Beginning Electronics

Josef C. Tran
June 1999

The Author Can Be Contacted At:

Website:
Email:

www.timetrackertechnology.com
josef@timetrackertechnology.com

PREFACE
Many years ago my dad brought home broken electronics such as radios, television sets,
and the like to scavenge parts from them. I sat next to him when I was three years old fiddling
with the junk hacked away from old circuit boards. I liked to roll them with my fingers next to
the brown ashtray sitting nicely on the table where he worked. At that time I did not know what
he was doing. Like many immigrants form third world countries he was not formally educated
in his work. One day when he was busy I climbed up on the chair next to him and decided that I
had watched long enough, leaning over I took hold of the hot soldering iron, the hot part, and
after that everything was history. It was a long time before he let met near those things again.
From then on I was very scared of the things on his table because they seemed magical.
But I was also strong headed and as you might have expected, burnt hands did not deter me. I
became more fascinated by electronics though my hands had been swollen for days.
Years afterwards I set up a crude laboratory to do experiments and it was also this
laboratory that had given me many ungodly electric shocks that I cannot keep count, many times
to the point where I had almost decided to quit. But persistence and curiosity helped me through.
I never stopped what I was doing. There was however a slight problem with the way I was doing
it. At the time I knew very little about electricity and was fortunate not to be electrocuted more
than a few dozen times. Most of the books I read were way above the level I worked at. They
always contained complex squiggly lines and alphabets that no matter how hard I tried could not
figure out what it all meant.
For me learning electronics meant burnt hands, electric-shock-therapy and temporary
mental lapses. But I believe it could have been different. I spent many hours experimenting
with different components and electronic devices without the aid of written texts. Finding a
book that was written for a caveman or an unsupervised nine year old child is not easy. I would
have been very thankful if someone had written a book that was simple and easy to follow (and
with lots of pictures). So, with this text I plan to do just that. I am hoping with my experience
derived from the absolute beginning stages of electronics curiosity towards the leading edge of
technology today, I can share many pitfalls and misunderstandings about electronics to the
younger people who read this text and even those much older who have not had any real
experience with fundamental electronics or in laymans terms electricity.

INTRODUCTION
When I started doing experiments to understand electronics there were lots of technical
problems that had to be overcome such as finding out how to properly use a multimeter or what
instruments were used to see electricity. When I started doing this I could not even find books
that explained what an oscilloscope is, what it does, how to use it, or where to get one. I try to
make this book the most comprehensive for beginners to indulge themselves with electrical
basics so they will not be discouraged by complexity.
Included are diagrams, explanations and
pictures with little mathematics. Hopefully anyone
reading this book will not be overwhelmed by
whatever few computations that are present. I have
included experiments in every location where theory
and electrical laws are presented. These experimental
sections are intended to further the readers
understanding of electronic devices. Besides helping
the reader understand, it will aid the readers grasp and
experience with electrical phenomena to create a
realistic association with electrical formulas and live
circuits.

MY HOME ELECTRONICS

I will try not to be cold and impersonal like other technical books. I sometimes prefer not
to write the text entirely in the 1st person. You will find the style of presentation unique in the
sense that all material covered is spoken from the viewpoint of myself almost eight years ago. It
is the intention to have this book written by someone who knew little about the subject matter
and revised by another with considerable knowledge. Eight years ago I began writing this book
while taking general education requirements in college as a way to keep record of things I have
studied in my major. I may not even have taken electronics courses while I was editing this
book, so many concepts are from a novice point of view but I believe this may be a refreshing
characteristic of the text for someone who was like me reading this. Someone who could grasp
simple concepts rather than advanced elongated concepts, but eventually every electronics
curiosity tends to lead a person with interest down the path of advanced understanding anyways.
So without further delay I hope you will enjoy this book.

Dedications
In memory of those who pursue exploration
for the improvement of humanity.

Table of Contents
Preface
Introduction
Dedications
Table of Contents
Chapter
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
Epilogue

Title

Page

Foundations of Electronics.....................................................................
The atom..................................................................................................
Scientific units.........................................................................................
Ohms law.................................................................................................
Using your multimeter............................................................................
The Function Generator and Oscilloscope...........................................
Conductors, Insulators, Resistors and Batteries..................................
Water in a pipe........................................................................................
DC and AC Generators..........................................................................
Batteries...................................................................................................
Resistors...................................................................................................
Capacitors................................................................................................
Inductors..................................................................................................
DC vs AC Behavior.................................................................................
Transformers...........................................................................................
Diodes.......................................................................................................
Transistors...............................................................................................
Mosfet Transistors..................................................................................
Amplifier Classification..........................................................................
Building a Power Supply........................................................................

1
4
6
10
13
15
18
21
26
29
31
37
42
46
51
54
57
61
65
69

Chapter 1
Foundations of Electronics
Anyone working in electronics will have common electrical test tools. This chapter
describes some common test tools, what they look like and terminology associated with each
tool. The tools range from simple hand clippers to function generators. Get as many of the tools
presented in this chapter as you can.
Tool #1 - The table
It may seem ridiculous for us to discuss a table when just about everybody knows what
one looks like; However, in an electronics lab the proper selection of a suitable table is necessary
from the perspective of safety and application. Listed below are four points that should be
closely observed when selecting the proper table.
1. The table must be firm.
2. The surface should be made of a substance that does not soak in
liquids and is easy to wipe off with a towel.
3. Do not use a metal table.
3. It should be large enough to allow all of your equipment to be
place on top and still have room for what you need to do.
Tool #2 - The multimeter
The multimeter is an instrument used for
measuring voltage, current and resistance. Some
have added features such as measuring
capacitance, inductance, gain and temperature. All
experiments in this text will only require you to
purchase one that will be able to measure the
following:
1.
2.
3.
4.

AC and DC voltage
AC and DC current
Resistance
Diodes

ANALOG

DIGITAL

Fig 1-1

For the experiments put fourth in this book an auto-ranging digital multimeter with an
LCD display is recommended.

Tool #3 - DC Power supply

Various voltage levels are needed for the experiments. A
DC power supply is the best way to get electrical power to run
these experiments. Power supplies come with safety features
such as over current protection, short circuit protection, and line
load isolation. Over current protection can prevent your circuit
from being destroyed due to bad connections. Short circuit
protection is similar except that instead of protecting the circuit it
protects the power supply from being destroyed. Line load
isolation protects your house from what you are doing.

DC POWER SUPPLY

Fig 1-2

Tool #4 - The oscilloscope

The price range on this type of equipment may be a bit of a shocker if you have never
owned one but the advantages far outweigh the cost. When I bought my first oscilloscope at the
electronic store it cost me $150 (that was a lot of money for me), and I didn't even get the test
probes. One channel was broken and the other was out of calibration. I was skeptical because I
felt ripped off. But by the second day it had changed the way I approached studying electronics
altogether. I did not realize how advantageous it was to be able to "see electricity". Even though
the scope was in bad condition it helped me grasp electrical concepts that would have taken
years. The waveforms are traced on the graticule. It allows measurement of frequency and
intensity of voltages. In advanced electronics being able to see the shape of waveforms is
absolutely necessary to build complex circuits.
THE
OSCILLOSCOPE

Fig 1-3
Oscilloscope terms you need to know:
1. Single Trace oscilloscope - this means that your oscilloscope will only
accommodate one test probe and will only allow you to test a single point in a
circuit.
2. Dual Trance oscilloscope - this means that it will accommodate two test
probes and will allow you to test two points on a circuit simultaneously while
displaying both waveforms at the same time! (recommended)
3. 10, 20, or 100 MHz oscilloscope - this is the maximum frequency which your
oscilloscope will be able to measure adequately and give you a viewable
readout on the graticule (screen). (About 20MHz is good for a beginner)
4. Digital oscilloscope - a digital oscilloscope is similar to the analog oscilloscope

in appearance but there is a world of difference between the two. A digital

oscilloscope is one that will allow you to not only view the waveform but also
freeze the screen for further analysis or you can usually save it to a disk for
later viewing.
5. Analog oscilloscope - an analog oscilloscope allows you to see the waveform
in real time. You can see the changing voltage levels as it is happening but there are
no features which allows you to freeze the screen or save the waveform to a disk for
later viewing. This is probably the biggest drawback for analog oscilloscopes.
Acquainting yourself with these terms will help you decide what type of oscilloscope you
want. For example the box might have something that says "60MHz digital storage dual trace
oscilloscope". This means that the oscilloscope could measure voltage frequencies up to 60
million cycles per second, it is digital, it has the freeze screen function and it will accommodate
two test probes allowing you to view these voltages simultaneously.

Tool #5 - The function generator

There are two ways you can get a function generator.
One way is to buy an oscilloscope with a built-in function
generator or you can buy it separately as a single unit. A
function generator is not just another test instrument. It can be
used to calibrate electronic components, as input to circuitry
and build entire circuits. Function generators generate sine
waves, square waves and triangle waves. I recommend a
function generator that is at least 5 Mega Hertz.

FUNCTION
GENERATOR

Tools, Tools, Tools #6 - All the other tools

Now that all the main tools have been
discussed we go to the common tools. Most of these
tools can be purchased at the electronics store. Give
them a list of these tools and they should know what
you want.
In case they don't you should
immediately go elsewhere because they obviously
don't know what they're doing. Below is a list of the
names of these tools.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Breadboard
Soldering vacuum
Wire stripper
Soldering iron
24 gauge copper wire
Solder
120V to 12V AC transformer
1.5V AAA Battery
9V Battery

Fig 1-5

Chapter 2
The Atom
There are approximately 256 kinds of atoms that have been discovered. Around 1834 to
1907 two men named Dimitri Medeleev and Lothar Meyer began arranging a table using an
arrangement scheme in which the lighter elements were put at the top and the heavier ones to the
bottom.

Theoretically an atom looks like what is shown in fig 2-2A. An atom is so small that it is
impossible to see it with the eyes. The mathematics of even the simplest atoms is so complex
that it would take an entire lifetime to appreciate; therefore, our discussion on atomic theory will
be enough for you to manage your way through this book and most of what you will be learning
in the electronics field.
An atom is composed of protons,
neutrons and electrons. Protons are positively
charged particles denoted by a positive sign.
Electrons are negatively charged particles
denoted by a negative sign. There is also third
particle called a neutron that has no sign and no
charge association. Referring to fig 2-2A,
neutrons and protons are packed at the center of
an atom while electrons travel in orbits around
this nucleus. There are many orbits around the
Fig 2-2A
nucleus as shown in fig 2-2B. Each orbit can
only hold a certain number of electrons. When the maximum number of electrons an orbit can
hold has been reached the next electron must be put in a higher orbit. An atom in its stable state
is electrically neutral. This means there are equal numbers of protons and electrons, therefore
equal number of negative and positive charges. If the atom gains an electron the atom as a whole
becomes negative and we call it an anion with a minus sign next to it. If the atom looses an
electron the atom as a whole becomes more positive and we call it cation with a plus sign next
to it. In electronics we refer to the exchange or movement of electrons as electric current. When

there are lots of atoms grouped together such

as found in solid metals, the valence
electrons can flow freely and constitute
current in the material. Electrons diffuse
from a negative area towards a less negative
area or positive area. If we had an anion and
a cation close to each other the extra electron
in the anion will want to jump over to the
cation.

Fig 2-2B

Valence electrons

The valence electrons occupy the outermost shell. They are called valence electrons
because they are nearest the outer edge of an atom and are usually exchanged when there is a
chemical or electrical reaction.

Forces
Positive and negative charges attract while like charges repel. For example two electrons
or two protons will push away from each other while an electron and a proton will attract each
other.

Summary
An electron contains a nucleus made of protons and neutrons. Electrons travel in circular
orbits around the nucleus. The atoms traveling in the outermost orbit are called valence
electrons. Valence electrons make up electrical current when they flow from place to place
within materials.

Chapter 3
Scientific Units
Many measurements you encounter in electronics are based upon the MKSA or SI unit of
measurement. MKSA is the abbreviation for meter, kilogram, second, ampere while systeme
internationale d'units is a French word abbreviated as SI. The meter is a unit of length. The
kilogram is a unit of weight. The second is a unit of time, and the ampere is a unit measuring
electron flow. Data collected from measurements are attached an SI prefix so it can be
understood. For example when we step on a scale to see how much we weigh and the scale reads
389. Is it 389 ounces? lbs? kg? feet? The SI prefix in the MKSA system helps resolve this
problem.

Velocity
Velocity is defined as
the distance an object travels
in a given amount of time. If
a car travels 10 meters in 1
second the velocity of the car
is 10 meters divided by 1
second or 10m/s or 10 meters
per second.

Acceleration
Although the velocity is already defined as the distance over a period of time we need to
define it even further because velocity can also change. When objects change velocity over time
we call this change in velocity acceleration. When an object changes its speed it is accelerating.
Acceleration means how fast a given object is changing speed or velocity. If the object slows
down from 10mph to 5mph we call that acceleration because the velocity is changing. Think of
velocity as constant speed and acceleration as the speeding up or slowing down of this speed. If
the object does not speed up or slow down then there is no acceleration and it is traveling at
constant velocity.
Referring to fig 3-1. The
symbol (delta) is a Greek letter
placed next to the letter V to
symbolize the change in velocity.
Delta means a change in
anything. It could also mean a
change in time. To calculate
acceleration, subtract the final
velocity from the initial velocity.
If a car travels 10m/s and
accelerates to 30m/s, it would
have a change in velocity of
20m/s because 30m/s minus

Fig 3-1

10m/s equals 20m/s.

Lets look at an example fig 3-1. The car is traveling at 10 meters per second. It can slow
to 5 m/s or speed up to 20 m/s. Assume the car takes 3 seconds to slow down from 10m/s to
5m/s. The acceleration would then be 5m/s minus 10m/s divided by 3 second that equals -1.7
m/s2. The car slows down by -1.7m/s every second for three seconds. Now suppose the car
started at 10m/s and speeds up to 20 m/s in 3 seconds. We start with 20 m/s minus 10 m/s
divided by 3 seconds that equals 3.33 m/s2. The velocity of the car increases by 3.33m/s every
second for 3 second.

Force
Force can be seen in everyday events. When you walk you are exerting forces on the
ground to make you move. When opening a door you must use force to push the door out of the
way. Force is defined as the mass of the object being pushed times its acceleration and is
measured in newtons. Newton denoted by the capital letter N is the fundamental unit of force in
the MKS system. It is named after Isaac Newton. To understand what a newton is you can think
of a newton as equal to the force required to accelerate a 1kg object 1m/s2.
1N = 1kg 1m / s 2
Refer to fig 3-2. A mass
weighing 100kg is accelerated
50m/s2. What is the force exerted on
the object? First we take the mass of
the object and multiply it by the
acceleration.
Remember that the
mass of the object is always in kg and
acceleration must be in meters per
second squared. Also note that since
acceleration is a measure of the
Fig 3-2
change in speed we are actually
multiplying the mass of the object times the change in speed of that object. Thus 100kg times
50m/s2 equals 5000N or 5kN. This is the force required to accelerate the 100kg object 50 m/s2.

Work
Kings have always wanted to quantify how much work slaves can produce in a day. The
unit for work is the joule. Work is calculated by multiplying the force times the distance. For
example if you exert 10N of force on an object and the object travels a distance of three meters
then you have done 30 joules of work. If the object did not move then 10N times 0m equals 0;
therefore, you have done no work at all. Work by defined is the force times the distance, so even
though force was applied there may still be no work done. To help you feel what a joule of work
means, note that it takes 4.184 J or joules to raise the temperature of 1g of water 1 degrees
Celsius.
1 degree Celsius = 1.8 degrees Fahrenheit

Power

Power is the rate of work done over a period of time. The unit for power is the watt.
Sometimes it is simpler to express it in kilowatts (1,000 watts). For example if 1000J of work
was produce in 60 seconds we simply divide 1000J by 60 seconds to equal 16.7 watts, or joules
per second (16.7 J/s). That is the same as saying 16.7 J of work is expended every second for 60
seconds.

Scientific notation
In ordinary computation there is no need for fancy notations but what if a number looked
like this

1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 or 0.00000000000000001
Is it necessary to write down all those zeros? Scientific notation is a quick way to write very
large and very small numbers. Any number can also be written in scientific notation but it is still
best suited for very large and small numbers.
Refer to fig 3-3. Suppose the number
is 3,000,000. We first move the decimal point
towards the left hand side and count how many
digits we have jumped past. When moving to
the left it must never move past the last digit or
number on the left. Since we moved six digits
to the left we raise the exponent to this
number.
Fig 3-3
We then take 3.000000 and drop 5 zeroes on
the right hand side so that 3.0 remains. We can
drop these zeroes on the right hand side because we are assuming that the precision is only valid
up to two significant digits. Now we are ready to put it together. We multiply three point zero
by ten to the power of six and get 3.0 * 106.
Refer to fig 3-4. To convert small
numbers follow the same procedure, however
this time we will move the decimal towards the
right hand side until it lands past the number
seven. We will get 7.0 as the first part of our
scientific notation. Since we jumped ten
Fig 3-4
places to the right hand side the exponent will
be equal to -10. Taking 7.0 and multiplying it by 10-10 we get 7.0*10-10.
Below are more examples:
1)

7,000 = 7 * 103

35,000 = 3.5 * 104

675,000 = 6.75 * 105

2)

5,900 = 5.9 * 103

27,900 = 2.79 * 104

386,200 = 3.862 * 105

3)

9,290 = 9.29 * 103

54,320 = 5.432 * 104

193,750 = 1.937 * 105

4)

8,778 = 8.8 * 103

90,432 = 9.4 * 104

796,537 = 8.0 * 105

Notice that row number four has only two significant digits in scientific notation while the
original decimal had four, five and six significant digits. Sometimes when converting from
decimal to scientific notation we may ignore or throw away some of the remaining numbers and
keep just the last two, three, four or five digits. We can keep as many digits from the original
decimal number and write it in scientific notation. As you might have guessed, if we threw away
some of the numbers then precision of the original number will be lost. This is a sacrifice we
must make when converting a decimal to scientific notation. Fortunately we do not just
randomly discard as many numbers as we like. There is a certain amount of precision we still
need to maintain from the original decimal number. Sometimes we need to keep two significant
digits and sometimes we need precision up to five or six significant digits. It all depends upon
what we are measuring and how precise our actual measurement was. This determines how
many numbers we can discard without throwing our calculations off.

Prefixes for electrical units

Large numbers are written in scientific notation or can be prefixed with letter symbols
that represent some power of tens. For example in scientific notation a resistance of 5,000
(five thousand ohms) can be written as 5k. This is known as SI prefixing. The k prefix means
multiply the 5 by 1000.

SI Prefixes
Prefix

Symbol

Number

Prefix

Symbol

Number

dekahectokilomegagigaterapetaexazetayotta-

da
h
k
M
G
T
P
E
Z
Y

101
102
103
106
109
1012
1015
1018
1021
1024

decicentimillimicronanopicofemtoattozeptoyocto-

d
c
m

n
p
f
a
z
y

10-1
10-2
10-3
10-6
10-9
10-12
10-15
10-18
10-21
10-24

Chapter 4
Ohms Law
Measuring quantities within a circuit results in a numerical value. This value has some
significance relating to circuit characteristics that is described by ohms law. We use various
names to describe these characteristics. This chapter introduces ohms law and names for
electrical characteristic phenomena.

Coulomb
We know that a proton has a positive charge and an electron has a negative charge but
how does the charge relate to electricity? In a circuit if we calculated every electron that passed
through a point in the circuit it would result in an extremely large numbers. To avoid this large
number we use coulombs instead or electrons to describe how much charge we have.
An electron has a charge of -1. One coulomb represents the charge carried by 6.24 * 1018
electrons. That means an electron must have a charge of 1.6021917 * 10-19 C.
1 _ coulomb = 6.24 1018 _ electrons

1 _ electron =

1
1
=
= 1.60 * 10 19 _ coulomb
18
1C 6.24 10

Current
Electron movement within a conductor is called electrical current and the unit is in
amperes. Amperes is defined as the amount of charge passing through a given point in a circuit
over a period of time. Thus 1 ampere is equal to 1coulomb divided by 1 second. The equation
for calculating current is shown below.
1A =

1C
1s

or

I *t = Q

Refer to fig 4-1. If you measure 2.5 amps on

your ammeter then you know that there is 2.5
coulombs of charge passing through that
point every second.

Fig 4-1

Resistance
The characteristic preventing current to flow is called resistance. Resistance is helpful
most of the time because if we had one volt applied across your head and your head had no
resistance then infinite amounts of current will travel through your brain and you will look like
smoked turkey.

Voltage and work

The force that causes current to flow is called electromotive force and its unit is the volt.
Voltage is defined as the potential difference between two points. A 12V battery means that
there is 12 volts of electrical potential difference the negative and positive terminals, or there is
an electromotive force of 12 volts to push the electrons from one terminal to the other. This
potential difference is what causes current to flow in a closed electric circuit. The energy
supplied by the battery does work on the charges by moving it from point A to point B, thus we
arrive at the equation for work in electronic circuits. Work equals the charge in coulombs times
the EMF in volts. Sometimes the letter E is used instead of V for voltage.
W = Q * E

Where: W = work done in Joules

Q = charge in coulombs
E = EMF in volts

If 13 volts of EMF pushes 5C of charge how much

work is done on the charges? We simply multiply 5C times
13V which gives us 65 joules.

Power
Power is the rate at which work is done. The unit for power is the watt. If 500 joules of
work was done over a period of 3 seconds how much power do we have? Take 500 joules and
divide by 3 seconds to get 166.7 J/s (joules per second) or 166.7 watts.
P=

W
t

Where: P = power in watts

W = work in joules
t = time in seconds

1 watt = 1 joule per second

Now that we know power is the rate at which work is being done and work is the amount
of charge being pushed through the circuit we can calculate power in terms of currents and
voltages.
Short proof:
P=

W
t

Q = I t

and W = Q E

P=

P=
I *t * E
t

QE
t

P= I* E

If 25V causes 10A to flow calculate the power dissipated.

P = 10 A 25V = 250 watts

Ohms law
Ohms law is the most important set of formulas you
need to commit to memory. Although simple it is the best
way to help you understand voltage, current and resistive
relationships.
Fig 4-2 shows an easy way to remember ohms law.
Memorize the circle containing E, I and R. From this circle
you can get all three equations involving voltage, current
and resistance. The best way to understand ohms law is to
do many practice problems and experiment with real
circuits to prove it is correct.

Fig 4-2

Fig 4-3
Example: R1 = 100
Vs = 25 V
I = ?
Answer:

note: the Greek symbol omega represents the word ohms.

I = 0.25A

Ohms law combined with power

There are basically 4 most important quantities -- power, voltage, current and resistance.
You can obtain any one of the four quantities by knowing only two others. Below is a set of
equations derived using ohms law and the power formula.

Chapter 5
Using Your Multimeter
The multimeter
A multimeter has multiple functions for measuring voltage and current. In the past
people who dealt with electronics had to carry different types of meters, one was the voltmeter,
the other the ohmmeter, and still another is the ammeter. Nowadays all those functions are
inseparable so they have been combined into a universal test instrument that is the multimeter.
You will be using the multimeter for many kinds of electrical measurements. You will use the
multimeter to measure resistance, voltage, and current.

Measuring voltage
Every meter is slightly different in its orientation of
where the functions are. When measuring voltage the meter
must be set to the volt function. There are two types of volt
functions. The first type is VDC, or volts direct current. The
other is the VAC, or volts alternating current. Direct current
is when electrons flow in only one direction, from the
negative to positive terminal. Whenever you measure current
that only flows in one direction you will use the VDC
function. Most meters should be able to measure at least 200
volts.
Now turn on your DC power supply unit. Once
the power supply is turned on there will be a voltage
present at the output terminals.
Next turn your
multimeter to the VDC function. Whenever you use this
function your multimeter is called a voltmeter. Take the
test probes and place it across the DC power supply as
shown in fig 5-1. Turn the voltage knob on the power
supply and watch the voltage go up and down. The
voltage seen on the voltmeter is the voltage coming
from the power supply.

Measuring voltage

Fig 5-1

Measuring
resistance

Measuring resistance
Measuring resistance is easy. I recommend trying out as
many resistors as you can so you will have practice with your
meter. Select the ohm function as seen in fig 5-2. Whenever you
select the ohm function your meter will be called an ohmmeter.
Place the test probes across the resistor. There is no polarity to the
resistor so you may place it in any direction. The ohmmeter will
display the resistance of the resistor. The resistance shown on the
ohmmeter may be slightly different from the resistance printed on
the resistor package.

Measuring current
Measuring current is more complicated. First
set the DC power supply to 10V and use a 1k ohms
resistor. Hook up the circuit in fig 5-3. Set the
multimeter to ADC or amps direct current. The
multimeter is now called an ammeter. The ammeter
shows how much current is flowing in the circuit at
that point. Whenever you measure current you must
open the circuit and place the meter in series with that
part of the circuit so the meter can count how much
current is flowing.

Fig 5-3
Look at fig 5-4. The circle represents an
ammeter and the round cornered rectangle
represents a voltmeter. The ammeter must be
place in series with the circuit to measure current
and the voltmeter is placed in parallel across the
resistor to measure voltage.

Fig 5-4

Chapter 6
The Function Generator and Oscilloscope
Before we begin the next chapter you must be familiar with the purpose and usage of two
very important analysis tools, the oscilloscope and function generator. This quick tutorial is not
intended to replace the user manual that accompanies each individual product but is intended to
get you familiar with common controls that are on the instruments.

Using the function generator

The function generator as its name implies generates voltage with respect to time. What
this means is a function generator does not produce DC voltages like the DC voltage supply.
Instead it produces AC (alternating current) that oscillates back and forth producing a sinusoidal
waveform when traced on an oscilloscope. Fig 6-1 shows a picture of a function generator and
the output probe connected to the BNC connector of the output port coming from the function
generator. The probe usually ends with two alligator clips used to connect the function generator
to the test circuit. One of the alligator clips is colored red and the other black. Although the
output from the function generator is color coded it does not mean that one side of the output is
always negative and the other side is always positive. Remember that the function generator
produces AC output; therefore, sometimes one output will be more positive and at other times it
will be more negative. The black alligator clip coming from the BNC output of your function
generator is usually connected to the DC grounded side of the circuit. This convention is used
whenever there are both AC and DC voltages within the same circuit. In fig 6-2 there is a knob
used to increase or decrease the frequency of the function generator output. When you increase
the frequency that just means that the AC voltage will alternate back and forth quicker and many
more times per second compared to a low frequency wave output. Decreasing the frequency by
turning the knob in the opposite direction thus lowers the frequency. There are usually three
buttons on most function generators that allow you to change the shape of the output waveform
as in fig 6-3. The leftmost button is to select a smooth sinusoidal wave output. The center
button is used to send a triangular wave to the output and the rightmost button is to select a
square wave output. We can see the output from the generator by measuring across its output
terminal using an oscilloscope.

Fig 6-1

Fig 6-2

Fig 6-3
Using the oscilloscope
The oscilloscope is by far the most important and useful tool. Fig 6-4 shows what an
oscilloscope looks like. The test probe connects to the BNC output found near the bottom of the
front panel. Depending on the type of scope you bought it may be labeled CHA, CH1, CH1X or
OUTPUT A. Whatever the designation connect the test probe to this BNC connector and turn on
the oscilloscope. A green line should appear on the graticule or screen. That green line
represents the voltage seen at the test probe end. Next set the VOLTS/DIV knob located above
the CH1 BNC output connector to 5 volts. Set A TIME/DIV to .5ms which is another knob
located somewhere on the front panel. You will need to search for these knobs. Next hook up
the oscilloscope to the function generator as shown in fig 6-5. You should immediately see the
output from the function generator on the oscilloscope screen. If it does not show up try
adjusting other knobs on your oscilloscope. If you do see the output adjust the TRIGGER
LEVEL / HOLD knob usually located next to the A TIME/DIV knob on the oscilloscope. What
this does is it times the trace signal to the rising and falling edge of the AC waveform that is
being supplied from the function generator so that the trace signal will not run across the screen.

Fig 6-4

Fig 6-5
Using the basic functions of the function generator and oscilloscope was easy. The best
way to learn is just to experiment with these two test instruments. Try adjusting the knobs by
keeping the connection the same as in fig 6-5. Do not worry about destroying your expensive
test equipment. Merely hooking up the function generator to an oscilloscope as shown in fig 6-6
will not destroy the oscilloscope or generator no matter how you adjust any of the control
settings on either machine.

Chapter 7
Conductors, Insulators, Resistors and Batteries
Conductors
The term conductor meaning to conduct is used for materials that allow electrons to flow
easily. Wire is a good conductor. Wire is often made of copper. Metals are also good
conductors. Water is not a good conductor. Water is somewhere in between. It allows some
current to flow but not a large amount. There are no perfect conductors. The best conductor is
made of gold but even gold has some resistance in it. The resistance in gold is so small that it is
considered zero.

Insulators
Insulators are materials that do not allow current to flow. Plastics are good insulators.
Dry wood is also an insulator. Glass is an insulator. One of the best insulators is mica. There
are no perfect insulators. Mica allows a small amount of current to flow through. However, the
current is so small that it is considered zero.

Resistors

RESISTORS

Circuits contain many resistors to prevent too much

current from damaging the circuit. When large currents flow
in a conductor heat begins to build and the conductor is
destroyed. A resistor is limits electron current but does not
stop it from flowing. A resistor is like a water valve in a
piping system. When you close the valve less water will
flow. The schematic diagram for a resistor is a zig-zag line.

Why materials conduct

Materials conduct because they have
free electrons. These free electrons usually
come from the valence band of the atoms that
make up the material. For instance in fig 7-1
salt is a poor conductor in its solid form, but
when mixed with water the salt forms ions in
the solution allowing electrons to move about.
If two metal electrodes are placed in the
Fig 7-1
solution and voltage is applied, current will
flow across the electrodes. Materials that have
many free electrons are said to be good conductors. Some conductors have few free electrons
and are called resistors. Conductors that have no free electrons are called insulators.

Copper wiring
Wiring made of a copper conductor
surrounded by a plastic insulator is frequently
used to connect one part of a circuit to the other.
Because copper is a good conductor there is
negligible resistance in copper wire. For the
purpose of simplification we assume that every
conductor is a perfect conductor. A picture
diagram of what copper wire looks like is shown
Fig 7-2
in fig 7-2. Electrons flow in the wire at one end
towards the other. The plastic insulator protects and prevents other objects from touching the
conductor. If another metal was allowed to touch the copper conductor the current will flow
through that metal and disrupt the circuit. Air is an insulator. Electrons will not flow into the air
and jump into another metal object. Dirt or water is conductive and should be kept away from
electronic circuits. Your body is more like a large resistor than a conductor but it is still a
conductor and you can get burned if you accidentally touch an electrical circuit. The current will
flow through your body. If the current is small then it will do less damage. People who work
with high voltage must be extremely careful because high voltage implies high currents.

The battery
BATTERIES
An example of a battery would be the type you
buy at the store and put into your radio cassette player.
Without the battery your radio would not work. The
battery forces electrons to move through the circuit and
this force is called electromotive force. The unit of
electromotive force is the volt. The schematic symbol for
a battery is a horizontal line broken by vertical lines as
shown in fig 7-3A.

Fig 7-3A

Fig 7-3B

Fig 7-3C

Current from a battery

Sometimes current is said to flow from the positive terminal to the negative terminal as
shown in fig 7-3B. This direction of current flow is called conventional current. Conventional
current is the flow of hole charges. Hole charges do not imply that protons are moving. Another
kind of current is electron current. Electron current flows from the negative side to the positive

side as shown in fig 7-3C. Electron current is the flow of negative charges. Negative charges
imply that electrons are moving.
In this book we sometimes imply conventional current and other times electron current
because one or the other is more useful in explaining a concept. In practice the standard
direction of current is conventional current.

Hole charges
A hole charge is not a proton. A hole charge is just a name given to a region of space that
is missing an electron. There is nothing in that region of space. Suppose we have a wire with 11
electrons as shown in fig 8-1.

Fig 8-1
The electrons are place in a bubble. The bubble represents an empty region of space. The
electrons can only jump from one bubble to another bubble. The electrons are moving to the
right side of the wire. As the electrons move there will be one bubble that seems to slowly move
to the left side of the wire. This bubble or empty region of space is known as the hole charge.
Since a hole has no electron it can be considered positive. Therefore hole charges are considered
positive with respect to a region with an electron.

Chapter 8
Water in a Pipe
A simple circuit
Depicted if fig 8-1 is an electric circuit. The battery is connected to the resistor by two
wires. One wire is connected to the negative terminal, the other to the positive terminal. Once
the circuit is completed electric current flows from the negative side of the battery through the
resistor and back to the positive side.

Fig 8-1
The battery produces a voltage across its terminals. This voltage exerts an electromotive
force on the free electrons inside the conductors. A current begins to flow in the conductors.
The current is not large because there is a resistance in its path. The resistor acts like a water
valve. It allows some of the electrons to pass and reduces the total current. Why doesn't the
electrons jump from the negative side of the battery to the positive side? The reason why it
cannot jump is because of air. Air is an insulator. If the weather is very humid then there might
be a few electrons that will jump. This is because water is a conductor although not a good
conductor. A schematic is what engineers use to depict electrical circuits. You will eventually
learn how to read schematics as you advance in your studies. In this book I sometimes try to
explain a concept using pictures instead of schematics to help you understand; otherwise,
remember that schematics is the real way to learn electronics for professionals.

Water in a pipe analogy

Electronics instructors are hesitant to describe current in terms of water because
electricity is definitely not water. However the usefulness of using this analogy lies in the fact
that the principles of ohms law can easily be understood when applied to the principles of
flowing water. Suppose we had a circuit with a single battery and two resistors as shown in fig
8-2. The circuit shown is connected in series. The battery is 12 volts. There are two resistors of
equal resistance. Now image the following equalities are true:

WATER PUMP
WATER PRESSURE
WATER FLOWING
WATER VALVE

=
=
=
=

BATTERY
VOLTAGE
CURRENT
RESISTOR

Fig 8-2
Water through a pipe analogy goes as follows:

The water pump can only maintain 12psi of water pressure. Because there two valves the
amount of water flow is restricted.
The battery can only maintain 12 volts. Because there are two resistors the
amount of current is restricted.

Voltage drops

Fig 8-3
When a resistor drops voltage what does it actually mean? The voltage across a resistor
is called a voltage drop. You can measure this voltage with a voltmeter. Referring to figs 8-3
we have voltmeter 1 and voltmeter 2. Voltmeter 1 is measuring the voltage drop across the
upper resistor and voltmeter 2 is measuring the voltage drop across the lower resistor. Why does
a resistor drop voltage? Resistors drop voltage because they restrict current and thus a potential
is produced across the resistor. Your voltmeter is able to measure this potential. If you add up
the voltage drops across the upper and lower resistors it will equal the battery voltage.

Another way of looking at the situation is with the pipe analogy. When water enters a
valve the valve restricts the water from going through. This restriction causes one side of the
valve to have higher pressure then the other. If we measure the difference in water pressure
across a valve we find that the pressure is not zero. This indicates the valve is dropping pressure.

Fig 8-4
What if we measured voltage along a wire as shown in fig 8-4? The difference in
potential along a wire is constant, that means we will always have a reading of 0 volts. The same
is true of the pipes. The difference in pressure within a pipe is constant everywhere within that
section of pipe therefore we will get 0psi.

Open circuit conditions

Fig 8-5
When there is a break or open in the circuit of fig 8-5 why doesn't the electrons leak out
of the wire? When there is a break in the pipe why doesn't the water leak out of the pipe? These
are two very good questions. We cannot really explain this. In a true circuit the electrons are
confined to the conductor. When the conductor breaks the electrons cannot leak into the air or
jump across the air gap. When the pipe breaks the water will spray into the air. Therefore we

have two contradictory statements. To resolve this we assume that when the pipe breaks there
are end caps that prevent the water from spraying into the air. Fig 8-6 shows the end caps on the
water pipe.

Fig 8-6
If there are end caps on the water pipe and the pump is still working then the pressure
inside the pipes will be higher on one side then the other. This relation is also true of the battery.
If the battery still works then there will still be more electrons on one side then the other. If you
now take a voltmeter and measure the voltage across the open part of the circuit you will find
that one side is negative and the other is positive. The difference is equal to the battery voltage.
If the battery is 12 volts then you will measure 12 volts on your voltmeter. This is because the
entire electrical potential is now applied at the open in the circuit. The same is true of the water
pipes. If you take a pressure meter and measure the pressure across the open you will find that
one side is high pressure and one side is low pressure. If the pressure produced by the pump is
12psi then you will measure 12psi on your pressure meter. This is because the pump sucks water
on one side and pushes it out the other therefore the entire system pressure is seen at the open.

Short circuit conditions

Fig 8-7

What happens if there was a short circuit? A short circuit means that a piece of wire fell
onto our circuit and connect two points that were not supposed to be connected to each other.
Short circuits are shown in fig 8-7.
When the circuit is shorted all the current instead of traveling around and through the
bottom resistor will now travel through the short circuit and into the upper resistor. The short
circuit acts like a resistor with zero ohms or zero resistance. It is easier for current to flow
through this path then the path of the lower resistor. The voltage across the upper resistor is
therefore equal to the voltage of the battery.
When the piping system is shorted all the water instead of traveling around the lower
valve will travel through the short into the upper valve because it is easier. The pressure across
the upper valve must then be equal to the pressure generated by the pump. It is interesting to
note that there still remain pressure near the lower valve but since the pressure at both ends of the
valve are equal, no pressure difference is across the valve and the pressure meter reads 0psi.

Chapter 9
DC and AC Generators
DC Generators
A DC generator is a device that can produce constant voltage between two terminals.
Real DC generators have other complexities. For example lets take a 1.5V battery and place a
load of 1K ohms across the terminals as shown in fig 9-1A. If you measured the current it will
read 1.46mA and the voltage across the resistor is equal to 1.5V. We then replace the 1K ohms
resistor with a 100 ohms resistor as shown in fig 9-1B. Now the current increases to 12mA and
the voltage drop across R1 is 1.2 volts. What happened? According to our calculations the
current should be 15mA while R1 drops 1.5 volts. We lost 2mA! Can you figure out why?
We decide to try one more thing before jumping to conclusions. We take out the 100
ohms resistor and replace that with a 10 ohms resistor as shown in 10-1C. Now the ammeter
reads 43mA instead of 150mA! Not only that the voltage across the 10 ohms resistor is only
0.43V. This is less than the source voltage! We seem to lose more current and more voltage
across our resistor when we lower the resistance! What is causing all this?

Fig 9-1A

Fig 9-1B

Fig 9-1C
If you take a look at fig 9-1C you might have noticed rG in series with Vs. This small
resistance is present in all DC generators. We cannot see this resistance because it is inside the
generator itself. This internal generator resistance is in series with our external resistor. This
means that the total resistance is equal to the internal generator resistance plus our external
resistance.

Rtotal = rG + R1

This explains why we were seeing all those weird things when we replaced R1 with a lower
resistance.

Maximum power transfer

Because all DC generators have internal resistance the maximum power is transferred to
a load when the load resistance R1 is equal to the internal generator resistance rG. The formula
P =V I

was used to generate the graph shown in fig 9-2 by varying R1 and measuring the current and
voltage through the circuit. The peak of the graph is when R1 = 25 ohms.

Fig 9-2
AC Generators
AC generators do not have constant voltage outputs. AC generators produce a sine wave
output voltage. A sine wave voltage goes up and down as shown in fig 9-3.

AC

W AV E FO R M

VOLTS

10
5
0
-5
-1 0

17

25

33

41

T IM E ( m S )
Fig 9-3

49

57

The voltage starts at zero then rapidly reaches five volts, then comes back down to zero
and soon reaches negative five volts. Having a negative voltage may seem strange but we can
clarify this point.

Fig 9-4A

Fig 9-4B

Figs. 9-4 shows a battery being tested in opposite directions. When you test a battery you
place the red test probe on the positive side of the battery and the black test probe on the negative
side. However if you reverse the battery by placing the red probe on the negative side and the
black probe on the positive side you will get a negative voltage reading as in 10-4B. This is
exactly what happens in an AC generator. AC generators alternate between positive and
negative cycles in a given amount of time. The amount of time it takes to complete one cycle is
known as a period. Fig 9-5A has a period of 1 second and a frequency of 1 Hz (one hertz).

1Hz

Fig 9-5A

2Hz

Fig 9-5B

3Hz

Fig 9-5C

1 Hz means one cycle per second. A cycle can also be described as up, down, down, up, as
shown in the picture of fig 9-5A. If two cycles happen in one second as in fig 9-5B then it is
2Hz. If 3 cycles happen in one second then it is 3Hz. The current in an AC generator will also
follow the voltage. The current will flow in one direction during the positive half cycle then in
the opposite direction in the negative half cycle.

The AC + DC Generator
Circuit voltages often are a combination of AC and DC. In fig 9-6A we have a pure DC
voltage at +5V. When we superimpose the AC voltage in 10-6B onto the DC voltage we get a
combined voltage that looks like the one in 10-6C. The AC voltage shifts upwards by +5 volts.

Fig 9-6A

Fig 9-6B

Fig 9-6C

Chapter 10
Batteries
A battery is a DC generator because it provides EMF through chemical reactions. When
the power inside the battery is gone it is considered "dead" and is replaced. Any DC generator
can be considered dead if it can no longer produce usable EMF. Let's look at how a battery
produces EMF or voltage.

Batteries
A battery contains two metal electrodes. One metal electrode is called the positive side
and the other electrode the negative side. Chemical reaction inside the cell causes electrons to
flow towards the negative electrode leaving the positive electrode with very few electrons. Since
one side becomes more negative and the other is depleted of electrons an electrical potential
exists. When one side of the battery is more negative than the other, the other is considered
positive. This is where the terms positive and negative come from. It is used to describe which
side is more positive and which side is more negative. In actuality both sides are negative and
both sides are also positive. The reason why we say one side is positive and one side is negative
is because there are more electrons on one side than the other. Electrical potential is relative.
Just because one side is positive does not mean that is has no electrons. When we say something
is positive it means that it has fewer electrons in reference to something that has more.
You can think of electrical potential as five people
standing on a stairway. The person on the lowest step is
lower than the person on the second step, but the person on
the second step is lower than the person on the third step,
and so on. The person on the third step is lower than the
person on the fourth step, but it is still higher than the
person on the seconds and first steps; therefore, if there was
a person on every step and the only difference is where they
are located in relation to each other then we say they are
standing relative to each other. Electrical potential or
voltage works the same way. The position or concentration of electrons in certain areas of the
battery makes that area more negative than other areas around the battery. The EMF or voltage a
battery can produce depends partly on how concentrated this negative region is. The more
electrons that are concentrated in one area the higher the electrical potential is compared to other
areas. Thus the greater the electron concentration difference between two points the higher the
voltage.
When a resistive load is placed across the battery terminals current begins to flow in the
circuit from the negative side through the resistor to the positive side of the battery. When this
happens the negative side of the battery loses electrons. The negative terminal of the battery will
become more positive while the positive terminal is becoming more negative. If this continues
the voltage across the battery will begins to drop because there is less electron concentration
difference between the positive and negative sides of the battery. Another way of seeing is to
imagine we have a 12V battery. Current begins to flow from the negative side to the positive
side of the battery. Since electrons in the negative terminal is slowly drifting to the positive

terminal then the two terminals will soon have the same amount of electrons and the electrical
potential or voltage will disappear. When zero volts is across the battery, the battery is dead.
But batteries were designed so that this would not happen. The chemical reactions taking place
in the battery try to bring electrons back to the negative side. Every time an electron appears at
the positive terminal the chemical reactions inside the battery brings it back to the negative
terminal so that it will travel around the external circuit again. So when a battery is dead it also
implies that the chemical reactions are dead. These chemicals dry out over time and as the
battery gets older and older the chemical loses its ability to react with each other.
Heat buildup can end battery life. When a resistor is
placed across the battery it limits current flowing through
the circuit. It takes time for chemical reactions to carry
electrons from the positive to negative side. The electrons
entering the positive side must not exceed the time it takes
the chemical reactions to remove that electron and carry it
over to the negative terminal. If we did not have a resistor
across the battery terminals and used a straight piece of wire
the electrons will flow out of the negative terminal in an
unlimited quantity because there is no resistance in the wire.
A great amount of electrons will flow through the wire. The flow of electrons through the wire
will heat the wire causing it to burn. As the electrons enter the positive terminal the chemical
reactions cannot keep up with the electrons rushing in. The voltage across the terminals will
drop dramatically. It will go to zero. If this process continues the battery will get hot. When the
battery gets hot gases inside the battery will expand. When the gases expand it bursts through
the battery and the battery is destroyed.

Measuring DC Generators
When measuring battery voltage expect to get a constant number
on the voltmeter. You can also use an oscilloscope to measure voltage
from the battery. There should be a horizontal bar across the graticule
(screen). Your DC power supply is also a DC generator just like the
battery. It does not work the same way as the battery but its main
function is the same. Like all DC generators it must be able to maintain a
constant potential difference between the two output terminals. You can
also test the output of your DC supply with a voltmeter or oscilloscope.
Another kind of voltage is called AC voltage or alternating
current voltage. AC current moves back and fourth causing voltage to
move up and down. The voltage from your house is AC voltage.

Chapter 11
Resistors
A resistor limits the amount of current flowing in circuits. Suppose we have the circuit
shown in fig 11-1 and we want to find the value of R1. We need to use Ohms Law.
R1 =

10Vdc
= 10
1A

There is 10 ohms of resistance in the circuit. Without this

resistance the current will be infinite.

Color codes
Resistors are color coded. The code is printed as stripes
on the body of the resistor. Each stripe has a color that represents
a number. The first two stripes are numbers. The third stripe is
Fig 11-1
the number of zeroes following the first two numbers. The fourth
stripe is the tolerance band. It specifies how accurate the resistance of the resistor is from the
displayed value. For example if the fourth stripe on a 100 ohm resistor is gold then the
resistance is accurate to within 5% which means it can vary from 95 to 105 ohms.
BLACK
BROWN
RED
ORANGE
YELLOW
GREEN
BLUE
VIOLET
GRAY
WHITE

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

GOLD
- 5%
SILVER
- 10%
NO COLOR - 20%

Fig 11-2
Power rating
Refer to fig 11-3. When current flows through a resistor it causes heat. If the heat is not
dissipated the resistor will burn. Some resistors have a metal heat sink that helps dissipate
thermal energy, but the most common method is to let the heat go into the air. In electronic
designs the amount of heat or power rating of a resistor must be chosen carefully. The power
rating of the resistor should be at least 30% higher then the handling power expected by the
resistor.

P = I E = 1A 10v = 10 watts

Fig 11-3
Resistors in series
Putting resistors in series means that we string the resistors together to form a chain of
resistance as shown in fig 11-4A. When they are in series the total resistance is equal to the
sum of all resistances.
Rtotal = R1 + R 2 + R3 + R 4 + R5 = 170

The circuit in fig 11-4B is equivalent to fig 11-4A. We can now find the total current.

I total =

Vs
Vs
=
= 58.8mA
Rtotal R1 + R 2 + R3 + R 4 + R5
R3

R4

R5

50 ohm

70 ohm

10 ohm

R2
30 ohm

R1
10 ohm
Vs

10Vdc

Fig 11-4A

Fig 11-4B

Looking back at fig 11-4A. To calculate the voltage drop across a resistor we take the
resistor and divide its resistance by the total resistance of the circuit and multiply that by the
source voltage.

R1
VS
R1 + R 2 + R3 + R 4 + R5
R2
=
VS
R1 + R 2 + R3 + R 4 + R5
R3
=
VS
R1 + R 2 + R3 + R 4 + R5
R4
=
VS
R1 + R 2 + R3 + R 4 + R5
R5
=
VS
R1 + R 2 + R3 + R 4 + R5

VR1 =

= 0.6V

VR 2

= 1.7V

VR 3
VR 4
VR 5

= 2.9V
= 4.1V
= 0.7V

We see that the sum off all the voltage drops still equal 10 volts.
VR1 + VR 2 + VR 3 + VR 4 + VR 5 = 10V
Another way to find the voltage drop across a resistor is to take the total current and multiply that
by the resistance.
V R1 = 58.8mA * 10 = 0.6V
V R 2 = 58.8mA * 30 = 1.7V
V R 3 = 58.8mA * 50 = 2.9V
V R 4 = 58.8mA * 70 = 4.1V
V R 5 = 58.8mA * 10 = 0.7V
Now we can calculate the power dissipation of each resistor.
PR1 = I V R1 = 58.8mA 0.6V = 35.28mW
PR 2 = I V R 2 = 58.8mA 1.7V = 99.96mW
PR 3 = I V R 3 = 58.8mA 2.9V = 170.52mW
PR 4 = I V R 4 = 58.8mA 4.1V = 241.08mW
PR 5 = I V R 5 = 58.8mA 0.7V = 41.16mW
We then sum up all the power dissipation from each resistor to get the total power dissipation.
Ptotal = PR1 + PR 2 + PR 3 + PR 4 + PR 5 = 588mW
Another way to get Ptotal is to multiply the total current by the total voltage or Vs.
Ptotal = I VS = 58.8mA 10V = 588mW

Resistors in Parallel
When resistors are in parallel there are more paths for current to flow. This causes the
total current to increase. For example look at fig 11-5A. A single 10 ohms resistor will give us

0.5A. In fig 11-5B a 10 ohms resistor in parallel with a 30 ohms resistor increases the current by
0.17A. In fig 11-5C a third 20 ohms resistor is in parallel and the total current is 0.91A.

Fig 11-5A

Fig 11-5B

Fig 11-5C

Two formulas for calculating series and parallel resistors are,

SERIES:
Rtotal = R1 + R2

PARALLEL:
R R2
1
Rtotal = 1
or Rtotal =
1
1
1
1
R1 + R2
+
+
+ ... +
R1 R2 R3
Rn

The second equation used in the parallel calculation above is the universal method of finding an
unlimited number of resistances in parallel.

Resistors in series and parallel

Fig 11-6
All circuit configurations in fig 11-6 are exactly the same circuit. It only looks different
because it is drawn differently. The electron current starts at the negative terminal of the voltage
source. It travels to the negative side of R1 and out the positive side of R1 where it encounters a
yoke in the road. The current will split into two currents, one flowing through R2, and the
other flowing into R3. After it leaves R2 and R3 it will again combine together at the other end
and continue towards the positive side of the battery.

Calculations in series parallel circuit

One of the most challenging things to do is to simplify a series parallel circuit for
analysis. We begin by simplify a small series-parallel circuit as an example. Refer to figs. 11-7
for this discussion.
1. We first find the equivalent parallel resistance for R2 and R3. We will call this resistance Rp.

RP =

R2 R3
R2 + R3

R1

Vs

R1

R2

R3

Fig 11-7A

Vs

Rp

Fig 11-7B

2. Next we find Rt from R1 and Rp in fig 11-7B.

Rt = R1 + Rp

Vs

Rt

Fig 11-7C
3. You may verify that the circuit in fig 11-7C is equivalent to the circuit in fig 11-7A by
measuring the total current flowing through both circuits. Rt is the equivalent total circuit
resistance of the series-parallel connected R1, R2 and R3. You may also plug in some numbers
and do the math to see that they are indeed equal.

Voltage and Current Relationships

When the voltage increases the current increases proportionately in a resistor as shown in
fig 11-8A. If the resistance is low then the current increase very fast in fig 11-8B. If the
resistance is high the current increases slowly in fig 11-8C.

Fig 11-8A

Fig 11-8B

Fig 11-8C

Chapter 12
Capacitors
A capacitor stores electric charge between two plates. When a battery is connected
electrons will flow from the battery to one of the plates of the capacitor making one side of the
capacitor negative and the other side positive as shown in fig 12-1A. The electrons on the
negative plate want to jump to the positive plate but they cannot because the two plates are not
connected. The air between the plates serves as an insulator. The space between the two plates
of a capacitor is sometimes made by different material. The substance
between the plates is called a dielectric. The dielectric determines how
much voltage can safely be applied to the plates without harming the
capacitor. A dielectric can be anything. It can be paper, glass, plastic, or
even nothing at all like a vacuum. The dielectric in our example is made
of air. Air has a dielectric strength of 20,000 volts per inch. This means
if the plates are one inch apart and the battery is 20,000 volts then the
dielectric will break down and electrons from one plate will jump across
Fig 12-1A
the air gap entering the other plate. The table below lists the dielectric
strengths of some common materials:

Material

kilo Volts / in

Material

kilo Volts / in

Air or vacuum
Bakelite
Fiber
Glass
Mica
Paper
Paraffin oil

20
300-550
150-180
335-2000
600-1500
1250
380

Paraffin wax
Phenol, molded
Polystyrene
Porcelain
Rubber, hard
Shellac

200-300
300-700
500-760
40-150
450
900

Fig 12-1B

Fig 12-1C

Fig 12-1D

Referring back to our discussion, when we apply a voltage to the capacitor one side
becomes negative the other positive. The electrons cannot pass to the other side thereby creating
an electric field between the two plates as shown in fig 12-1B. Although we cannot see the
electric field it exists wherever there are charges. The lines of the electric field always points
from the positive charge to the negative charge. The arrows represent the electric field in fig 121B. We know that there exists an electric field by removing the battery as shown in fig 12-1C
and 11-1D. One side of the capacitor remains negative and the other remains positive even
though the battery has been removed. The voltage across the capacitor in fig 12-1C and D is
equal to the voltage of the battery after it is removed.

In fig 12-2 we take a small wire and short the two sides of the capacitor. Electrons on the
negative place diffuse through the short and neutralizes the holes on the positive plate. Holes on
the positive plate also diffuse through the short and neutralize the electrons on the negative plate.
When both sides have neutralized each other the capacitor is discharged. The electric field is
gone and the electrons are equal on both sides, thus the voltage across the capacitor is zero.

Fig 12-2
Experiment with Capacitors
First we charge a capacitor up to 10 volts as shown in fig 12-3A. Set your DC power
supply to 10V. Connect the red or positive clamp to the positive side of the capacitor. Next take
the negative or black clamp and connect it to the negative side of the capacitor. Some
electrolytic capacitors have a black stripe on the side to indicate which electrode is the negative
electrode. Wait about one second while the capacitor charges then remove both clamps leaving
the capacitor to stand by itself as in fig 12-3B.

Fig 12-3A

Fig 12-3B

Test to see how much voltage is across the capacitor by using your voltmeter as shown in
fig 12-3C. The reading should indicate approximately 10 volts and you may even notice that the
voltage is dropping. The reason that the capacitor does not retain exactly 10 volts is because of
leakage currents inside the capacitor. These leakage currents are charges moving from the
negative side of the capacitor to the positive side. Over time the capacitor will discharge all by
itself due to these leakage currents. It would be nice if we lived in a perfect world but
unfortunately we don't. Even capacitors are not perfect. Next remove your voltmeter and take a
piece of wire as shown in fig 12-3D. Short both terminals of the capacitor. There should be a
slight spark when you short both sides of the capacitor. If you now test the voltage across the
capacitor it should read approximately zero. Besides becoming discharged due to leakage
currents a capacitors can also build up static electricity and become slightly charged.

Fig 12-3C

Fig 12-3E

Fig 12-3D

Fig 12-3F

The voltage across a capacitor may be small but it is not zero. The voltage across a very
large capacitor is small but it can discharge large amounts of current and is very dangerous. This
is why some large capacitors are stored with their terminals shorted as shown in fig 12-3E. The
charging time of a capacitor to reach steady state is usually very short if you connect the DC
voltage supply directly across its terminals as shown in fig 12-3F. The voltage quickly goes high
and levels off once it has reached the supply voltage.
The larger the capacitor the more charge it can hold and the longer the charging time.
The amount of charge stored in a capacitor is expressed in coulombs but the capacitance is rated
in Farads. The larger the capacitance the more charge it can store.

Farads and Capacitance

Capacitance is expressed in farads. The relative r depend on the dielectric material
between the plates. For example if the dielectric is air then the capacitance will be small. If the
dielectric is paper then the capacitance will be larger because paper has a larger relative
permittivity r.
C = Farad =

0 r A
d

Where: is the permittivity of free space (a vacuum)

r is the relative permittivity
A is the area between each plate
d is the distance between the plates

Farads and coulombs

We can also find the capacitance if we know the total charge deposited on the plates
given an applied voltage.
C=

Qtotal
Vapplied

Where: Q is in Coulombs

In fig 12-4 you can have a small capacitor with the same capacitance as a large capacitor.
For example they both are 1000uF but the larger capacitor will have a larger breakdown voltage.
This is because the plates of the larger capacitor are farther apart.

Fig 12-4
Small sized capacitors can have large capacitances because the distance between the plates is
small. When the distance between the plates are small then the dielectric breakdown voltage is
also small, therefore the voltage rating of small capacitors is also small.

Capacitors in series
Suppose we have the circuit shown in fig 12-5A. To calculate the total capacitance of
this series capacitive circuit we use the following formula:

C total =

1
1
1
1
+
+
100uF 1000uF 25uF

When capacitors are in series the total capacitance is lowered because each capacitor increases
the overall distance between the plates as shown in fig 12-5B.

C1=100uF

Vs=10V

C2=1000uF

C3=25uF

Fig 12-5A

Fig 12-5B

Capacitors in parallel
When capacitors are connected in parallel we sum all the capacitances to find the total
capacitance of the circuit.
C total = C1 + C 2 + C 3
See figs. 12-6. The reason why the capacitances are added is because capacitors in parallel
increase the total surface area. Increasing the surface area means that the total capacitance must
increase.

Vs=10V

C1=100uF

C2=1000uF

Fig 12-6A

C3=25uF

Fig 12-6B

Voltage and Current Relationships

Fig 12-7A

Fig 12-7B

Fig 12-7C

Fig 12-7D

When switch S is closed in fig 12-7A the capacitor charges rapidly and there is a large
surge of electrons or current into the capacitor. As the capacitor begins to fill with electrons less
and less current will flow into the capacitor until current stops flowing. When the current
decreases the voltage must increase across the capacitor as shown in fig 12-7B. The capacitor is
like a variable resistor. The resistance will be very low and rapidly increase as the capacitor is
charged. If we then discharge the capacitor in fig 12-7C the voltage and current will drop to
zero. The discharge current can be very high even though the voltage across the capacitor is
small as shown in fig 12-7D. This current is limited only because of the resistance in the wires
itself.

Chapter 13
Inductors
In this chapter we discuss inductors by contrasting its characteristics with capacitors. An
inductor is a coil of wire like the one shown in figs. 13-1.

Fig 13-1A

Fig 13-1B

When current flows through an inductor a magnetic field surrounds the inductor. When
the current stops or when we remove the battery the magnetic field collapses. We will consider
electrons flowing from the negative to positive side. If the current flows away from us as in fig
13-2A then the magnetic field around the wire goes in the counterclockwise position. When the
electrons are flowing towards us as in fig 13-2B then the magnetic field around the wire is in the
clockwise position. The magnetic field around the wire goes into space. We cannot see the
magnetic field with our eye. This magnetic field is always present when there is current. When
current stops the magnetic field disappears.

Fig 13-2A

Fig 13-2B

The magnetic field is not always a circle. Fig 13-3A shows the field due to a wire. When
the wire is looped the magnetic field takes the shape of fig 13-3B. The magnetic field changes
into this shape because the turns of the coil are very tight and the only path for the field to take is
to go around all of them.

Fig 13-3A

Fig 13-3B

Fig 13-3C

Inductive behavior
Inductance is a measure of the ability for an inductor to resist the change in current.
Consider the circuit in fig 13-4A. When the switch is closed current flows through the inductor
creating a magnetic field as shown in fig 13-4B. When this current began to flow it does not
reach the maximum stable current immediately. If the inductor has a high inductance rating it
will take longer for this current to reach the maximum stable current. The maximum stable
current is shown in fig 13-4C.

Fig 13-4A

Fig 13-4B

Fig 13-4C

Once the current reaches maximum the magnetic field will

remain fixed. If the switch suddenly opens then the current will
stop flowing almost immediately and the magnetic field collapses
into the inductor as shown in fig 13-4D. Once the magnetic field
collapses the current and voltage is zero.

Fig 13-4D

Definition of inductance

Inductance is the ability for a coil to oppose changes in current. The Henry (H) is a
measure of inductance that allows one volt to be induced when the current changes at a rate of
one ampere per second.

Fig 13-5

Example:
VL = L

i
1A
= 1H
= 1volt
t
1s

The induced voltage is in a direction that prevents the current from changing further. It is like
inertia. Once there is current flowing the inductance automatically tries to keep the current from
changing by inducing this voltage whenever the current tries to change.

Physical construction
In fig 13-6 an inductor coil is wrapped around a magnetic core that concentrates more
magnetic flux and raises the inductance of the coil. Magnetic flux is the lines of the magnetic
field. The core material determines the value of r. Soft iron cores have a high value for r and
increases inductance. By increasing the number of turns N the inductance is quadrupled as
indicated in the formula below. By having large loops instead of small loops you increase
inductance. When the inductor is stretched lengthwise the inductance decreases because the
turns are farther apart and the magnetic flux will not be concentrated.

Fig 13-6
Inductors in Series
When inductors are placed in series as shown in fig 13-7A we can imagine that it is one
large inductor by added the inductances together as shown in fig 13-97.
Ltotal = L1 + L2 + L3
1
L1
1
2

1
L2
Vs

L(total)

1
2

Vs
L3

2
2

Fig 13-7A

Fig 13-7B

Inductors in Parallel
Inductors in parallel are shown in fig 13-8. The total inductance decreases because there
are more paths for current to flow.
Ltotal =

1
1
1
1
+
+
L1 L2 L3
1

1
L1

1
L2

1
L3

Vs

L(total)
Vs

Fig 13-8
Voltage and Current Relationships
Like the capacitor an inductor goes through similar transient responses. When the switch
is closed in fig 13-9A the current does not flow immediately instead the current builds up slowly
as shown in the graph of fig 13-9B. The reason why the current builds up slowly is because of
the inductance of the coil. If the coil has a high inductance rating such as 1 Henry then current
will increase even slower. The voltage across an inductor is equal to the Vs immediately after
the switch is closed. An inductor is like a slowly decreasing resistor. As the resistor decreases
and allows more current to flow less voltage is seen across the inductor until the voltage is zero
and the current has reached its maximum.

Fig 13-9A

Fig 13-9B

Fig 13-9C

If we allow time for the current to reach maximum then the magnetic field will become stable.
What if we now suddenly open the switch? The magnetic field will begin to collapse into the
inductor. This collapsing magnetic field causes a voltage spike many times larger than the
source voltage. This voltage spike is in a direction that tries to keep the current flow. What this
means is when the current suddenly stops flowing the collapsing magnetic field tries to induce a
voltage in the coil to try and keep the current flowing again. This voltage spike only last for a
very small fraction of time until the magnetic field is completely collapsed inside the coil and no
more current or voltage is across the coil. The graph of voltage and current after opening the
switch is shown in fig 13-9C. The sharp rise in voltage is called an inductive kick or voltage
spike.

Chapter 14
DC vs AC Behavior
Resistors at DC
Fig 14-1 shows a battery pushing electrons through a 1k load. If we measure the voltage
across this resistor on an oscilloscope the trace will be a straight line.

Fig 14-1
Resistors at AC
Use your function generator for this experiment. Connect the circuit as shown in fig 142A. Use an oscilloscope to measure the voltage drop across the resistor. You should see a
smooth sinusoidal trace. This is the voltage across the resistor. The current through a resistor is
always in phase with the voltage as shown in 14-2B. The arrows indicate the direction of the
current and voltage. They are pointing in the same direction.

Fig 14-2A

Fig 14-2B

If the current and voltage is measured simultaneously on the same graph then the graph
will look like the one shown in fig 14-2C. The voltage of the resistor always follows its current.

Fig 14-2C
Inductors at DC
Use the power supply for this experiment. Connect the circuit shown in fig 14-3 and
measure the voltage across the coil. If the coil has almost zero ohms of resistance in its windings
then you will measure zero volts across the coil because the coil will not drop voltage. Even
though the coil has no voltage or very little voltage is dropped across the coil current is still
flowing through the coil and a magnetic field has already established. The current is flowing in
one direction.

Fig 14-3
Inductors at AC
Connect the circuit shown in fig 14-4A. The current flowing in this circuit must go
through the resistor then the inductor. The current flowing through the resistor and inductor are
the same. However the inductance of the inductor will cause the voltage across the inductor to
be 90 degrees out of phase with its current as shown in fig 14-4C. This happens because the
inductance opposes changes in current by generating a voltage in the opposite direction,
therefore the voltage leads the current. The voltage across the resistor will be in phase with its
current as usual. Fig 14-4B shows this relationship.

Fig 14-4A

Fig 14-4B

Fig 14-4C
Capacitors at DC

Connect the circuit as shown in fig 14-5 and measure the capacitor voltage. The voltage
should be 9 volts. The current after some time will be zero.

Fig 14-5
Capacitors at AC
Connect the circuit shown in fig 14-6A. The AC current must pass through the resistor
and capacitor. It is strange to say that current can pass through a capacitor when the capacitor
looks like an open circuit. To DC voltages a capacitor is an open circuit and the current will
eventually go to zero after the capacitor is fully charged. However AC voltages reverse
directions and charge the capacitor in one direction then the other direction. The capacitor is
never fully charged because the AC voltage will reverse directions and try to charge the
capacitor the other way, therefore the AC current never goes to zero. The voltage across the
resistor is again in phase with its current as shown in fig 14-6B. The voltage across the capacitor
will not be in phase with its current. Since capacitors allow current to flow unrestricted when it
first charges the current always leads the voltage in a capacitor as shown in fig 14-6C.

Fig 14-6A

Fig 14-6B

Fig 14-6C

Resistor, inductor and capacitors at DC

Fig 14-7
Fig 14-7 shows a nine volts battery connected across a series RLC circuit. The total
current after some time will be zero and the voltage across the capacitor will be 9 volts. There
will be no voltage across the resistor or inductor because the capacitor is like an open circuit.

Resistor, inductor and capacitor at AC

Fig 14-8A shows all three types of discrete components in series with a function
generator. The voltage and current relationships are very similar to that previously described. In
a series circuit the current must go through all circuit components, therefore the current through
the resistor, capacitor and inductor are in the same direction. However because of the inductive
and capacitive effects of the inductor and capacitor the voltages across these two components
will lead and lag its current as shown in fig 14-8C.

Fig 14-8A

Fig 14-8B

Fig 14-8C

Chapter 15
Transformers
Basic Construction
Fig 15-2 shows what typical transformers look like. Two wires are wrapped around a
magnetic core as shown in fig 15-1. There are four wires sticking out of a transformer.
Sometimes a transformer has many more wires sticking out. This is because there are three or
more windings. The simplest transformer has only two windings and four legs sticking out. The
primary winding is the input side of the transformer and the secondary winding is the output
side.

Fig 15-1

Fig 15-2
How it works

Fig 15-3 shows the magnetic flux linking the two windings of the transformer. This
magnetic flux expands and cuts through the secondary windings producing the secondary voltage
measured across the secondary side of the transformer. The transformer will only work with AC
voltages. If you apply a DC voltage you will only heat the transformer but no voltage will be
present at the output.

Fig 15-3A

Fig 15-3B

The reason why transformers do not work with DC (direct current) is because DC produces
magnetic flux lines that are static. Static flux lines are constant and do not change with time.
Since voltages can only be induced in the secondary coil if the flux changes there will be no
voltage at the secondary side.

Turns Ratio
The turns ratio is defined as the number of primary windings to the number of secondary
windings.
T=

Ns
Np

Where: Ns is the number of turns in the secondary

Np is the number of turns in the primary

Coupling coefficient
A transformer with an air core will not have a high inductance and the magnetic flux will
not be concentrated. If the flux is not concentrated then less will be available to induce a voltage
at the secondary side or output side. The coupling coefficient c is a measure of how well the
flux in the primary side couples the secondary side. c is in the range of 0 to 1. If c is 0 then
the flux generated by the alternating current is not reaching the secondary side. The voltage
across the secondary side is zero. If c is equal to 1 then all the flux is coupled to the secondary
side and the voltage across the secondary is equal to the voltage across the primary side. We are
assuming the transformer turns ratio is 1. The equation to calculate output voltage vs. input
voltage is:
Vout = T * Vin
A magnetic core can have a donut shape as shown in fig 15-3B or it can be a single rod
with the primary and secondary windings as in figs 15-4. Soft iron is often used as core material
because it has great magnetic characteristics. It concentrates magnetic flux well and thus a
coupling coefficient close to 1 or unity.

Fig 15-4A

Fig 15-4B

Step up transformers
A step up transformer will have more turns in the secondary winding therefore will have
an output voltage greater then the input voltage.
Vout = T * Vin

Step down transformers

A step down transformer has less number of turns in the secondary than the
primary and will have an output voltage that is lower than the input voltage.
Vout = T * Vin

Chapter 16
Diodes
Diode physics
Diodes are made of a P-type and N-type semiconductor material that are fused together as
shown in fig 16-1. The N-type material contains excess electrons while the P-type material is
deficient in electrons. The P-type material contains excess holes. Immediately after the
materials are fused together electrons in the N-type material diffuse over to the P-type material to
fill the holes. These electrons that leave the N-type material also leave behind a hole as shown in
fig 16-2.

Fig 16-1

Fig 16-2

Why doesnt all the electrons in the N-type material go and fill all the holes on the other
side? There comes a point when the electrons that diffuse over to the P-type material begin to
get attracted to the positive charges they left behind in the N-type material. When this
equilibrium point is reached diffusion of electron and hole charges will cease to continue. The
region where the electrons have settled in the P-type material and the region where the holes
have been left behind in the N-type material are taken together and called the depletion region as
shown in fig 16-3. The depletion region is very thin. Inside this depletion region we have one
side where there are more electrons and the other more holes. This condition is analogous to
having a small battery inside the diode as seen in fig 16-5. Typically this hypothetical battery
has a voltage of 0.7 volts.

Fig 16-3

Fig 16-4

Forward bias condition

A diode allows current to flow in one direction and not the other. To start a diode into
conduction the diode must be forward biased. The negative side of a battery is connected to the
N-type material and positive to the P-type material as shown in fig 16-5A. The negative side of
the battery supplies electrons and repels free electrons inside the N-type material into the
depletion region. Electrons entering the depletion region will cross the depletion region and go
on to the other side. At the same time the positive side of the battery is attracting the negative
electrons from the depletion region. This process continues as long as the battery is connected as
shown. Electrons will flow from the negative side of the battery through the diode and back to
the positive side. Holes from the positive side of the battery will travel through the diode and
recombine with electrons coming from the negative side of the battery. Thus there are two
currents flowing in a diode. One is electron current and the other hole current. Hole current is
known as conventional current.

Fig 16-5A

Fig 16-5B

Fig 16-5C

To complete the picture we must include the junction breakover voltage or the voltage of
the hypothetical battery inside the diode. Fig 16-5B shows the schematic symbol of the diode.
Diodes have a junction breakover voltage of 0.7 volts. Until the external applied voltage is
larger than the breakover voltage very little current flows through the diode. Once the applied
voltage is greater than the breakover voltage a large amount of current is allowed to flow as
shown in the graph of fig 16-5C. If no resistance is in series with the diode then an infinite
amount of current passes through the diode. This generates too much heat and the diode will be
destroyed.

Reverse bias condition

Fig 16-6A

Fig 16-6B

Refer to fig 16-6A. Under reverse bias conditions the negative side of a battery is
connected to the P-type material and the positive is connected to the N-type material. The free
electrons in the N-type material are attracted to the holes in the battery widening the left side of
the depletion region. The holes in the P-type material are attracted to the electrons in the battery
widening the right side of the depletion region. As both sides of the depletion region widen the
built in junction potential, junction voltage or breakover voltage increases as shown in fig 16-6B.
This makes it hard for current to flow so no current flows.

Fig 16-6C
If the reverse bias voltage is small then no current will flow. When the reverse bias is very large
then something amazing happens. The diode instead of preventing current flow allows an
unlimited amount of current to flow in reverse as shown in fig 16-6C. This is known as the zener
breakover voltage. Typically the zener voltage is very large so you will not need to worry too
much about it in typical applications.

Diodes at AC
The amazing ability to rectify current is utilized extensively in AC circuits. One example
is shown in fig 16-11. The voltage across the diode is a chopped AC waveform. Can you see
why the output has been chopped? Use an oscilloscope to measure the voltage across the diode.

Fig 16-11
During the positive half cycle the diode is in cutoff and no current is allowed to pass.
Cutoff is when the diode is not conducting or in reverse bias. In this state the diode acts like an
open or an infinite resistance, therefore all the voltage gets dropped across the diode. On the
negative half cycle the diode is forward biased and begins to conduct. In this state the diode has
very low resistance. The voltage across the diode is a constant 0.7 volts. Since the resistance of
the diode is virtually zero no voltage is dropped across the diode and the output waveform is
chopped off.

Chapter 17
Transistors
Just about every practical electronic circuit contains a transistor. A transistor is a device
that amplifies incoming signals by making it more powerful. A transistor can also be used to
attenuate or make the incoming signal weaker. We will discuss how to use a transistor and how
it is connected to amplify signals.

Fig 17-1
What Does A Transistor Look Like?
A transistor is housed in different packages as shown in fig 17-1. A transistor contains
three terminals that come out of a little black body. Each terminal has a designated function.
One is called B for base, E for emitter and C for collector. The size of the transistor gives us an
idea of how much power the transistor can handle. The larger the transistor the more power it
can handle. There are two types of transistors -- NPN and PNP. The schematic symbol for a
transistor is shown in fig 17-2. The NPN transistor has an arrow pointing from the base to the
emitter. The PNP transistor has an arrow pointing from the emitter to the base. In this chapter
we will focus on the NPN transistor because it is easiest to understand. You can always use a
PNP transistor in place of a NPN transistor by simply changing the circuit configuration.

Fig 17-2
Device physics
A NPN transistor is made of a P-type material sandwiched between two N-type materials
as shown in fig 17-3. Because there are two PN junctions there exists two depletion regions and
thus two diodes in a transistor as shown in fig 17-4.

Fig 17-3

Fig 17-4

Voltage terms
Fig 17-5 shows the name of various voltages around a transistor that is used frequently to
describe transistors.

Fig 17-5
Saturation
A transistor hooked up as shown in fig 17-6 is in
the common emitter configuration. When the base emitter
diode is forward biased, electrons in the lower N-type
material will enter the depletion region into the base
region. The depletion regions are very thin and a large
electric field is already across the upper and lower N-type
materials. Some of the electrons will travel out of the
base and back to the 1V battery. Most will become swept
by the large electric field of the 12V battery and travel
through the collector. The resistor at the collector
terminal is to limit the current. Both the 1V battery and

Fig 17-6

the 12V battery will supply electrons at the emitter. In this condition the transistor is saturated
because the maximum amount of current is flowing from emitter to the collector.

Cutoff
At cutoff no current is allowed to flow from
emitter to collector. Connect the circuit as shown in fig
17-7 by connecting the base to the emitter. When the base
is at zero volts the base emitter diode is at cutoff and no
current flows through this diode. If no current flows
through this diode then no electrons are allowed to enter
the depletion region and there are no currents from emitter
to collector.

Active
The transistor is in the active mode when it is
Fig 17-7
operating between cutoff and saturation. In the active
mode the base voltage is usually between 0 and 1 volt.
We can assume that the base voltage is 0.71 volts for explanation purposes. When the base
voltage is 0.71V the base emitter diode is just beginning to turn on. There is now a small current
flowing through this diode. This causes a larger portion of electrons entering the base region to
go to the collector. The current going through the base is usually about 1uA while the current
going through the collector is 1mA. This means that we can control a large collector current by
using a small base current. This is the reason why a transistor is able to amplify small signals.

Beta rating
Most transistors have a beta rating. The beta rating tells us how much current flows in
the collector for a given base current. Typical transistors have a beta from 100 to 1000.

IC
IB

Where: is beta
IC is the collector current
IB is the base current

Because the collector current in a transistor is controlled using the base current a transistor is a
current controlled device.

A practical amplifier
Connect the circuit as shown in fig 17-8. The
thing with the 10k resistor is a variable resistor known
as a potentiometer. It allows you to vary the upper
and lower resistance. The output of a potentiometer is
at the arrow. When the arrow slides upwards the
resistance of the upper resistor decreases while the
lower resistor increases. The opposite is true if the
arrow slides downwards.

Fig 17-8

With this circuit we can now vary the amount of current flowing through the base by
adjusting the potentiometer. Measure the output across the collector emitter terminals while you
vary the base current. The voltage should vary from 0 to 12 volts.

The term transistor

The term transistor means a transfer of resistance. This implies that a transistor given
an input signal will cause its output terminals to go from an extremely high resistance to an
extremely low resistance or it can go anywhere in between. For a NPN transistor the input signal
is the base current and the output signal can be the voltage across the collector emitter. Fig 17-9
shows a representation of a transistor using a resistor in a box. The transistor and the external
resistor form a voltage divider.

Fig 17-9

Chapter 18
Mosfet Transistors
Metal oxide field effect transistors are commonly used in digital electronics. Over the
years it has become popular because of its outstanding characteristics. In this chapter we will
explain how a mosfet works and typical applications of a mosfet.

Device physics
Mosfet transistors are fabricated using a P-type or an N-type channel. We will primarily
deal with N channel mosfets. Figs. 18-1 shows the construction of a mosfet. The physical
packaging of a mosfet looks like a BJT except the names of the electrodes or legs have changed.
The terms emitter, base, collector are replaced by source gate and drain. There is an oxide layer
that insulates the gate from the rest of the mosfet. Within the N channel there is a P channel.
The P channel is known as the substrate material. The substrate is usually connected to the
source of the mosfet. This connection is fused internally to the device and you will usually not
deal with it. A mosfet is a voltage controlled device because the gate is electrically isolated and
there is no gate current.

Fig 18-1
Depletion mosfet
When there is no gate signal as in fig 18-2A the N channel and P substrate are in their
normal positions and a small amount of electron current flows from source to drain. When the
gate signal becomes positive in fig 18-2B the positive charges at the gate repel the holes in the
substrate and widens the N channel allowing more current to flow. A negative gate in fig 18-2C
attracts holes in the substrate towards the gate pinching off the N channel and current stops
flowing.

Fig 18-2A

Fig 18-2B

Fig 18-

Enhancement mosfet
Fig 18-3A shows an enhancement mosfet with no gate signal. The gate in this case is
simply shorted to the source. The source is internally connected to the substrate; therefore, the
gate to substrate voltage is zero. In this condition no current will flow. When the gate is positive
in fig 18-3B the holes at the gate repel holes in the substrate and the channel widens to allow
current flow. A negative gate will attract holes in the substrate and the channel will become
blocked. No current will flow.

Fig 18-3A

Fig 18-3B

Fig 18-3C

Schematic symbol for mosfets

The schematic symbol for a mosfet shows an arrow pointing away or toward the channel.
This arrow represents the substrate to source connection inside the mosfet. Most mosfets have
only three legs but some have four legs. A mosfet is actually a four terminal device. The fourth
leg is the substrate connection. In some circuits it is useful to connect the substrate to other than
the source.

Fig 18-4A

Fig 18-4B

Mosfet switch
Fig 18-5 shows a light bulb connected in series with a mosfet. The gate of this N channel
mosfet is connected to ground. Connecting the gate to ground is the same as applying zero volts
to the gate. When the gate is grounded the mosfet is at cutoff and the bulb is off. Next we
connect the gate to Vdd. When the gate signal is high current is allowed to flow through the
channel and the bulb is turned on.

VDD = 5V

VDD = 5V

Fig 18-5A

Fig 18-5B

Mosfet amplifier
Wire the circuit shown in fig 18-6. R1 and R2 act as a voltage divider to provide the gate
bias voltage. Typical gate voltage should be between 0 and 5 volts for N channel enhancement
type mosfets. Adjust R1 and R2 so that when the input voltage is 0 the voltage from drain to
source Vds is 2.5 volts. Use a function generator for the input and an oscilloscope to measure
the output.
V DS =

1
V DD = 2.5V
2

VDD = 5V

R1

100 ohms

10uF
OUTPUT
10uF

INPUT

R2

Fig 18-6

Chapter 19
Amplifier Classification
Class A amplifiers
Class A amplifiers are designed so if the input to the amplifier is sinusoidal as shown in
fig 19-1 then the output will also be sinusoidal. The advantage of a class A amplifier is that it
does not introduce a lot of distortion and can amplify very small signals. That means the output
looks identical to the input. The disadvantage is class A amplifiers cannot produce the required
voltage gain or current gain to drive heavy loads.

Fig 19-1
Class B amplifiers
Class B amplifiers are designed to amplify one half the input signal as shown in fig 19-2.
The advantage of a class B amplifier is that it can generate output signals with a lot of power.
However because the output is only half the input signal it introduces a lot of distortion.

Fig 19-2
Class C amplifiers
A class C amplifier is design to amplify the input signal for less than one-half the input
signal as shown in fig 19-3. A class C amplifier is much more efficient than even a class B
amplifier. In fact a class C amplifier can achieve an efficiency of almost 70 percent or more.
The disadvantage of a class C amplifier is in the operation. The output is severely distorted.

Fig 19-3

Amplifier gain
The gain of an amplifier is defined by how much larger the output is compared to the
input. If we had an input of 1V peak-to-peak and the output of the amplifier was 10V peak-topeak then we have a gain of 10. Gain can also be a measure of current. If we have an input of
1A and the output of the amplifier was 10A then we have a gain of 10.

Class A amplifier construction

The setup for a class A amplifier is shown in fig 19-4A. Adjust the base current until the
collector emitter voltage is one half Vcc to allow maximum output voltage and current swing.
Next connect a 10uF input coupling capacitors as shown in fig 19-4B. The class A amplifier is
now ready to use.
Vce =

1
Vcc = 4.5V
2

Fig 19-4A

Fig 19-4B

Connect a function generator to the AC input of the amplifier as shown in fig 19-4C and
an oscilloscope to the output. The output should look like the input.

Fig 19-4C
The coupling capacitor allows AC current to pass while blocking DC. This allows us to
connect external circuitry to the input without disrupting the base bias.

Class B amplifier construction

Fig 19-5A shows a class B amplifier. It is the same circuit as a class A amplifier except
we now adjust Vce so that it is equal to Vcc as indicated in the potential ladder of fig 19-5B.
Vce = Vcc = 9V

Fig 19-5A

Fig 19-5B

Apply an input signal and you should observe that the output is an inverted series of
sinusoidal spikes like the one in fig 19-5C.

Fig 19-5C
Class C amplifier construction
Connect the circuit shown in fig 19-6A. Assuming the breakover voltage for the base
emitter diode is 0.7V. The transistor will remain in cutoff until the base voltage is greater than
0.7V. When the base voltage is greater than 0.7V but less than 1V the transistor is in the active
region. If the base voltage is larger than 1V then the transistor is saturated. This means that if
we had an input voltage of 1 volt peak to peak then the transistor will be off 3/4 of the time. It
will only turn on for 1/4 of the time and thus the transistor is only amplifying less than 1/2 the
input signal.

Fig 19-6A

Fig 19-6B

Inversion of input signal

Did you notice something in common with our transistor amplifiers? The output signal is
an inversion of the input signal. An example of an inverted input output signal is shown in fig
19-7.

Fig 19-7

Chapter 20
Building a Power Supply
Step 1
You need to find these electronic components. You can use salved parts from old circuit
boards or buy them new. None of the components are critical. That means these components
have no special electrical characteristics that another component cannot easily replace.
QUANTITY
1
4
1

PART
120V to 12V ac step down transformer
diodes
1000uF capacitor

This is a low voltage project except for the part where you plug the power cord into the wall
there are a few precaution you should take before using the components above. The diodes
should have a maximum current rating of at least 1A and the capacitor must be rated to withstand
at least 24V.

Step 2
As a precaution this step will show you how to test each of the components you have
selected before putting it into the circuit. To test the diodes set your multimeter to the diode
function and place the black and red test probes across the diode. When the test probes are
placed in one direction the multimeter should read approximately 0.7V, and when placed in the
opposite direction as shown in fig 20-1 the multimeter should read zero volts or infinite
resistance. The reading on the multimeter is an approximation of the internal breakover voltage
of the diode.

Fig 20-1
To test the step down transformer, measure the resistance of the primary winding in fig
20-2A. It should show at least some resistance but not infinity. If your ohmmeter reads infinite
then the transformer is damaged and there is an open in the winding. Next test the secondary
winding of 17-2B. It should also have some resistance. The primary and secondary winding do
not need to have equal resistance. Finally test the coils as shown in fig 20-2C. Since we know
the primary and secondary windings are isolated from each other placing one probe on the

primary side and the other on the secondary side should not give you any resistance. The
resistance should be infinite. However, if you measured some resistance then the transformer is
shorted somewhere inside and cannot be used.

Fig 20-2A

Fig 20-2B

Fig 20-2C
To test the capacitor, begin by shorting the capacitor as in fig 20-3A. This ensures the
capacitor is fully discharged. Next set your voltmeter to ohms so we can measure the resistance
across the capacitor. Place the test probes across the capacitor as shown in fig 20-3B. The
multimeter reading should begin to rise from zero ohms to infinite ohms. Your multimeter when
set to the ohms function for measuring resistance actually charges up the capacitor slowly. At
first the capacitor acts like a short circuit because it is fully discharged so your multimeter reads
zero ohms. As the capacitor charges it allows less and less current to flow since it is becoming
fully charged and is acting like a resistor that is increasing in resistance. Once the capacitor is
fully charged it does not allow anymore current to flow and is acting like an infinite resistance.

Fig 20-3A

Fig 20-3B

Step 3
The schematic for the power supply is shown in fig 20-4. Use this schematic and wire
the components exactly as shown. Be sure the diode is connected in the correct direction. There
is a stripe that denotes the cathode or negative side of the diode. Make sure that the capacitor is
placed in the right direction. There is a positive and negative side to the capacitor. The negative
side of the capacitor has a negative sign or a black strip down the side. The 12Vac output from
the transformer has no polarity so connect it in any direction.

Fig 20-4
Rectifier bridge
The rectifier bridge turns AC into DC voltage. The bridge is
made of four diodes connected as shown in fig 20-5.
In fig 20-6 on the positive half cycle D1 conducts because its
breakover voltage has been exceeded. Only positive charges are
allowed to pass through since the diode is connected with its anode
facing the positive going direction of the AC input. D2 and D3 are in
Fig 20-5
cutoff, and D4 is conducting. D4 only allows negative charges to
pass because it is connected with its cathode facing the negative direction of the AC input.
During the negative half cycle of fig 20-7 D2 conducts because its anode is facing the
positive direction of the AC input. D1 and D4 are in cutoff, and D3 is in conduction because its
cathode is facing the negative direction of the AC input.

Fig 20-6

Fig 20-7

No matter which half cycle the AC input waveform is in all the negative charges are
deposited at node B and all positive charges are deposited at node A. Thus we conclude that
node B is going to always be more negative than node A. Because node A is always more
positive than node B we have DC voltage.

Fig 20-8
Figs. 20-9 shows the AC input and DC output. The DC output does not immediate reach
12 volts. The capacitor charge with every half cycle of the AC input until it reaches 12 volts.
Once it reaches 12 volts the charging current becomes very small because the capacitor is full
and will not accept any more charge.

Fig 20-9A

Fig 20-9B

Epilogue
There is so much more to learn. Before I began college to study electrical engineering I
probably knew little more than what you now know. Electronics is an infinitely vast area of
study. It is challenging and exciting. There was never a time when I believed that there was
nothing more to see. Even after years of study in college it seems that the horizon can never be
touched. However I did not travel this path to touch the horizon, I travel only to see the horizon.
My interests did not cover electronics alone. Psychology, philosophy, arts, engineering,
literature, humanity, history etc all share in the same discipline and each can provide a basis
for the understanding of other fields. My hope is that you will not only study engineering but if
you are like me then it is where most of our interest lies and that we continue to study beyond
engineering alone. No engineer can become good at engineering if he or she knows only
engineering. My enthusiasm for electronics and science has never perished, both because it was
hard and vigorous. It purposed something to do if I got bored. I hope you have found the
understanding and interest you looked for in this book and that it has given you more than what
you had planned to look for. Below is a small list of components that are also very interesting.
Their behavior is diverse and their usefulness infinite. With the basic analytic skills learning
many of these components is much easier. Take the time to look some of them over.

Basic components
Varistors
Variable resistor
PotentiometersVariable resistor with large current handling capability
Trimmers
Variable resistor with low current handling capability
MOV

Metal oxide varistors, used in clamping circuits and reduces voltage spikes

Variac

Variable capacitor

JFET
IGFET
MOSFET

Junction field effect transistor

Insulated gate field effect transistor
Metal oxide field effect transistor

SCR
TRIAC
DIAC
LED

Silicon controlled rectifier

Similar to the SCR except it can be triggered for bidirectional current flow
Uses breakover method for turn on
Light emitting diode

IR detector/emitter diodes
Crystal oscillators
Switches
Thermal fuse
Ultrasonic transducers
Relays

Integrated circuits
As you advance in your studies you will encounter ICs or integrated circuits. ICs are
microscopic circuits placed in a small rectangular block like the ones in fig 21-1. Some have few
legs and some have dozens of legs. These little things have hundreds of thousands of millions of
tiny circuit components inside them. Each IC serves a different function in a circuit. Some ICs
are amplifiers or AC to DC rectifiers like the ones we built. The difference is instead of being
big and bulky an IC is just a small plastic box with legs sticking out of it. Inside this small box
are all the components needed for a specific circuit and the legs sticking out are so you can
connect it to a larger circuit. A table of some common ICs is listed below. ICs take an input
and produce an output. You do not need to know the specifics of how each of the millions
circuits operate inside all the ICs, all you need to know is how the IC responds to stimuli or
inputs that you give it. Some IC's have very complex inputs and some are very simple.

Fig 21-1
555 timers
Voltage regulators
Logic Gates
AND gate
OR gate
NOR gate
NAND gate
XOR gate
HEX inverter
BCD to decimal decoder
OP AMP (operational amplifiers)
3 to 8 line decoder
EEPROM
EPROM
DRAM
Octal buffer line driver
SET/RESET latch

8 bit shift register

octal D type latch
binary counter
decade counter
demultiplexer
divide by 12 counters
J-K flip flop
Mono multivibrator
Octal Bus transceiver
Tone decoder
DTMF decoder chip
Microcontrollers
PLL (phase locked loop)
Volume tone control IC
Audio ICs