the Mississippi Delta. In this
folk blues form, the singer would improvise freely within
a limited melodic range, sounding like a eld holler,
and the guitar accompaniment was slapped rather than
strummed, like a small drum which responded in syncopated accents, functioning as another voice.[65] Handy
and his band members were formally trained AfricanAmerican musicians who had not grown up with the
blues, yet he was able to adapt the blues to a larger band

5.2

1890s1910s

instrument format, and arrange them in a popular music

form.
Handy wrote about his adopting of the blues:
The primitive southern Negro, as he sang,
was sure to bear down on the third and seventh
tone of the scale, slurring between major and
minor. Whether in the cotton eld of the Delta
or on the Levee up St. Louis way, it was always
the same. Till then, however, I had never heard
this slur used by a more sophisticated Negro,
or by any white man. I tried to convey this effect ... by introducing at thirds and sevenths
(now called blue notes) into my song, although
its prevailing key was major ..., and I carried
this device into my melody as well.[66]

The Bolden Band around 1905.

of early jazz. These bands travelled throughout Black

communities in the Deep South and, from around 1914
onwards, Afro-Creole and African-American musicians
The publication of his "Memphis Blues" sheet music in played in vaudeville shows which took jazz to western and
1912 introduced the 12-bar blues to the world (although northern US cities.[70]
Gunther Schuller argues that it is not really a blues, but
more like a cakewalk[67] ). This composition, as well
as his later "St. Louis Blues" and others, included the Syncopation The cornetist Buddy Bolden led a band
habanera rhythm,[68] and would become jazz standards. who are often mentioned as one of the prime originators
Handys music career began in the pre-jazz era, and con- of the style later to be called jazz. He played in New
tributed to the codication of jazz through the publication Orleans around 18951906, before developing a mental
illness; there are no recordings of him playing. Boldens
of some of the rst jazz sheet music.
band is credited with creating the big four, the rst syncopated bass drum pattern to deviate from the standard
Within the context of Western harmony The blues on-the-beat march.[71] As the example below shows, the
form which is ubiquitous in jazz is characterized by spe- second half of the big four pattern is the habanera rhythm.
cic chord progressions, of which the twelve-bar blues
progression is the most common. An important part of
the sound are the blue notes which, for expressive purposes, are sung or played attened, or gradually bent (minor 3rd to major 3rd) in relation to the pitch of the major
scale. The blues were the key that opened up an entirely
[72]
new approach to Western harmony, ultimately leading to Buddy Boldens big four pattern. Play
a high level of harmonic complexity in jazz.
Afro-Creole pianist Jelly Roll Morton began his career in
Storyville. From 1904, he toured with vaudeville shows
5.2.3 New Orleans
around southern cities, also playing in Chicago and New
York. In 1905 he composed his "Jelly Roll Blues", which
Main article: Dixieland
on its publication in 1915 became the rst jazz arrangeThe music of New Orleans had a profound eect on the ment in print, introducing more musicians to the New Orcreation of early jazz. Many early jazz performers played leans style.[73]
in venues throughout the city, such as the brothels and
Morton considered the tresillo/habanera (which he called
bars of the red-light district around Basin Street, known
the Spanish tinge) to be an essential ingredient of jazz.[74]
as "Storyville".[69] In addition to dance bands, there were
In his own words:
numerous marching bands who played at lavish funerals (later called jazz funerals), which were arranged by
Now in one of my earliest tunes, New Orthe African-American and European American commuleans
Blues, you can notice the Spanish tinge.
nities. The instruments used in marching bands and
In
fact,
if you can't manage to put tinges of
dance bands became the basic instruments of jazz: brass,
Spanish
in your tunes, you will never be able
reeds tuned in the European 12-tone scale, and drums.
to
get
the
right seasoning, I call it, for jazz.[52]
Small bands which mixed self-taught and well educated
African-American musicians, many of whom came from
the funeral-procession tradition of New Orleans, played Morton was a crucial innovator in the evolution from the
a seminal role in the development and dissemination early jazz form known as ragtime to jazz piano, and could

HISTORY

Swing Morton loosened ragtimes rigid rhythmic feeling, decreasing its embellishments and employing a swing
feeling.[75] Swing is the most important and enduring
African-based rhythmic technique used in jazz. An oft
quoted denition of swing by Louis Armstrong is: if
you don't feel it, you'll never know it.[76] The New Harvard Dictionary of Music states that swing is: An intangible rhythmic momentum in jazz ... Swing dees analysis;
claims to its presence may inspire arguments. The dictionary does nonetheless provide the useful description
of triple subdivisions of the beat contrasted with duple
subdivisions:[77] swing superimposes six subdivisions of
the beat over a basic pulse structure or four subdivisions.
This aspect of swing is far more prevalent in AfricanAmerican music than in Afro-Caribbean music. One aspect of swing, which is heard in more rhythmically complex Diaspora musics, places strokes in-between the triple
and duple-pulse grids.[78]

Morton published Jelly Roll Blues in 1915, the rst jazz work
in print.

New Orleans brass bands are a lasting inuence, contributing horn players to the world of professional jazz
with the distinct sound of the city whilst helping black
children escape poverty. The leader of New Orleans
Camelia Brass Band, D'Jalma Ganier, taught Louis Armstrong to play trumpet; Armstrong would then popularize the New Orleans style of trumpet playing, and then
expand it. Like Jelly Roll Morton, Armstrong is also
credited with the abandonment of ragtimes stiness in
favor of swung notes. Armstrong, perhaps more than any
other musician, codied the rhythmic technique of swing
in jazz, and broadened the jazz solo vocabulary.[79]

The Original Dixieland Jass Band made the musics

rst recordings early in 1917, and their "Livery
Stable Blues" became the earliest released jazz
Excerpt from Jelly Roll Mortons New Orleans Blues (c. 1902).
record.[80][81][82][83][84][85][86] That year, numerous
The left hand plays the tresillo rhythm. The right hand plays
other bands made recordings featuring jazz in the title
variations on cinquillo. Play
or band name, but most were ragtime or novelty records
rather than jazz. In February 1918 during World War
I, James Reese Europe's Hellghters infantry band
perform pieces in either style; in 1938, Morton made a setook ragtime to Europe,[87] then on their return recorded
ries of recordings for the Library of Congress, in which
Dixieland standards including "Darktown Strutters
he demonstrated the dierence between the two styles.
Ball".[88]
Mortons solos however were still close to ragtime, and
were not merely improvisations over chord changes as in
later jazz; but his use of the blues was of equal impor5.2.4 Other regions
tance.
In the northeastern United States, a hot style of playing ragtime had developed, notably James Reese Europe's
symphonic Clef Club orchestra in New York, which
played a benet concert at Carnegie Hall in 1912.[88][89]
The Baltimore rag style of Eubie Blake inuenced James
P. Johnson's development of stride piano playing, in
which the right hand plays the melody, while the left hand
provides the rhythm and bassline.[90]
Bottom: even duple subdivisions of the beat. Top: swung
correlativecontrasting of duple and triple subdivisions of the
beat. Play straight drum pattern or Play swung pattern

In Ohio and elsewhere in the midwest the major inuence

was ragtime, until about 1919. Around 1912, when the
four-string banjo and saxophone came in, musicians began to improvise the melody line, but the harmony and

5.3

1920s and 1930s

rhythm remained unchanged. A contemporary account

states that blues could only be heard in jazz in the gutbucket cabarets, which were generally looked down upon
by the Black middle-class.[91]

5.3

1920s and 1930s

9
too began to denigrate jazz. The New York Times used
stories and headlines to pick at jazz: Siberian villagers
were said by the paper to have used jazz to scare o bears,
when in fact they had used pots and pans; another story
claimed that the fatal heart attack of a celebrated conductor was caused by jazz.[92]

From 1919, Kid Ory's Original Creole Jazz Band of musicians from New Orleans played in San Francisco and Los
5.3.1 Jazz Age
Angeles, where in 1922 they became the rst black jazz
band of New Orleans origin to make recordings.[93][94]
Main article: Jazz Age
That year also saw the rst recording by Bessie Smith,
From 1920 to 1933 Prohibition in the United States
the most famous of the 1920s blues singers.[95] Chicago
meanwhile was the main center developing the new "Hot
Jazz", where King Oliver joined Bill Johnson. Bix Beiderbecke formed The Wolverines in 1924.

Trumpeter, bandleader and singer Louis Armstrong was a muchimitated innovator of early jazz.

The King & Carter Jazzing Orchestra photographed in Houston,

Texas, January 1921.

banned the sale of alcoholic drinks, resulting in illicit

speakeasies which became lively venues of the Jazz
Age, hosting popular music including current dance
songs, novelty songs and show tunes.
Jazz began to get a reputation as being immoral, and many
members of the older generations saw it as threatening
the old cultural values and promoting the new decadent
values of the Roaring 20s. Professor Henry van Dyke of
Princeton University wrote: "... it is not music at all. Its
merely an irritation of the nerves of hearing, a sensual
teasing of the strings of physical passion.[92] The media

In 1924, Louis Armstrong joined the Fletcher Henderson dance band for a year, as featured soloist. The original New Orleans style was polyphonic, with theme variation and simultaneous collective improvisation. Armstrong was a master of his hometown style, but by the
time he joined Hendersons band, he was already a trailblazer in a new phase of jazz, with its emphasis on arrangements and soloists. Armstrongs solos went well
beyond the theme-improvisation concept, and extemporized on chords, rather than melodies. According to
Schuller, by comparison, the solos by Armstrongs bandmates (including a young Coleman Hawkins), sounded
sti, stodgy, with jerky rhythms and a grey undistinguished tone quality.[96] The following example shows
a short excerpt of the straight melody of Mandy, Make
Up Your Mind by George W. Meyer and Arthur Johnston (top), compared with Armstrongs solo improvisations (below) (recorded 1924).[97] (The example approximates Armstrongs solo, as it doesn't convey his use of
swing.)

Top: excerpt from the straight melody of Mandy, Make Up Your

Mind by George W. Meyer & Arthur Johnston. Bottom: corresponding solo excerpt by Louis Armstrong (1924).

Armstrongs solos were a signicant factor in making jazz

a true 20th-century language. After leaving Hendersons
group, Armstrong formed his virtuosic Hot Five band,
where he popularized scat singing.[98]
Jelly Roll Morton recorded with the New Orleans
Rhythm Kings in an early mixed-race collaboration, then
in 1926 formed his Red Hot Peppers. There was a larger
market for jazzy dance music played by white orchestras,
such as Jean Goldkette's orchestra and Paul Whiteman's
orchestra. In 1924 Whiteman commissioned Gershwin's
Rhapsody in Blue, which was premiered by Whitemans
Orchestra. By the mid-1920s, Whiteman was the most

10
popular bandleader in the U.S. His success was based
on a rhetoric of domestication according to which he
had elevated and rendered valuable a previously inchoate
kind of music.[99] Other inuential large ensembles included Fletcher Hendersons band, Duke Ellingtons band
(which opened an inuential residency at the Cotton Club
in 1927) in New York, and Earl Hines' Band in Chicago
(who opened in The Grand Terrace Cafe there in 1928).
All signicantly inuenced the development of big bandstyle swing jazz.[100] By 1930, the New Orleans-style ensemble was a relic, and jazz belonged to the world.[101]

HISTORY

combos, uptempo music and blues chord progressions,

drawing on boogie-woogie from the 1930s.

5.3.3 Beginnings of European jazz

As only a limited amount of American jazz records were

released in Europe, European jazz traces many of its roots
to American artists such as James Reese Europe, Paul
Whiteman and Lonnie Johnson, who visited Europe during and after World War I. It was their live performances
which inspired European audiences interest in jazz, as
well as the interest in all things American (and therefore
5.3.2 Swing
exotic) which accompanied the economic and political
woes of Europe during this time.[103] The beginnings of
Main articles: Swing music and 1930s in jazz
a distinct European style of jazz began to emerge in this
The 1930s belonged to popular swing big bands, in interwar period.
This distinct style entered full swing in France with the
Quintette du Hot Club de France, which began in 1934.
Much of this French jazz was a combination of AfricanAmerican jazz and the symphonic styles in which French
musicians were well-trained; in this, it is easy to see the
inspiration taken from Paul Whiteman, since his style
was also a fusion of the two.[104] Belgian guitar virtuoso Django Reinhardt popularized gypsy jazz, a mix of
1930s American swing, French dance hall "musette" and
Eastern European folk with a languid, seductive feel; the
main instruments are steel stringed guitar, violin, and
double bass, and solos pass from one player to another
as the guitar and bass play the role of the rhythm section.
Some music researchers hold that it was Philadelphias
Eddie Lang and Joe Venuti who pioneered the guitarBenny Goodman (1943)
violin partnership typical of the genre,[105] which was
been heard live or on
which some virtuoso soloists became as famous as the brought to France after they had
[106]
Okeh
Records
in
the
late
1920s.
band leaders. Key gures in developing the big jazz
band included bandleaders and arrangers Count Basie,
Cab Calloway, Jimmy and Tommy Dorsey, Duke Ellington, Benny Goodman, Fletcher Henderson, Earl Hines, 5.4 1940s and 1950s
Glenn Miller and Artie Shaw. Although it was a collective
sound, swing also oered individual musicians a chance 5.4.1 American musicthe inuence of Ellington
to solo and improvise melodic, thematic solos which
could at times be very complex and important music.
By the 1940s, Duke Ellingtons music had transcended
Swing was also dance music. It was broadcast on the ra- the bounds of swing, bridging jazz and art music in a
dio live nightly across America for many years, espe- natural synthesis. Ellington called his music American
cially by Earl Hines and his Grand Terrace Cafe Orches- Music rather than jazz, and liked to describe those who
tra broadcasting coast-to-coast from Chicago[102] (well impressed him as beyond category.[107] These included
placed for live US time-zones).
many of the musicians who were members of his orOver time, social strictures regarding racial segregation chestra, some of whom are considered among the best in
began to relax in America: white bandleaders began jazz in their own right, but it was Ellington who melded
to recruit black musicians and black bandleaders white them into one of the most well-known jazz orchestral
ones. In the mid-1930s, Benny Goodman hired pianist units in the history of jazz. He often composed speciTeddy Wilson, vibraphonist Lionel Hampton and gui- cally for the style and skills of these individuals, such as
tarist Charlie Christian to join small groups. In the 1930s, Jeeps Blues for Johnny Hodges, Concerto for Cootie
Kansas City Jazz as exemplied by tenor saxophonist for Cootie Williams (which later became "Do Nothing
Lester Young marked the transition from big bands to Till You Hear from Me" with Bob Russell's lyrics), and
the bebop inuence of the 1940s. An early 1940s style The Mooche for Tricky Sam Nanton and Bubber Miley.
known as jumping the blues or jump blues used small He also recorded songs written by his bandsmen, such

5.4

1940s and 1950s

11

Thelonious Monk at Mintons Playhouse, 1947, New York City.

Duke Ellington at the Hurricane Club (1943)

as Juan Tizol's "Caravan" and "Perdido", which brought

the "Spanish Tinge" to big-band jazz. Several members
of the orchestra remained with him for several decades.
The band reached a creative peak in the early 1940s, when
Ellington and a small hand-picked group of his composers
and arrangers wrote for an orchestra of distinctive voices
who displayed tremendous creativity.[108]
5.4.2

Bebop

Main article: Bebop

See also: List of bebop musicians
In the early 1940s, bebop-style performers began to shift
jazz from danceable popular music towards a more challenging musicians music. The most inuential bebop
musicians included saxophonist Charlie Parker, pianists
Bud Powell and Thelonious Monk, trumpeters Dizzy
Gillespie and Cliord Brown, and drummer Max Roach.
Divorcing itself from dance music, bebop established itself more as an art form, thus lessening its potential pop- Earl Hines 1947
ular and commercial appeal.
Composer Gunther Schuller wrote:
... In 1943 I heard the great Earl Hines
band which had Bird in it and all those other
great musicians. They were playing all the atted fth chords and all the modern harmonies
and substitutions and Dizzy Gillespie runs in
the trumpet section work. Two years later
I read that that was 'bop' and the beginning
of modern jazz ... but the band never made
recordings.[109]

Dizzy Gillespie wrote:

... People talk about the Hines band being 'the incubator of bop' and the leading exponents of that music ended up in the Hines band.
But people also have the erroneous impression
that the music was new. It was not. The music evolved from what went before. It was the
same basic music. The dierence was in how
you got from here to here to here ... naturally
each age has got its own shit.[110]

12

HISTORY

Rhythm Since bebop was meant to be listened to, not while performing Cherokee at Clark Monroes Uptown
danced to, it could use faster tempos. Drumming shifted House, New York, in early 1942:
to a more elusive and explosive style, in which the ride
cymbal was used to keep time while the snare and bass
I'd been getting bored with the stereotyped
drum were used for accents. This led to a highly syncochanges that were being used, ... and I kept
pated linear rhythmic complexity.[111]
thinking theres bound to be something else. I
could hear it sometimes. I couldn't play it....
I was working over 'Cherokee,' and, as I did,
I found that by using the higher intervals of
a chord as a melody line and backing them
with appropriately related changes, I could play
the thing I'd been hearing. It came alive
Parker.[114]
Gerhard Kubik postulates that the harmonic development
in bebop sprang from the blues and other African-related
tonal sensibilities, rather than 20th-century Western art
music as some have suggested:
Auditory inclinations were the African
legacy in [Parkers] life, reconrmed by the experience of the blues tonal system, a sound
world at odds with the Western diatonic
chord categories. Bebop musicians eliminated
Western-style functional harmony in their music while retaining the strong central tonality of
the blues as a basis for drawing upon various
African matrices.[115]
Samuel Floyd states that blues were both the bedrock and
propelling force of bebop, bringing about three main developments:
Charlie Parker, Tommy Potter, Miles Davis, Max Roach (Gottlieb
06941)

A new harmonic conception, using extended chord

structures that led to unprecedented harmonic and
melodic variety.

Harmony Bebop musicians employed several har A developed and even more highly syncopated, linmonic devices which were not previously typical in jazz,
ear rhythmic complexity and a melodic angularity
engaging in a more abstracted form of chord-based imin which the blue note of the fth degree was estabprovisation. Bebop scales are traditional scales with an
[112]
lished as an important melodic-harmonic device.
added chromatic passing note;
bebop also uses passing chords, substitute chords, and altered chords. New
The reestablishment of the blues as the musics priforms of chromaticism and dissonance were introduced
mary organizing and functional principle.[111]
into jazz, and the dissonant tritone (or atted fth) interval became the most important interval of bebop[113] As Kubik explained:
Chord progressions for bebop tunes were often taken directly from popular swing-era songs and reused with a
While for an outside observer, the harnew and more complex melody to form new composimonic innovations in bebop would appear to
tions, a practice which was already well-established in
be inspired by experiences in Western seriearlier jazz, but came to be central to the bebop style.
ous music, from Claude Debussy to Arnold
Bebop made use of several relatively common chord proSchoenberg, such a scheme cannot be sustained
gressions, such as blues (at base, I-IV-V, but infused
by the evidence from a cognitive approach.
with II-V motion) and 'rhythm changes (I-VI-II-V) - the
Claude Debussy did have some inuence on
chords to the 1930s pop standard "I Got Rhythm. Late
jazz, for example, on Bix Beiderbecke's pibop also moved towards extended forms that represented
ano playing. And it is also true that Duke
a departure from pop and show tunes.
Ellington adopted and reinterpreted some harThe harmonic development in bebop is often traced back
monic devices in European contemporary muto a transcendent moment experienced by Charlie Parker
sic. West Coast jazz would run into such debts

5.4

1940s and 1950s

as would several forms of cool jazz, but bebop
has hardly any such debts in the sense of direct
borrowings. On the contrary, ideologically, bebop was a strong statement of rejection of any
kind of eclecticism, propelled by a desire to activate something deeply buried in self. Bebop
then revived tonal-harmonic ideas transmitted
through the blues and reconstructed and expanded others in a basically non-Western harmonic approach. The ultimate signicance of
all this is that the experiments in jazz during the
1940s brought back to African-American music several structural principles and techniques
rooted in African traditions[116]

These divergences from the jazz mainstream of the time

initially met with a divided, sometimes hostile, response
among fans and fellow musicians, especially established
swing players, who bristled at the new harmonic sounds.
To hostile critics, bebop seemed to be lled with racing,
nervous phrases.[117] But despite the initial friction, by
the 1950s bebop had become an accepted part of the jazz
vocabulary.

5.4.3

Afro-Cuban jazz (cu-bop)

Main article: Afro-Cuban jazz

Machito (maracas) and his sister Graciella Grillo (claves)

Machito and Mario Bauza The general consensus

among musicians and musicologists is that the rst original jazz piece to be overtly based in clave was Tanga
(1943), composed by Cuban-born Mario Bauza and
recorded by Machito and his Afro-Cubans in New York

13
City. Tanga began as a spontaneous descarga (Cuban
jam session), with jazz solos superimposed on top.[118]
This was the birth of Afro-Cuban jazz. The use of clave
brought the African timeline, or key pattern, into jazz.
Music organized around key patterns convey a two-celled
(binary) structure, which is a complex level of African
cross-rhythm.[119] Within the context of jazz however,
harmony is the primary referent, not rhythm. The harmonic progression can begin on either side of clave, and
the harmonic one is always understood to be one. If
the progression begins on the three-side of clave, it is
said to be in 3-2 clave. If the progression begins on the
two-side, its in 2-3 clave.[120]

Clave: Spanish for 'code,' or key,' as in the key to a puzzle. The

antecedent half (three-side) consists of tresillo. The consequent
half consists of two strokes (the two-side). Play

Bobby Sanabria mentions several innovations of Machitos Afro-Cubans, citing them as the rst band: to
wed big band jazz arranging techniques within an original
composition, with jazz oriented soloists utilizing an authentic Afro-Cuban based rhythm section in a successful
manner; to explore modal harmony (a concept explored
much later by Miles Davis and Gil Evans) from a jazz arranging perspective; and to overtly explore the concept
of clave conterpoint from an arranging standpoint (the
ability to weave seamlessly from one side of the clave to
the other without breaking its rhythmic integrity within
the structure of a musical arrangement). They were also
the rst band in the United States to publicly utilize the
term Afro-Cuban as the bands moniker, thus identifying itself and acknowledging the West African roots of
the musical form they were playing. It forced New York
Citys Latino and African-American communities to deal
with their common West African musical roots in a direct
way, whether they wanted to acknowledge it publicly or
not.[121]

Dizzy Gillespie and Chano Pozo It was Mario Bauz

who introduced bebop innovator Dizzy Gillespie to the
Cuban conga drummer and composer Chano Pozo. Gillespie and Pozos brief collaboration produced some of the
most enduring Afro-Cuban jazz standards. "Manteca"
(1947) is the rst jazz standard to be rhythmically based
on clave. According to Gillespie, Pozo composed the layered, contrapuntal guajeos (Afro-Cuban ostinatos) of the
A section and the introduction, while Gillespie wrote the
bridge. Gillespie recounted: If I'd let it go like [Chano]
wanted it, it would have been strickly Afro-Cuban all the
way. There wouldn't have been a bridge. I thought I was
writing an eight-bar bridge, but ... I had to keep going and
ended up writing a sixteen-bar bridge.[122] The bridge
gave Manteca a typical jazz harmonic structure, set-

14

HISTORY

Mongo Santamaria (1969)

Dizzy Gillespie, 1955

Afro Blue bass line, with main beats indicated by slashed note-

ting the piece apart from Bauzas modal Tanga of a few heads.
years earlier.
Gillespies collaboration with Pozo brought specic
African-based rhythms into bebop. While pushing the
boundaries of harmonic improvisation, cu-bop, as it was
called, also drew more directly from African rhythmic
structures. Jazz arrangements with a Latin A section
and a swung B section, with all choruses swung during
solos, became common practice with many Latin tunes
of the jazz standard repertoire. This approach can be
heard on pre-1980 recordings of Manteca, "A Night in
Tunisia", Tin Tin Deo, and "On Green Dolphin Street".
African cross-rhythm Cuban percussionist Mongo
Santamaria rst recorded his composition "Afro Blue"
in 1959.[123] Afro Blue was the rst jazz standard
built upon a typical African three-against-two (3:2) crossrhythm, or hemiola.[124] The song begins with the bass repeatedly playing 6 cross-beats per each measure of 12/8,
or 6 cross-beats per 4 main beats6:4 (two cells of 3:2).
The following example shows the original ostinato Afro
Blue bass line; the slashed noteheads indicate the main
beats (not bass notes), where you would normally tap your
foot to keep time.
When John Coltrane covered Afro Blue in 1963, he
inverted the metric hierarchy, interpreting the tune as a
3/4 jazz waltz with duple cross-beats superimposed (2:3).
Originally a Bb pentatonic blues, Coltrane expanded the
harmonic structure of Afro Blue.

Perhaps the most respected Afro-cuban jazz combo of the

late 1950s was vibraphonist Cal Tjader's band. Tjader
had Mongo Santamaria, Armando Peraza, and Willie
Bobo on his early recording dates.

5.4.4 Dixieland revival

Main articles: 1940s in jazz and 1950s in jazz
In the late 1940s there was a revival of "Dixieland" music,
harking back to the original contrapuntal New Orleans
style. This was driven in large part by record company
reissues of early jazz classics by the Oliver, Morton, and
Armstrong bands of the 1930s. There were two types
of musicians involved in the revival: the rst group was
made up of those who had begun their careers playing in
the traditional style and were returning to it (or continuing what they had been playing all along), such as Bob
Crosby's Bobcats, Max Kaminsky, Eddie Condon, and
Wild Bill Davison.[125] Most of these players were originally Midwesterners, although there were a small number
of New Orleans musicians involved. The second group of
revivalists consisted of younger musicians, such as those
in the Lu Watters band, Conrad Janis, and Ward Kimball
and his Firehouse Five Plus Two Jazz Band. By the late
1940s, Louis Armstrongs Allstars band became a lead-

5.4

1940s and 1950s

ing ensemble. Through the 1950s and 1960s, Dixieland

was one of the most commercially popular jazz styles in
the US, Europe, and Japan, although critics paid little attention to it.[125]
5.4.5

Cool jazz

Main article: Cool jazz

By the end of the 1940s, the nervous energy and tension
of bebop was replaced with a tendency towards calm and
smoothness with the sounds of cool jazz, which favoured
long, linear melodic lines. It emerged in New York City,
and dominated jazz in the rst half of the 1950s. The
starting point was a collection of 1949 and 1950 singles
by a nonet led by Miles Davis, released as the Birth of
the Cool. Later cool jazz recordings by musicians such as
Chet Baker, Dave Brubeck, Bill Evans, Gil Evans, Stan
Getz and the Modern Jazz Quartet usually had a lighter
sound that avoided the aggressive tempos and harmonic
abstraction of bebop.

15
solo was meant to t into a given chord progression, but
with modal jazz the soloist creates a melody using one, or
a small number of modes. The emphasis is thus shifted
from harmony to melody:[126] Historically, this caused a
seismic shift among jazz musicians, away from thinking
vertically (the chord), and towards a more horizontal approach (the scale),[127] explained pianist Mark Levine.
The modal theory stems from a work by George Russell. Miles Davis introduced the concept to the greater
jazz world with Kind of Blue (1959), an exploration of
the possibilities of modal jazz which would become the
best selling jazz album of all time. In contrast to Davis
earlier work with hard bop and its complex chord progression and improvisation,[128] the entire Kind of Blue
album was composed as a series of modal sketches, in
which each performer was given a set of scales that dened the parameters of their improvisation and style.[129]
I didn't write out the music for Kind of Blue, but brought
in sketches for what everybody was supposed to play because I wanted a lot of spontaneity,[130] recalled Davis.
The track So What has only two chords: D-7 and
E7.[131]

Cool jazz later became strongly identied with the West

Coast jazz scene, but also had a particular resonance in
Europe, especially Scandinavia, where gures such as
baritone saxophonist Lars Gullin and pianist Bengt Hallberg emerged. The theoretical underpinnings of cool Chord changes for So What by Miles Davis (1959).
jazz were set out by the Chicago pianist Lennie Tristano,
and its inuence stretches into such later developments as Other innovators in this style include Jackie McLean,[132]
bossa nova, modal jazz, and even free jazz.
and two of the musicians who had also played on Kind of
Blue: John Coltrane and Bill Evans.
5.4.6 Hard bop
By the 1950s, Afro-Cuban jazz had been using modes
for at least a decade, as much of it borrowed from Cuban
Main article: Hard bop
popular dance forms which are structured around multiple ostinatos with only a few chords. A case in point
Hard bop is an extension of bebop (or bop) music which is Mario Bauza's Tanga (1943), the rst Afro-Cuban
incorporates inuences from rhythm and blues, gospel jazz piece. Machitos Afro-Cubans recorded modal tunes
music and blues, especially in the saxophone and piano in the 1940s, featuring jazz soloists such as Howard
playing. Hard bop was developed in the mid-1950s, coa- McGhee, Brew Moore, Charlie Parker and Flip Phillips.
lescing in 1953 and 1954; it developed partly in response However, there is no evidence that Davis or other mainto the vogue for cool jazz in the early 1950s, and par- stream jazz musicians were inuenced by the use of
alleled the rise of rhythm and blues. Miles Davis 1954 modes in Afro-Cuban jazz, or other branches of Latin
performance of Walkin'" at the rst Newport Jazz Festi- jazz.
val announced the style to the jazz world. The quintet Art
Blakey and the Jazz Messengers, fronted by Blakey and
featuring pianist Horace Silver and trumpeter Cliord 5.4.8 Free jazz
Brown, were leaders in the hard bop movement along with
Main article: Free jazz
Davis.
Free jazz, and the related form of avant-garde jazz, broke
through into an open space of free tonality in which
meter, beat, and formal symmetry all disappeared, and a
Main article: Modal jazz
range of World music from India, Africa and Arabia were
melded into an intense, even religiously ecstatic or orgiasModal jazz is a development which began in the later tic style of playing.[133] While loosely inspired by bebop,
1950s which takes the mode, or musical scale, as the ba- free jazz tunes gave players much more latitude; the loose
sis of musical structure and improvisation. Previously, a harmony and tempo was deemed controversial when this
5.4.7

Modal jazz

16
approach was rst developed. The bassist Charles Mingus is also frequently associated with the avant-garde in
jazz, although his compositions draw from myriad styles
and genres.

HISTORY

Meditations (September 1965).

In June 1965, Coltrane and ten other musicians recorded
Ascension, a 40-minute long piece that included adventurous solos by young avant-garde musicians as well as
Coltrane, and was controversial primarily for the collective improvisation sections that separated the solos. After recording with the quartet over the next few months,
Coltrane invited Pharoah Sanders to join the band in
September 1965. While Coltrane used over-blowing
frequently as an emotional exclamation-point, Sanders
would opt to overblow his entire solo, resulting in a constant screaming and screeching in the altissimo range of
the instrument.

Free jazz quickly found a foothold in Europe, in part because musicians such as Ayler, Taylor, Steve Lacy and
Eric Dolphy spent extended periods there. A distinctive European contemporary jazz (often incorporating elements of free jazz but not limited to it) also ourished
because of the emergence of European musicians (such as
John Surman, Zbigniew Namyslowski, Albert Mangelsdor, Kenny Wheeler and Mike Westbrook) who were
anxious to develop new approaches reecting their national and regional musical cultures and contexts. Ever
since the 1960s, various creative centers of jazz have
developed in Europe, such as the creative jazz scene in
Amsterdam. Following the work of veteran drummer
Han Bennink and pianist Misha Mengelberg, musicians
started to explore free music by collectively improvising until a certain form (melody, rhythm, or even famous
song) is found by the band. Jazz critic Kevin Whithead
documented the free jazz scene in Amsterdam and some
of its main exponents such as the ICP (Instant Composers
A shot from a 2006 performance by Peter Brtzmann, a key gPool) orchestra in his book New Dutch Swing. Throughure in European free jazz
out the 1990s and 2000s, Keith Jarrett has been promiThe rst major stirrings came in the 1950s, with the early nent in defending free jazz from criticism by traditionalwork of Ornette Coleman and Cecil Taylor. In the 1960s, ists .
exponents included Archie Shepp, Sun Ra, Albert Ayler,
Pharaoh Sanders and John Coltrane. In developing his
late style, Coltrane was especially inuenced by the disso- 5.5 1960s and 1970s
nance of Aylers trio with bassist Gary Peacock and drummer Sunny Murray, a rhythm section honed with Cecil Main articles: 1960s in jazz and 1970s in jazz
Taylor as leader. Coltrane championed many younger
free jazz musicians, notably Archie Shepp), and under his
inuence Impulse! Records became a leading free jazz
5.5.1 Latin jazz
record label.
A series of recordings with the Classic Quartet in the rst
half of 1965 show Coltranes playing becoming increasingly abstract, with greater incorporation of devices like
multiphonics, utilization of overtones, and playing in the
altissimo register, as well as a mutated return to Coltranes
sheets of sound. In the studio, he all but abandoned his
soprano to concentrate on the tenor saxophone. In addition, the quartet responded to the leader by playing with
increasing freedom. The groups evolution can be traced
through the recordings The John Coltrane Quartet Plays,
Living Space and Transition (both June 1965), New Thing
at Newport (July 1965), Sun Ship (August 1965) and First

Main article: Latin jazz

Latin jazz is the term used to describe jazz which employs
Latin American rhythms, and is generally understood to
have a more specic meaning than simply jazz from Latin
America. A more precise term might be Afro-Latin jazz,
as the jazz subgenre typically employs rhythms that either
have a direct analog in Africa, or exhibit an African rhythmic inuence beyond what is ordinarily heard in other
jazz. The two main categories of Latin jazz are AfroCuban jazz and Brazilian jazz.

5.5

1960s and 1970s

In the 1960s and 1970s many jazz musicians had only a

basic understanding of Cuban and Brazilian music, and
jazz compositions which used Cuban or Brazilian elements were often referred to as Latin tunes, with no
distinction between a Cuban son montuno and a Brazilian bossa nova. Even as late as 2000, in Mark Gridleys
Jazz Styles: History and Analysis, a bossa nova bass line is
referred to as a Latin bass gure.[134] It was not uncommon during the 1960s and 1970s to hear a conga playing a Cuban tumbao while the drumset and bass played a
Brazilian bossa nova pattern. Many jazz standards such
as Manteca, On Green Dolphin Street and Song for
My Father have a Latin A section and a swung B
section. Typically, the band would only play an eveneighth Latin feel in the A section of the head, and swing
throughout all of the solos. Latin jazz specialists like Cal
Tjader tended to be the exception. For example, on a
1959 live Tjader recording of A Night in Tunisia, pianist Vince Guaraldi soloed through the entire form over
an authentic mambo.[135]
Afro-Cuban jazz Main article: Afro-Cuban jazz
Afro-Cuban jazz often uses Afro-Cuban instruments
such as congas, timbales, giro and claves, combined with
piano, double bass, etc. Afro-Cuban jazz began with Machitos Afro-Cubans in the early 1940s, but took o and
entered the mainstream in the late 1940s when bebop musicians such as Dizzy Gillespie and Billy Taylor began
experimenting with Cuban rhythms. Mongo Santamaria
and Cal Tjader further rened the genre in the late 1950s.
Although a great deal of Cuban-based Latin jazz is modal,
Latin jazz is not always modal: it can be as harmonically
expansive as post-bop jazz. For example, Tito Puente
recorded an arrangement of Giant Steps done to an
Afro-Cuban guaguanc. A Latin jazz piece may momentarily contract harmonically, as in the case of a percussion
solo over a one or two-chord piano guajeo.
Guajeos Guajeo is the name for the typical AfroCuban ostinato melodies which are commonly used motifs in Latin jazz compositions. They originated in the
genre known as son. Guajeos provide a rhythmic and
melodic framework that may be varied within certain parameters, whilst still maintaining a repetitive - and thus
danceable - structure. Most guajeos are rhythmically
based on clave (rhythm).
Guajeos are one of the most important elements of the
vocabulary of Afro-Cuban descarga (jazz-inspired instrumental jams), providing a means of tension and resolution
and a sense of forward momentum, within a relatively
simple harmonic structure. The use of multiple, contrapuntal guajeos in Latin jazz facilitates simultaneous collective improvisation based on theme variation. In a way,
this polyphonic texture is reminiscent of the original New
Orleans style of jazz.

17
Afro-Cuban jazz renaissance For most of its history,
Afro-Cuban jazz had been a matter of superimposing
jazz phrasing over Cuban rhythms. But by the end of
the 1970s a new generation of New York City musicians
had emerged who were uent in both salsa dance music
and jazz, leading to a new level of integration of jazz and
Cuban rhythms. This era of creativity and vitality is best
represented by the Gonzalez brothers Jerry (congas and
trumpet) and Andy (bass).[136] During 1974-1976 they
were members of one of Eddie Palmieri's most experimental salsa groups: salsa was the medium, but Palmieri
was stretching the form in new ways. He incorporated
parallel fourths, with McCoy Tyner-type vamps. The innovations of Palmieri, the Gonzalez brothers and others
led to an Afro-Cuban jazz renaissance in New York City.
This occurred in parallel with developments in Cuba[137]
The rst Cuban band of this new wave was Irakere. Their
Chkere-son (1976) introduced a style of Cubanized
bebop-avored horn lines that departed from the more
angular guajeo-based lines which were typical of Cuban
popular music and Latin jazz up until that time. It was
based on Charlie Parkers composition Billies Bounce,
jumbled together in a way that fused clave and bebop horn
lines.[138] In spite of the ambivalence of some band members towards Irakeres Afro-Cuban folkloric / jazz fusion,
their experiments forever changed Cuban jazz: their innovations are still heard in the high level of harmonic
and rhythmic complexity in Cuban jazz, and in the jazzy
and complex contemporary form of popular dance music
known as timba.

Afro-Brazilian jazz Brazilian jazz such as bossa nova

is derived from samba, with inuences from jazz and
other 20th-century classical and popular music styles.
Bossa is generally moderately paced, with melodies sung
in Portuguese or English, whilst he related term jazzsamba describes an adaptation of street samba into jazz.
The bossa nova style was pioneered by Brazilians Joo
Gilberto and Antnio Carlos Jobim, and was made popular by Elizete Cardoso's recording of "Chega de Saudade"
on the Cano do Amor Demais LP. Gilbertos initial releases, and the 1959 lm Black Orpheus, achieved significant popularity in Latin America; this spread to North
America via visiting American jazz musicians. The resulting recordings by Charlie Byrd and Stan Getz cemented bossa novas popularity and led to a worldwide
boom, with 1963s Getz/Gilberto, numerous recordings by
famous jazz performers such as Ella Fitzgerald and Frank
Sinatra, and the eventual entrenchment of the bossa nova
style as a lasting inuence in world music.
Brazilian percussionists such as Airto Moreira and Nan
Vasconcelos also inuenced jazz internationally by introducing Afro-Brazilian folkloric instruments and rhythms
into a wide variety of jazz styles, thus attracting a greater
audience to them.[139][140][141]

18

HISTORY

porated strong inuences from blues, gospel and rhythm

and blues to create music for small groups, often the organ
trio of Hammond organ, drummer and tenor saxophonist.
Unlike hard bop, soul jazz generally emphasized repetitive grooves and melodic hooks, and improvisations were
often less complex than in other jazz styles. It often had
a steadier funk style groove, which was dierent from
the swing rhythms typical of much hard bop.
Horace Silver had a large inuence on the soul jazz style,
with songs that used funky and often gospel-based piano
vamps. Important soul jazz organists included Jimmy
McGri, Jimmy Smith and Johnny Hammond Smith,
and inuential tenor saxophone players included Eddie
Lockjaw Davis and Stanley Turrentine.
5.5.4 African-inspired

Nan Vasconcelos playing the Afro-Brazilian Berimbau

5.5.2

Post-bop

Main article: Post-bop

Post-bop jazz is a form of small-combo jazz derived from
earlier bop styles. The genres origins lie in seminal work
by John Coltrane, Miles Davis, Bill Evans, Charles Mingus, Wayne Shorter and Herbie Hancock. Generally, the
term post-bop is taken to mean jazz from the mid-sixties
onwards that assimilates inuences from hard bop, modal
jazz, the avant-garde and free jazz, without necessarily
being immediately identiable as any of the above.
Much post-bop was recorded for Blue Note Records. Key
albums include Speak No Evil by Shorter; The Real McCoy by McCoy Tyner; Maiden Voyage by Hancock; Miles
Smiles by Davis; and Search for the New Land by Lee
Morgan (an artist who is not typically associated with the
post-bop genre). Most post-bop artists worked in other
genres as well, with a particularly strong overlap with the
later hard bop.

Randy Weston

Themes There was a resurgence of interest in jazz and

other forms of African-American cultural expression during the Black Arts Movement and Black nationalist period of the 1960s and 1970s. African themes became
popular, and many new jazz compositions were given
African-related titles: Black Nile (Wayne Shorter),
Blue Nile (Alice Coltrane), Obirin African (Art
5.5.3 Soul jazz
Blakey), Zambia (Lee Morgan), Appointment in
Ghana (Jackie McLean), Marabi (Cannonball AdderMain article: Soul jazz
ley), Yoruba (Hubert Laws), and many more. Pianist
Randy Weston's music incorporated African elements,
Soul jazz was a development of hard bop which incor- such as in the large-scale suite Uhuru Africa (with the

5.5

1960s and 1970s

participation of poet Langston Hughes) and Highlife:

Music From the New African Nations. Both Weston
and saxophonist Stanley Turrentine covered the Nigerian
Bobby Benson's piece Niger Mambo, which features
Afro-Caribbean and jazz elements within a West African
Highlife style. Some musicians, including Pharaoh
Sanders, Hubert Laws and Wayne Shorter, began using African instruments such as kalimbas, bells, beaded
gourds and other instruments which were not traditional
to jazz.

19
tonic scales in Africa probably goes back thousands of
years.[143]
McCoy Tyner perfected the use of the pentatonic scale
in his solos,[144] and also used parallel fths and fourths,
which are common harmonies in West Africa.[145]
The minor pentatonic scale is often used in blues improvisation, and like a blues scale, a minor pentatonic scale can
be played over all of the chords in a blues. The following
pentatonic lick was played over blues changes by Joe Henderson on Horace Silver's African Queen (1965).[146]

Rhythm During this period there was an increased use

of the typical African 12/8 cross-rhythmic structure in
jazz. Herbie Hancocks Succotash on Inventions and
Dimensions (1963) is an open-ended modal 12/8 improvised jam, in which Hancocks pattern of attack-points,
rather than the pattern of pitches, is the primary focus
of his improvisations, accompanied by Paul Chambers
on bass, percussionist Osvaldo Martinez playing a traditional Afro-Cuban cheker part and Willie Bobo playing
an Abaku bell pattern on a snare drum with brushes.

C minor pentatonic phrase played by Joe Henderson on African

Queen by Horace Silver (1965).

Abaku bell pattern played on a snare with brushes by Willie

Bobo on Herbie Hancocks Succotash (1963).

C pentatonic scale beginning on the I (C pentatonic), IV (F pentatonic), and V (G pentatonic) steps of the scale.

The rst jazz standard composed by a non-Latino to use

an overt African 12/8 cross-rhythm was Wayne Shorters
"Footprints" (1967).[142] On the version recorded on
Miles Smiles by Miles Davis, the bass switches to a 4/4
tresillo gure at 2:20. Footprints is not, however, a
Latin jazz tune: African rhythmic structures are accessed
directly by Ron Carter (bass) and Tony Williams (drums)
via the rhythmic sensibilities of swing. Throughout the
piece, the four beats, whether sounded or not, are maintained as the temporal referent. In the example below,
the main beats are indicated by slashed noteheads, which
do not indicate bass notes.

Levine points out that the V pentatonic scale works for all
three chords of the standard II-V-I jazz progression.[148]
This is a very common progression, used in pieces such
as Miles Davis Tune Up. The following example shows
the V pentatonic scale over a II-V-I progression.[149]

Jazz pianist, theorist, and educator Mark Levine refers

to the scale generated by beginning on the fth step of a
pentatonic scale as the V pentatonic scale.[147]

V pentatonic scale over II-V-I chord progression.

Accordingly, John Coltranes "Giant Steps" (1960), with

its 26 chords per 16 bars, can be played using only three
pentatonic scales. Coltrane studied Nicolas Slonimsky's
Thesaurus of Scales and Melodic Patterns, which contains
material that is virtually identical to portions of Giant
Steps.[150] The harmonic complexity of Giant Steps is
on the level of the most advanced 20th-century art music.
Ron Carters two main bass lines for Footprints by Wayner Superimposing the pentatonic scale over Giant Steps is
Shorter (1967). The main beats are indicated by slashed note- not merely a matter of harmonic simplication, but also
heads.
a sort of Africanizing of the piece, which provides an
alternate approach for soloing. Mark Levine observes
that when mixed in with more conventional playing the
Pentatonic scales The use of pentatonic scales was an- changes, pentatonic scales provide structure and a feelother trend associated with Africa. The use of penta- ing of increased space.[151]

20
5.5.5

5
Jazz fusion

Main article: Jazz fusion

In the late 1960s and early 1970s, the hybrid form of

HISTORY

Two contributors to In a Silent Way also joined organist

Larry Young to create one of the early acclaimed fusion
albums: Emergency! by The Tony Williams Lifetime.
Psychedelic-jazz
Bitches Brew Davis Bitches Brew (1970) album was his
most successful of this era. Although inspired by rock and
funk, Davis fusion creations were original, and brought
about a new type of avant-garde, electronic, psychedelicjazz, as far from pop music as any other Davis work.

Fusion trumpeter Miles Davis in 1989

jazz-rock fusion was developed by combining jazz improvisation with rock rhythms, electric instruments and
the highly amplied stage sound of rock musicians such
as Jimi Hendrix and Frank Zappa. Jazz fusion often uses
mixed meters, odd time signatures, syncopation, complex
chords and harmonies.
According to AllMusic:
...until around 1967, the worlds of jazz and
rock were nearly completely separate. [However, ...] as rock became more creative and its
musicianship improved, and as some in the jazz
world became bored with hard bop and did not
want to play strictly avant-garde music, the two
dierent idioms began to trade ideas and occasionally combine forces.[152]

Miles Davis new directions In 1969 Davis fully embraced the electric instrument approach to jazz with In
a Silent Way, which can be considered his rst fusion album. Composed of two side-long suites edited heavily
by producer Teo Macero, this quiet, static album would
be equally inuential upon the development of ambient
music.
As Davis recalls:
The music I was really listening to in 1968
was James Brown, the great guitar player Jimi
Hendrix, and a new group who had just come
out with a hit record, "Dance to the Music",
Sly and the Family Stone... I wanted to make it
more like rock. When we recorded In a Silent
Way I just threw out all the chord sheets and
told everyone to play o of that.[153]

Herbie Hancock Pianist Herbie Hancock (a Davis

alumnus) released four albums in the short-lived (1970
1973) psychedelic-jazz subgenre: Mwandishi (1972),
Crossings (1973) and Sextant (1973). The rhythmic background was a mix of rock, funk, and African-type textures.
Musicians who had previously worked with Davis formed
the four most inuential fusion groups: Weather Report
and Mahavishnu Orchestra emerged in 1971, and were
soon followed by Return to Forever and The Headhunters.
Weather Report Weather Report's self-titled electronic and psychedelic Weather Report debut album
caused a sensation in the jazz world on its arrival in 1971,
thanks to the pedigree of the groups members (including percussionist Airto Moreira), and their unorthodox
approach to music. The album featured a softer sound
than would be the case in later years (predominantly using acoustic bass with Shorter exclusively playing soprano
saxophone, and with no synthesizers involved), but is still
considered a classic of early fusion. It built on the avantgarde experiments which Joe Zawinul and Shorter had
pioneered with Miles Davis on Bitches Brew, including
an avoidance of head-and-chorus composition in favour
of continuous rhythm and movement but took the music further. To emphasise the groups rejection of standard methodology, the album opened with the inscrutable
avant-garde atmospheric piece Milky Way, which featured by Shorters extremely muted saxophone inducing
vibrations in Zawinuls piano strings while the latter pedalled the instrument. Down Beat described the album as
music beyond category, and awarded it Album of the
Year in the magazines polls that year.
Weather Report's subsequent releases were creative funkjazz works.[154]
Jazz-rock Although some jazz purists protested
against the blend of jazz and rock, many jazz innovators
crossed over from the contemporary hard bop scene
into fusion. As well as the electric instruments of rock
(such as electric guitar, electric bass, electric piano and
synthesizer keyboards), fusion also used the powerful

5.6

1980s

amplication, fuzz pedals, wah-wah pedals and other

eects that were used by 1970s-era rock bands. Notable
performers of jazz fusion included Miles Davis, Eddie
Harris, keyboardists Joe Zawinul, Chick Corea and
Herbie Hancock, vibraphonist Gary Burton, drummer
Tony Williams (drummer), violinist Jean-Luc Ponty,
guitarists Larry Coryell, Al Di Meola, John McLaughlin
and Frank Zappa, saxophonist Wayne Shorter and
bassists Jaco Pastorius and Stanley Clarke. Jazz fusion
was also popular in Japan, where the band Casiopea
released over thirty fusion albums.

21
Indian inuences. The ECM record label began in Germany in the 1970s with artists including Keith Jarrett,
Paul Bley, the Pat Metheny Group, Jan Garbarek, Ralph
Towner, Kenny Wheeler, John Taylor, John Surman and
Eberhard Weber, establishing a new chamber music aesthetic which featured mainly acoustic instruments, occasionally incorporating elements of world music and folk.

5.6 1980s

Main article: 1980s in jazz

In the 21st century, almost all jazz has inuences from
other nations and styles of music, making jazz fusion as
In 1987, the United States House of Representatives and
much a common practice as style.
Senate passed a bill proposed by Democratic Representative John Conyers, Jr. to dene jazz as a unique form
5.5.6 Jazz-funk
of American music, stating:
Main article: Jazz-funk

... that jazz is hereby designated as a

rare and valuable national American treasure to
which we should devote our attention, support
and resources to make certain it is preserved,
understood and promulgated.

By the mid-1970s the sound known as jazz-funk had developed, characterized by a strong back beat (groove),
electried sounds[155] and, often, the presence of electronic analog synthesizers. Jazz-funk also draws inuences from traditional African music, Afro-Cuban It passed in the House of Representatives on September
rhythms and Jamaican reggae, notably Kingston ban- 23, 1987 and in the Senate on November 4, 1987.[157]
dleader Sonny Bradshaw. Another feature is the shift of
emphasis from improvisation to composition: arrangements, melody and overall writing became important. 5.6.1 Resurgence of traditionalism
The integration of funk, soul and R&B music into jazz
resulted in the creation of a genre whose spectrum is wide
and ranges from strong jazz improvisation to soul, funk
or disco with jazz arrangements, jazz ris and jazz solos,
and sometimes soul vocals.[156]
Early examples are Herbie Hancocks Headhunters band
and Miles Davis On the Corner album, which in 1972
began Davis foray into jazz-funk and was, he claimed,
an attempt at reconnecting with the young black audience which had largely forsaken jazz for rock and funk.
While there is a discernible rock and funk inuence in
the timbres of the instruments employed, other tonal and
rhythmic textures, such as the Indian tambora and tablas
and Cuban congas and bongos, create a multi-layered
soundscape. The album was a culmination of sorts of the
musique concrte approach that Davis and producer Teo Wynton Marsalis
Macero had begun to explore in the late 1960s.
The 1980s saw something of a reaction against the Fusion
and Free Jazz that had dominated the 1970s. Trumpeter
Wynton Marsalis emerged early in the decade, and strove
5.5.7 Other trends
to create music within what he believed was the tradition,
Jazz continued to expand and change, inuenced by other rejecting both fusion and free jazz and creating extensions
types of music such as world music, avant garde classical of the small and large forms initially pioneered by such
music and rock and pop. Jazz musicians began to impro- artists as Louis Armstrong and Duke Ellington, as well as
vise on unusual instruments, such as the jazz harp (Alice the hard bop of the 1950s. Whether Marsalis critical and
Coltrane), the electrically amplied and wah-wah ped- commercial success was a cause or a symptom of the realed jazz violin (Jean-Luc Ponty) and the bagpipes (Rufus action against Fusion and Free Jazz and the resurgence of
Harley). Guitarist John McLaughlin's Mahavishnu Or- interest in the kind of jazz pioneered in the 1960s (particchestra played a mix of rock and jazz infused with East ularly Modal Jazz and Post-Bop) is debatable; nonetheless

22

HISTORY

there were many other manifestations of a resurgence of

traditionalism, even if Fusion and Free Jazz were by no
means abandoned and continued to develop and evolve.
For example, several musicians who had been prominent
in the fusion genre during the 1970s began to record
acoustic jazz once more, including Chick Corea and
Herbie Hancock. Other musicians who had experimented
with electronic instruments in the previous decade had
abandoned them by the 1980s, for example Bill Evans,
Joe Henderson and Stan Getz. Even the 1980s music of
Miles Davis, although certainly still fusion, adopted a far
more accessible and recognisably jazz-oriented approach
than his abstract work of the mid-1970s, such as a return
to a theme-and-solos approach.
A similar reaction took place against free jazz. According
to Ted Gioia:
the very leaders of the avant garde started
to signal a retreat from the core principles of
Free Jazz. Anthony Braxton began recording
standards over familiar chord changes. Cecil
Taylor played duets in concert with Mary Lou
Williams, and let her set out structured harmonies and familiar jazz vocabulary under his
blistering keyboard attack. And the next generation of progressive players would be even
more accommodating, moving inside and outside the changes without thinking twice. Musicians such as David Murray or Don Pullen may
have felt the call of free-form jazz, but they
never forgot all the other ways one could play
African-American music for fun and prot.[158]

David Sanborn, 2008

pecially soprano and tenor, and legato electric guitar are

popular).

In his Newsweek article The Problem With Jazz

Criticism,[159] Stanley Crouch considers Miles Davis
playing of fusion to be a turning point that led to smooth
Pianist Keith Jarrett whose bands of the 1970s had jazz. Critic Aaron J. West has countered the often negaplayed only original compositions with prominent free tive perceptions of smooth jazz, stating:
jazz elements established his so-called 'Standards Trio'
in 1983, which, although also occasionally exploring
I challenge the prevalent marginalization
collective improvisation, has primarily performed and
and malignment of smooth jazz in the stanrecorded jazz standards. Chick Corea similarly began
dard jazz narrative. Furthermore, I question
exploring jazz standards in the 1980s, having neglected
the assumption that smooth jazz is an unforthem for the 1970s.
tunate and unwelcomed evolutionary outcome
5.6.2

Smooth jazz

Main article: smooth jazz

In the early 1980s a commercial form of jazz fusion
called pop fusion or smooth jazz became successful,
garnering signicant radio airplay in "quiet storm" time
slots at radio stations in urban markets across the U.S.
This helped to establish or bolster the careers of vocalists
including Al Jarreau, Anita Baker, Chaka Khan and Sade,
as well as saxophonists including Grover Washington, Jr.,
Kenny G, Kirk Whalum, Boney James and David Sanborn. In general, smooth jazz is downtempo (the most
widely played tracks are of 90105 beats per minute),
and has a lead melody-playing instrument (saxophone, es-

of the jazz-fusion era. Instead, I argue that

smooth jazz is a long-lived musical style that
merits multi-disciplinary analyses of its origins, critical dialogues, performance practice,
and reception.[160]
5.6.3 Acid jazz, nu jazz and jazz rap
Acid jazz developed in the UK in the 1980s and 1990s,
inuenced by jazz-funk and electronic dance music. Acid
jazz often contains various types of electronic composition (sometimes including Sampling (music) or a live DJ
cutting and scratching), but it is just as likely to be played
live by musicians, who often showcase jazz interpretation
as part of their performance. Jazz-funk musicians such

5.6

1980s

23

as Roy Ayers and Donald Byrd are often credited as the

forerunners of acid jazz.[161]
Nu jazz is inuenced by jazz harmony and melodies,
and there are usually no improvisational aspects. It can
be very experimental in nature and can vary widely in
sound and concept. It ranges from the combination of
live instrumentation with the beats of jazz house (as exemplied by St Germain, Jazzanova and Fila Brazillia)
to more band-based improvised jazz with electronic elements (for example The Cinematic Orchestra, Kobol and
the Norwegian future jazz style pioneered by Bugge
Wesseltoft, Jaga Jazzist and Nils Petter Molvr).
Jazz rap developed in the late 1980s and early 1990s, and
incorporates jazz inuences into hip hop. In 1988, Gang
Starr released the debut single Words I Manifest, which
sampled Dizzy Gillespie's 1962 Night in Tunisia, and
Stetsasonic released Talkin' All That Jazz, which sampled Lonnie Liston Smith. Gang Starrs debut LP No
More Mr. Nice Guy (1989) and their 1990 track Jazz
Thing sampled Charlie Parker and Ramsey Lewis. The
groups which made up the Native Tongues Posse tended
towards jazzy releases: these include the Jungle Brothers' debut Straight Out the Jungle (1988), and A Tribe
Called Quest's Peoples Instinctive Travels and the Paths
of Rhythm (1990) and The Low End Theory (1991). Rap
duo Pete Rock & CL Smooth incorporated jazz inuences on their 1992 debut Mecca and the Soul Brother.
Rapper Guru's Jazzmatazz series began in 1993, using
jazz musicians during the studio recordings.
Though jazz rap had achieved little mainstream success, Miles Davis nal album Doo-Bop (released posthumously in 1992) was based around hip hop beats and John Zorn performing in 2006
collaborations with producer Easy Mo Bee. Davis exbandmate Herbie Hancock also absorbed hip-hop inua simences in the mid-1990s, releasing the album Dis Is Da album under the name Last Exit (free jazz band),
[165]
ilarly
aggressive
blend
of
thrash
and
free
jazz.
These
Drum in 1994.
developments are the origins of jazzcore, the fusion of
free jazz with hardcore punk.
5.6.4

Punk jazz and jazzcore

The relaxation of orthodoxy which was concurrent with

post-punk in London and New York City led to a new
appreciation of jazz. In London, the Pop Group began
to mix free jazz and dub reggae into their brand of punk
rock.[162] In New York, No Wave took direct inspiration
from both free jazz and punk. Examples of this style include Lydia Lunch's Queen of Siam,[163] Gray, the work
of James Chance and the Contortions (who mixed Soul
with free jazz and punk)[163] and the Lounge Lizards[163]
(the rst group to call themselves "punk jazz).
John Zorn took note of the emphasis on speed and dissonance that was becoming prevalent in punk rock, and
incorporated this into free jazz with the release of the Spy
vs. Spy album in 1986, a collection of Ornette Coleman
tunes done in the contemporary thrashcore style.[164] In
the same year, Sonny Sharrock, Peter Brtzmann, Bill
Laswell and Ronald Shannon Jackson recorded the rst

5.6.5 M-Base
Main article: M-Base
The M-Base movement started in the 1980s, when a
loose collective of young African-American musicians in
New York which included Steve Coleman, Greg Osby
and Gary Thomas developed a complex but grooving[166]
sound.
In the 1990s most M-Base participants turned to more
conventional music, but Coleman, the most active participant, continued developing his music in accordance
with the M-Base concept.[167] Colemans audience decreased, but his music and concepts inuenced many
musicians,[168] both in terms of music technique[169] and
of the musics meaning.[170] Hence, M-Base changed
from a movement of a loose collective of young musicians to a kind of informal Coleman school,[171]

24

7 NOTES
1990s and 2000s. Musicians using this approach include
Pat Metheny, John Abercrombie, John Scoeld and the
Swedish group e.s.t.

6 See also
Timeline of jazz education
Victorian Jazz Archive

7 Notes
Steve Coleman in Paris, July 2004

with a much advanced but already originally implied

concept.[172] Steve Coleman's music and M-Base concept
gained recognition as next logical step after Charlie
Parker, John Coltran and Ornette Coleman.[173]

[1] Hennessey, Thomas, From Jazz to Swing: Black Jazz Musicians and Their Music, 1917-1935. Ph.D. dissertation,
Northwestern University, 1973, pp. 470-473.
[2] Alyn Shipton, A New History of Jazz, 2nd edn., Continuum, 2007, pp. 45.
[3] Bill Kirchner, The Oxford Companion to Jazz, Oxford
University Press, 2005, Chapter Two.

5.7

1990s2010s

Since the 1990s jazz has been characterised by a pluralism in which no one style dominates, but rather a wide
range of active styles and genres are popular. Individual
performers often play in a variety of styles, sometimes in
the same performance. Pianist Brad Mehldau and power
trio The Bad Plus have explored contemporary rock music within the context of the traditional jazz acoustic piano trio, recording instrumental jazz versions of songs by
rock musicians. The Bad Plus have also incorporated elements of free jazz into their music. A rm avant-garde
or free jazz stance has been maintained by some players,
such as saxophonists Greg Osby and Charles Gayle, while
others, such as James Carter, have incorporated free jazz
elements into a more traditional framework.

[4] Starr, Larry, and Christopher Waterman. Popular Jazz

and Swing: Americas Original Art Form. IIP Digital.
Oxford University Press, 26 July 2008.
[5] Wald, Elijah, How The Beatles Destroyed Rock'n'Roll,
2009, p.27
[6] J. J. Johnson continued, "[Jazz] is forever seeking and
reaching out and exploring": DownBeat: The Great Jazz
Interviews A 75th Anniversary Anthology: p. 250.
[7] Joachim E. Berendt. The Jazz Book: From Ragtime to Fusion and Beyond. Translated by H. and B. Bredigkeit with
Dan Morgenstern. 1981. Lawrence Hill Books, p. 371.
[8] Berendt, Joachim Ernst (1964) The New Jazz Book: a History and Guide, p. 278. Peter Owen. At Google Books.
Retrieved 4 August 2013.

On the other side, even a singer like Harry Connick, Jr.

[9] In Review of The Cambridge Companion to Jazz by Peter
(who has ten number-1 US so-called jazz albums)[174] is
Elsdon, FZMw (Frankfurt Journal of Musicology) No. 6,
sometimes called a jazz musician, although there are only
2003.
a few elements from jazz history in his mainly pop oriented music. Other recent vocalists have achieved popu- [10] Cooke, Mervyn; Horn, David G. (2002). The Cambridge
companion to jazz. New York: Cambridge University
larity with a mix of traditional jazz and pop/rock forms,
Press. pp. 1, 6. ISBN 0-521-66388-1.
such as Diana Krall, Norah Jones, Cassandra Wilson,
Kurt Elling and Jamie Cullum.
[11] Luebbers, Johannes (September 8, 2008). Its All Mu-

sic. Resonate (Australian Music Centre).

A number of players who usually perform in largely
straight-ahead settings have emerged since the 1990s, including pianists Jason Moran and Vijay Iyer, guitarist [12] Giddins 1998, 70.
Kurt Rosenwinkel, vibraphonist Stefon Harris, trum- [13] Giddins 1998, 89.
peters Roy Hargrove and Terence Blanchard, saxophonists Chris Potter and Joshua Redman, clarinetist Ken Pe- [14] Jazz Drum Lessons Drumbook.org
plowski and bassist Christian McBride.

Although jazz-rock fusion reached the height of its popularity in the 1970s, the use of electronic instruments and
rock-derived musical elements in jazz continued in the

[15] Jazz Inc.: The bottom line threatens the creative line in
corporate Americas approach to music at the Wayback
Machine (archived July 20, 2001) by Andrew Gilbert,
Metro Times, December 23, 1998.

25

[16] African American Musicians Reect On 'What Is This

Thing Called Jazz?' In New Book By UC Professor.
Oakland Post 38 (79): 77. 20 March 2001. Retrieved
December 6, 2011.
[17] Seagrove, Gordon (July 11, 1915). Blues is Jazz and
Jazz Is Blues (PDF). Chicago Daily Tribune. Retrieved
November 4, 2011. Archived at Observatoire Musical
Franais, Paris-Sorbonne University.

[35] Garrett, Charles Hiroshi (2008). Struggling to Dene a

Nation: American Music and the Twentieth Century, p.54.
ISBN 978-0-520-25486-2. Shown in common time and
then in cut time with tied sixteenth & eighth note rather
than rest.
[36] Sublette, Ned (2007), Cuba and Its Music: From the First
Drums to the Mambo, p. 134. ISBN 978-1-55652-632-9.
Shown with tied sixteenth & eighth note rather than rest.

[18] Benjamin Zimmer (June 8, 2009). ""Jazz": A Tale of

Three Cities. Word Routes. The Visual Thesaurus. Retrieved June 8, 2009.

[37] Wynton Marsalis states that tresillo is the New Orleans

"clave. Wynton Marsalis part 2. 60 Minutes. CBS
News (June 26, 2011).

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Baraka Reader (2 ed.). Basic Books. p. 42. ISBN 156025-238-3.

[38] Schuller, Gunther (1968: 19) Early Jazz; Its Roots and
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[20] Philip Larkin (2004). Jazz Writings. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 94. ISBN 0-8264-7699-6.
[21] Andrew R. L. Cayton, Richard Sisson, Chris Zacher, eds.
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[22] Murph, John. NPRs Jazz Proles: Women In Jazz, Part
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[23] Mary Lou Williams: Women in Jazz Festival. www.
kennedy-center.org. Retrieved 2015-04-22.

[39] Kubik, Gerhard (1999: 52). Africa and the Blues. Jackson, MI: University Press of Mississippi.
[40] Palmer (1981: 39).
[41] "[Afro]-Latin rhythms have been absorbed into black
American styles far more consistently than into white
popular music, despite Latin musics popularity among
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[42] Roberts, John Storm (1999: 12) Latin Jazz. New York:
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[43] Roberts, John Storm (1999: 16) Latin Jazz. New York:
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[24] 15 Most Inuential Jazz Artists. Listverse. 2010-02-27.

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[44] Manuel, Peter (2009: 67). Creolizing Contradance in the

Caribbean. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.

[25] Criswell, Chad. What Is a Jazz Band?". Retrieved 25

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[45] Manuel, Peter (2009: 69). Creolizing Contradance in the

Caribbean. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.

[26] Cooke 1999, pp. 79

[46] Acosta, Leonardo (2003: 5). Cubano Be Cubano Bop;

One Hundred Years of Jazz in Cuba. Washington D.C.:
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[27] The primary instrument for a cultural music expression

was a long narrow African drum. It came in various sized
from three to eight feet long and had previously been
banned in the South by whites. Other instruments used
were the triangle, a jawbone, and early ancestors to the
banjo. Many types of dances were performed in Congo
Square, including the 'at-footed-shue' and the 'Bamboula.'" African American Registry.
[28] Palmer, Robert (1981: 37). Deep Blues. New York: Penguin.
[29] Cooke 1999, pp. 1417, 2728
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[47] Maulen (1999: 4), Salsa Guidebook for Piano and Ensemble. Petaluma, California: Sher Music. ISBN 09614701-9-4.
[48] Pealosa, David (2010: 42). The Clave Matrix; AfroCuban Rhythm: Its Principles and African Origins. Redway, CA: Bembe Inc. ISBN 1-886502-80-3.
[49] Sublette, Ned (2008: 125). The World that made New
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[31] Palmer, Robert (1981: 39). Deep Blues.

[50] Sublette, Ned (2008:125). Cuba and its Music; From the
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[32] Borneman, Ernest (1969: 104). Jazz and the Creole Tradition. Jazz Research I: 99112.

[51] Wynton Marsalis part 2. 60 Minutes. CBS News (June

26, 2011).

[33] Sublette, Ned (2008: 124, 287). The World that made
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[52] Morton, Jelly Roll (1938: Library of Congress Recording)

The Complete Recordings By Alan Lomax.

[34] Pealosa, David (2010: 3846). The Clave Matrix; AfroCuban Rhythm: Its Principles and African Origins. Redway, CA: Bembe Inc. ISBN 1-886502-80-3.

[53] Cooke 1999, pp. 28, 47

[54] Catherine Schmidt-Jones (2006). Ragtime. Connexions. Retrieved October 18, 2007.

26

7 NOTES

[55] Cooke 1999, pp. 2829

[56] The First Ragtime Records (18971903)". Retrieved
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[58] Matthiesen, Bill (2008: 8). Habaneras, Maxixies & Tangos The Syncopated Piano Music of Latin America. Mel
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[79] Gridley, Mark C. (2000). Jazz Styles: history & analysis

(7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. pp. 72
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[80] Schoenherr, Steven. Recording Technology History.
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[82] Alexander, Scott. The First Jazz Records. redhotjazz.com. Retrieved December 24, 2008.

[59] Sublette, Ned (2008:155). Cuba and its Music; From the
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[83] Jazz Milestones. apassion4jazz.net. Retrieved December 24, 2008.

[60] Roberts, John Storm (1999: 40). The Latin Tinge. Oxford
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[84] Original Dixieland Jazz Band Biography. pbs.org. Retrieved December 24, 2008.

[61] Kunzlers Dictionary of Jazz provides two separate entries:

blues, an originally African-American genre (p. 128), and
the blues form, a widespread musical form (p. 131).

[85] Martin, Henry; Waters, Keith (2005). Jazz: The First 100
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[62] The Evolution of Diering Blues Styles. How To Play

Blues Guitar. Archived from the original on 2010-01-18.
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[86] Tim Gracyks Phonographs, Singers, and Old Records

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[63] Cooke 1999, pp. 1114

[87] Cooke 1999, p. 44

[64] Kubik, Gerhard (1999: 96).

[88] Floyd Levin (1911). Jim Europes 369th Infantry Hellghters Band. The Red Hot Archive. Retrieved October 24, 2007.

[65] Palmer (1981: 46).

[66] Handy, Father (1941), p. 99.

[89] Cooke 1999, p. 78

[67] Schuller (1968: 66, 145n.).

[90] Cooke 1999, pp. 4142

[68] W. C. Handy, Father of the Blues: An Autobiography,

edited by Arna Bontemps: foreword by Abbe Niles.
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[71] Marsalis, Wynton (2000: DVD n.1).
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Jazz.

[91] Palmer (1968: 67).

[92] Ward, Georey C.; Burns, Ken (October 8, 2002). Jazz:
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[93] Cooke 1999, p. 54

PBS.

[94] Kid Ory. The Red Hot Archive. Retrieved October 29,
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[72] "Jazz and Math: Rhythmic Innovations", PBS.org. The

Wikipedia example shown in half time compared to the
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[95] Bessie Smith. The Red Hot Archive. Retrieved October

29, 2007.

[73] Cooke 1999, pp. 38, 56

[74] Roberts, John Storm 1979. The Latin Tinge: The impact
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[75] Gridley, Mark C. (2000: 61). Jazz Styles: History and
Analysis, 7th edn.
[76] Schuller (1968: 6).
[77] The New Harvard Dictionary of Music (1986: 818).

[96] Schuller (1968: 91)

[97] Schuller (1968: 93)
[98] Cooke 1999, pp. 5659, 7879, 6670
[99] Mario Dunkel, W. C. Handy, Abbe Niles, and
(Auto)biographical Positioning in the Whiteman Era,
Popular Music and Society 38.2 (2015): 122-139.
[100] Cooke 1999, pp. 8283, 100103

[78] Greenwood, David Pealosa; Peter; collaborator; editor [101] Schuller (1968: 88)
(2009). The Clave Matrix: Afro-Cuban rhythm: its principles and African origins. Redway, CA: Bembe Books. p. [102] See lengthy interviews with Hines in [Nairn] Earl Fatha
Hines: see External Links below.
229. ISBN 1-886502-80-3.

27

[103] Wynn, edited by Neil A. (2007). Cross the Water Blues: [124] Pealosa, David (2010). The Clave Matrix; Afro-Cuban
African American music in Europe (1st ed.). Jackson,
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[125] Collier, 1978.
[104] Jackson, Jerey (2002). Making Jazz French: The Reception of Jazz Music in Paris, 1927-1934.. French His- [126] Litweiler, John (1984). The Freedom Principle: Jazz After
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[108] Jazz Musicians Duke Ellington. Theory Jazz. Re- [131] After Mark Levine (1995: 29).
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[132] Litweiler, John (1984). The Freedom Principle: Jazz After
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[110] Dance p. 260.

[133] Joachim Berendt. The Jazz Book. 1981. Page 21.

[111] Floyd, Samuel A., Jr. (1995). The Power of Black Mu- [134] Gridley, Mark C. (2000: 444). Jazz Styles: History and
sic: Interpreting its history from Africa to the United States.
Analysis, 7th ed.
New York: Oxford University Press.
[135] Tjader, Cal (1959). Monterey Concerts. Prestige CD.
[112] Levine, Mark (1995). The Jazz theory book. Petaluma,
ASIN: B000000ZCY.
Calif.: Sher Music. p. 171. ISBN 1-883217-04-0. Retrieved 27 July 2014.
[136] Andy Gonzalez interviewed by Larry Birnbaum. Ed.
Boggs, Vernon W. (1992: 297298). Salsiology; Afro[113] Joachim Berendt. The Jazz Book, 1981, p. 15.
Cuban Music and the Evolution of Salsa in New York City.
New York: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-28468-7
[114] Charlie Parker quoted by Gerhard Kubik (2005). Bebop:
A Case in Point. The African Matrix in Jazz Harmonic [137] Acosta, Leonardo (2003). Cubano Be, Cubano Bop: One
Practices (critical essay), Black Music Research Journal
Hundred Years of Jazz in Cuba, p. 59. Washington, D.C.:
22 March. Digital.
Smithsonian Books. ISBN 1-58834-147-X
[115] Gerhard Kubik (2005). Bebop: A Case in Point. The [138] Moore, Kevin (2007) History and Discography of
African Matrix in Jazz Harmonic Practices (critical esIrakere. Timba.com.
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[139] Yanow, Scott (August 5, 1941). Airto Moreira. AllMu[116] Kubik (2005).
sic. Retrieved 2011-10-22.
[117] Joachim Berendt. The Jazz Book. 1981, p. 16.

[140] Allmusic Biography

[118] In 1992 Bauza recorded Tanga in the expanded form [141] Palmer, Robert (1982-06-28). Jazz Festival - Jazz Festiof an Afro-Cuban suite, consisting of ve movements.
val - A Study Of Folk-Jazz Fusion - Review. New York
Mario Bauza and his Afro-Cuban Orchestra. Messidor CD
Times. Retrieved 2012-07-07.
(1992).
[142] Footprints Miles Smiles (Miles Davis). Columbia CD
[119] Pealosa (2010: 56).
(1967).
[120] Pealosa (2010: 131136).
[121] Bobby Sanabria, posting to the Latinjazz discussion list
(2008). http://launch.groups.yahoo.com/group/latinjazz/
[122] Fraser, Dizzy Gillespie, with Al (March 1, 1985). To Be
or Not to Bop: Memoirs of Dizzy Gillespie. New York,
N.Y.: Da Capo Press. p. 77. ISBN 978-0306802362.

[143] An ancient west central Sudanic stratum of pentatonic

song composition, often associated with simple work
rhythms in a regular meter, but with notable o-beat accents ... reaches back perhaps thousands of years to early
West African sorgum agriculturalistsKubik, Gerhard
(1999: 95). Africa and the Blues. Jackson, MI: University
Press of Mississippi.

[123] Afro Blue, Afro Roots (Mongo Santamaria) Prestige CD [144] Gridley, Mark C. (2000: 270). Jazz Styles: History and
24018-2 (1959).
Analysis, 7th ed.

28

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[145] Map showing distribution of harmony in Africa. Jones, [166] "... circular and highly complex polymetric patterns
A.M. (1959). Studies in African Music. Oxford Press.
which preserve their danceable character of popular
Funk-rhythms despite their internal complexity and asym[146] After Mark Levin (1995: 235). The Jazz Theory Book.
metries ... (Musicologist and musician Ekkehard Jost,
Sher Music. ISBN 1-883217-04-0
Sozialgeschichte des Jazz, 2003, p. 377)
[147] Levine, Mark (1989: 127). The Jazz Piano Book. [167] Steve Coleman
Petaluma, CA: Sher Music. ASIN: B004532DEE
[168] Pianist Vijay Iyer (who was chosen as Jazz musician of
the year 2010 by the Jazz Journalists Association) said:
[148] Levine (1989: 127).
Its hard to overstate Steve (Colemans) inuence. Hes
[149] After Mark Levine (1989: 127). The Jazz Piano Book.
aected more than one generation, as much as anyone
since John Coltrane. ()
[150] Bair, Je (2003: 5). Cyclic Patterns in John Coltranes
Melodic Vocabulary as Inuenced by Nicolas Slonimskys [169] His recombinant ideas about rhythm and form and his
eagerness to mentor musicians and build a new vernacuThesaurus of Scales and Melodic Patterns: An Analylar have had a profound eect on American jazz. (Ben
sis of Selected Improvisations. PhD Thesis. University
Ratli, )
of North Texas. Web. http://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:
/67531/metadc4348/m2/1/high_res_d/dissertation.pdf
[170] Vijay Iyer: Its not just that you can connect the dots by
playing seven or 11 beats. What sits behind his inuence
[151] Levine, Mark (1995: 205). The Jazz Theory Book. Sher
is this global perspective on music and life. He has a point
Music. ISBN 1-883217-04-0
of view of what he does and why he does it. ()
[152] Explore: Fusion. AllMusic. Retrieved November 7,
[171] Michael J. West (June 2, 2010). Jazz Articles: Steve
2010.
Coleman: Vital Information. Jazztimes.com. Retrieved
June
5, 2011.
[153] Davis, Miles, with Quincy Troupe (1989: 298) The Autobiography. New York: Simon and Schuster.

[172] What Is M-Base?". M-base.com. Retrieved June 5,

2011.

[154] Dan, Morgenstern (1971). Down Beat May 13.

[155] Free Jazz-Funk Music: Album, Track and Artist Charts
at the Wayback Machine (archived September 20, 2008),
Rhapsody Online Rhapsody.com (October 20, 2010).
[156] Explore: Jazz-Funk at the Wayback Machine (archived
October 19, 2010)
[157] HR-57 Center HR-57 Center for the Preservation of Jazz
and Blues, with the six-point mandate.
[158] Where Did Our Revolution Go? (Part Three) Jazz.com
| Jazz Music Jazz Artists Jazz News. Jazz.com. Retrieved 2013-10-02.
[159] Stanley Crouch (June 5, 2003). Opinion: The Problem With Jazz Criticism. Newsweek. Retrieved April
9, 2010.

[173] In 2014 drummer Billy Hart said that Coleman has quietly inuenced the whole jazz musical world, and is the
next logical step after Charlie Parker, John Coltrane,
and Ornette Coleman. (Source: Kristin E. Holmes, Genius grant saxman Steve Coleman redening jazz, October 09, 2014, web portal Philly.com, Philadelphia Media
Network) Already in 2010 pianist Vijay Iyer (who was
chosen as Jazz Musician of the Year 2010 by the Jazz
Journalists Association) said: To me, Steve [Coleman]
is as important as [John] Coltrane. He has contributed
an equal amount to the history of the music. He deserves to be placed in the pantheon of pioneering artists.
(Source: Larry Blumenfeld, A Saxophonists Reverberant
Sound, June 11, 2010, The Wall Street Journal) In September 2014, Coleman was awarded a MacArthur Fellowship
(a.k.a. Genius Grant) for redening the vocabulary and
vernaculars of contemporary music. (Source: Kristin E.
Holmes, Genius grant saxman Steve Coleman redening
jazz, October 09, 2014, web portal Philly.com, Philadelphia Media Network)

[160] Caught Between Jazz and Pop: The Contested Origins, Criticism, Performance Practice, and Reception of
Smooth Jazz. Digital.library.unt.edu. October 23, 2010.
[174] Chart Beat, Billboard, April 9, 2009
Retrieved November 7, 2010.
[161] Ginell, Richard S. allmusic on Roy Ayers.
sic.com. Retrieved November 7, 2010.

Allmu-

[162] Dave Lang, Perfect Sound Forever, February 1999. Access date: November 15, 2008.
[163] Bangs, Lester. Free Jazz / Punk Rock. Musician Magazine, 1979. Access date: July 20, 2008.
[164] ""House Of Zorn, Goblin Archives, at. Sonic.net. Retrieved November 7, 2010.
[165] Progressive Ears Album Reviews. Progressiveears.com.
October 19, 2007. Retrieved November 7, 2010.

8 References
Adorno, Theodor. Prisms, Cambridge, MA: The
MIT Press, 1967.
Allen, William Francis, Charles Pickard Ware, and
Lucy McLim Garrison, eds. 1867. Slave Songs
of the United States. New York: A Simpson &
Co. Electronic edition, Chapel Hill, N. C.: Academic Aairs Library, University of North Carolina
at Chapel Hill, 2000.

29
Joachim Ernst Berendt, Gnther Huesmann
(Bearb.): Das Jazzbuch. 7. Auage. S. Fischer Verlag, Frankfurt am Main, 2005, ISBN
3-10-003802-9
Burns, Ken, and Georey C. Ward. 2000. JazzA
History of Americas Music. New York: Alfred A.
Knopf. Also: The Jazz Film Project, Inc.
Cooke, Mervyn (1999). Jazz. London: Thames and
Hudson. ISBN 0-500-20318-0..
Carr, Ian. Music Outside: Contemporary Jazz in
Britain. 2nd edition. London: Northway. ISBN
978-0-9550908-6-8
Collier, James Lincoln. The Making of Jazz: A
Comprehensive History (Dell Publishing Co., 1978)
Dance, Stanley (1983). The World of Earl Hines.
Da Capo Press. ISBN 0-306-80182-5. Includes a
120-page interview with Hines plus many photos.
Davis, Miles. Miles Davis (2005). Boplicity. Delta
Music plc. UPC 4-006408-264637.
Downbeat (2009). The Great Jazz Interviews: Frank
Alkyer & Ed Enright (eds). Hal Leonard Books.
ISBN 978-1-4234-6384-9
Elsdon, Peter. 2003. "The Cambridge Companion to Jazz, Edited by Mervyn Cooke and David
Horn, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
2002. Review. Frankfrter Zeitschrift fr Musikwissenschaft 6:15975.
Gang Starr. 2006. Mass Appeal: The Best of Gang
Starr. CD recording 72435-96708-2-9. New York:
Virgin Records.
Giddins, Gary. 1998. Visions of Jazz: The First
Century. New York: Oxford University Press.
ISBN 0-19-507675-3
Godbolt, Jim. 2005. A History of Jazz in Britain
191950. London: Northway. ISBN 0-9537040-5X
Gridley, Mark C. 2004. Concise Guide to Jazz,
fourth edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-182657-3
Hersch, Charles (2009). Subversive Sounds: Race
and the Birth of Jazz in New Orleans. University of
Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-32868-3.
Kenney, William Howland. 1993. Chicago Jazz: A
Cultural History, 19041930. New York: Oxford
University Press. ISBN 0-19-506453-4 (cloth); paperback reprint 1994 ISBN 0-19-509260-0

Mandel, Howard. 2007. Miles, Ornette, Cecil: Jazz

Beyond Jazz. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-96714-7.
Nairn, Charlie. 1975. Earl 'Fatha' HInes: 1 hour
'solo' documentary made in Blues Alley Jazz Club,
Washington DC, for ATV, England, 1975: produced/directed by Charlie Nairn: original 16mm
lm plus out-takes of additional tunes from that
lm archived in British Film Institute Library at
b.org.uk and http://www.itvstudios.com: DVD
copies with Jean Gray Hargrove Music Library [who
hold The Earl Hines Collection/Archive], University
of California, Berkeley: also University of Chicago,
Hogan Jazz Archive Tulane University New Orleans
and Louis Armstrong House Museum Libraries.
Pealosa, David. 2010. The Clave Matrix; AfroCuban Rhythm: Its Principles and African Origins.
Redway, CA: Bembe Inc. ISBN 1-886502-80-3.
Porter, Eric. 2002. What Is This Thing Called Jazz?
African American Musicians as Artists, Critics and
Activists. London, England: University of California
Press.
Ratlie, Ben. 2002. Jazz: A Critics Guide to the 100
Most Important Recordings. The New York Times
Essential Library. New York: Times Books. ISBN
0-8050-7068-0
Schuller, Gunther. 1968. Early Jazz: Its Roots
and Musical Development. Oxford University Press.
New printing 1986.
Schuller, Gunther. 1991. The Swing Era: The Development of Jazz, 19301945. Oxford University
Press.
Searle, Chris. 2008. Forward Groove: Jazz and the
Real World from Louis Armstrong to Gilad Atzmon.
London: Northway. ISBN 978-0-9550908-7-5
Szwed, John Francis. 2000. Jazz 101: A Complete
Guide to Learning and Loving Jazz. New York: Hyperion. ISBN 0-7868-8496-7
Vacher, Peter. 2004. Soloists and Sidemen: American Jazz Stories. London: Northway. ISBN 978-09537040-4-0
Yanow, Scott. 2004. Jazz on Film: The Complete
Story of the Musicians and Music Onscreen. Backbeat Books. ISBN 0-87930-783-8

9 Further reading

Oliver, Paul (1970). Savannah Syncopators: African

Retentions in the Blues. London: Studio Vista. ISBN Main article: Bibliography of jazz
0-289-79827-2..

30

10

10

External links

Jazz Foundation of America

Jazz at the Smithsonian Museum
Alabama Jazz Hall of Fame website
Jazz Artist and Discography Resource
Red Hot Jazz.com
Jazz at Lincoln Center website
Jazz At Lincoln Center Hall of Fame
American Jazz Museum website
The International Archives for the Jazz Organ
Classic and Contemporary Jazz Music
The Jazz Archive at Duke University
Jazz Festivals in Europe
Free 1920s Jazz Collection available for downloading at Archive.org
Jazz History Database
DownBeats Jazz 101 A Guide to the Music This
section of the Downbeat magazine website has several short pages to allow the beginning student of
jazz to acquire an education.
Nairn, Charlie, (1975): Earl Fatha Hines. 1hr
documentary lmed at Blues Alley jazz club,
Washington DC. Produced and directed by Charlie Nairn for UK ATV Television, 1975. Original 16mm lm, plus out-takes of additional
tunes, archived in British Film Institute Library
at b.org.uk; also at http://www.itvstudios.com;
DVD copies with the Jean Gray Hargrove Music Library (which holds The Earl Hines Collection/Archive), University of California, Berkeley,
California; also at University of Chicago Hogan
Jazz Archive, Tulane University New Orleans and
at the Louis Armstrong House Museum Libraries:
see also www.jazzonfilm.com/documentaries.
Jazz collected news and commentary at The New
York Times
Jazz collected news and commentary at The
Guardian
Jazz at DMOZ

EXTERNAL LINKS

31

11
11.1

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

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Images

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Images

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