Introduction

It is proposed that there are a few factors that affect the magnitude of the
induced voltage when there is a relative motion between a conductor and
magnetic field i.e. Magnetic field strength of the permanent magnet, Length of
wire and the speed of the relative motion between the conductor and the
magnetic flux.
When a conductor is moved across and cut the magnetic flux, an induced
electromagnetic force is produced. Induced electromagnetic force measured in
volts is found by Faradays Law, = Blv. B represents the magnetic flux density,
a measure of force exerted on a current-carrying wire, L is the length of the wire
in the field and v is the speed of the wire through the magnetic field.
The derived formula is obtained based on the principle of conversation of energy.
The work done by the magnetic force on the individual charges in the wire
produces an induced current. At the two ends of the wire, accumulation of
positive and negative charges occurs. The current-carrying conductor within the
magnetic field produces a magnetic force that opposes the applied force.
W=Fs
W= BIL d
Voltage is the work done to move a charge from one point to another, V=

W
q

W= Vq
According to the principle of conservation of energy,
Vq= BIL d

Vq= B t

Ld

Thus, V= BL

d
t

=BLv
Figure

1 Derived formula

The relationship between velocity (v) and induced electromagnetic force (emf) is
shown in Figure 2.
v or
Where k = Bl

= kv

Figure 2 Formula linking induced electromotive force (emf) and speed

Materials

Aluminium foil clamp, Turning shaft (disposable chopstick), Magnet, copper wire
(5m), Rectangular cardboard box (10.5cm 4.0cm 12cm), cathode ray
oscilloscope, 1 probe, Video recorder, Ruler, Hot glue gun, Adhesive tape,
Scissors

Risk Assessment
The manually-spun magnet is a risk as it might detaches from the turning shaft.
Adhesive tape is used to secure the position of the glued magnet. Trials are
conducted at a lower speed to ensure the safety of the students. Touching the
wire is avoided as it carries small amount of induced current.
Method
a) Setting up of apparatus
1. The magnet is clamped and attached it to the turning shaft using glue and
adhesive tapes.
2. The turning shaft is passed through a hole in the middle of the box
3. A 5m copper wire is wrapped around the box at the same level with the
magnet.
4. The 2 ends of the wire is connected to the oscilloscope using an attenuated
1 probe.
5. On the analogue cathode ray oscilloscope, set the volts per division knob and
time per division knob to 5mV and 0.1ms respectively.
b) Conducting the experiment
1. The turning shaft is spun at 3 different speeds (fast, medium and slow).
2. The reading on the oscilloscope and the action of spinning the shaft is
videoed.
c) Collecting data
1. Each video is edited to a length of one second in slow motion (0.125 times of
actual speed).
2. The total number of turns of the shaft in 1 second and the number of grid of
volt/div at peak voltage are calculated.
3. The actual speed of spinning the shaft, and the peak voltage are calculated
based on the data obtained from Method (c)2.
Results
Revolutions per second,
(hertz)

Table 1

4.0

Amplitude
measurement,
a
(number of graticule
marks)
1.0

3.5

0.8

2.5
0.2
Measured revolutions per second and amplitude measurement
Speed of the magnet

Electromotive force,

rotation, S (cm/s)

Table 2
force
1.

(mV)

5.03

4.40

3.14

Calculated values of speed of magnet rotation and electromotive

speed =circumference revolutions per second

= 2r
Where the r is the radius of the turning shaft, r= 0.2 cm

2.

Electromotive force= amplitude of voltage Voltage/ division

Where volt/ div = 5mV

Electromotive force against Speed

6
5

f(x) = 1.93x - 4.34

R = 0.79

Electromotive force, (mV) 3

2
1
0

3.5

4.5

5.5

Speed of the magnet rotation, S (cm/s)

Graph 1 Electromotive force versus speed

Discussion

An initial problem was the unobvious wave signals shown on the oscilloscope due
to the wrong choice of probes used. Since the induced current produced by the
electromagnetic generator is small, using X10 probes further decrease the
amplitude of the sinusoidal waves.
From the results, the relationship between emf and speed is not clear. The value
of the correlation factor which is not close to Unity shows a low degree of
statistical significance. This condition is due to the limited amount of data on the
independent variable (Speed of magnet rotation). Repeat the experiment with
different speed may improve the statistical significance.
To minimise random error, multiple trials are carried out and the average of peak
to peak amplitude is calculated. In the trials inaccuracy occurs when only the
amplitude above x-axis is used. As the sinusoidal waves of the induced voltage is
non-symmetrical (assuming that the line of reflection is the equilibrium line, xaxis) and the minimum amplitude recorded (0.1 of the graticule mark) is only
0.25 % of the oscilloscope screen, peak to peak amplitude is a more suitable
scalar quantity to be measured off the screen.

Hypothesis
If the speed of the magnet rotation is increased, then the magnitude of the
induced electromagnetic force will increase when the number of coils of solenoid
and the magnetic field strength of magnet used are kept constant.
Method
The copper wire coil around the box is connected to the oscilloscope using X1
probes instead of X10 probes. More trials are carried out by manipulating the
speed of the magnet rotation. When induced voltage is displayed on the
oscilloscope, peak to peak amplitude is measured at the constant phase.

Results
Revolutions
Peak to peak
per second, graticule)
(hertz)

1
2.50
2.75
3.00
3.50

0.
4
0.
8
1.
2
1.
5

2
0.
3
0.
4
1.
4
2.
2

amplitude

(number of

Amplitude
of voltage
(number
of
graticule)

Avera
ge

0.35

0.18

0.60

0.30

1.
0
2.
1

0.
5
2.
3

1.03

0.52

2.
2

2.06

1.03

2.
2.
2.
2.
2.
2.
2.
2.11
1.06
0
2
1
1
1
2
1
Table 3
Measured values of revolutions per second, peak to peak amplitude
and calculated
amplitude of voltage
4.00

Peak to
peak
amplitude

Revolution per second, (hertz)

2.5
2.75
3.0
3.5
0.4
0.8
1.2
1.5
0.3
0.4
1.4
2.2
1
2.1
0.5
2.3
2.2

4.0
2
2.2
2.1
2.1
2.1
2.2
2.1

0.350
0.600
1.025
2.060
2.114
Mean
Standard
0.3862 0.3209
0.07071
0.28284
0.06901
Deviation
2
34
Standard
0.1931 0.1435 0.02608
0.05000
0.20000
Error
11
27
2
Table 4
Calculated mean, standard deviation and standard error of peak
to peak amplitude
Peak to peak amplitude against Revolution per second
2.5
2

f(x) = 1.31x - 2.89

R = 0.92

1.5
Peak to peak amplitude

1
0.5
0
2.4

2.6

2.8

3.2

3.4

3.6

3.8

Revolution per second, (hertz)

Graph 2

Peak to peak amplitude against Revolution per second

Speed of the magnet

rotation, S (cm/s)

Electromotive force,
(mV)

3.14

0.90

3.46

1.50

3.77

2.60

4.40

5.15

4.2

Table 5

5.03
5.30
Calculated speed of magnet rotation and electromotive force

Electromotive force against Speed

6
f(x) = 2.59x - 7.18
R = 0.92

5
4

Electromotive force, (mV) 3

2
1
0

3.5

4.5

5.5

Speed of the magnet rotation, S (cm/s)

Graph 3

Electromotive force versus speed

Electromotive
force, (V)

Curren
t, A (I)
0.0346
0.0009
15
0.0576
0.0015
92
0.0026
0.1
0.1980
0.00515
77
0.2038
0.0053
46
Table 6 Calculated Current and Power

Power, P
(W)
3.11538E
-05
8.65385E
-05
0.00026
0.001020
096
0.001080
385

Power versus Electromotive force

0
0

f(x) = 0.25x - 0
R = 0.98

Power, W 0

Linear ()

Linear ()

0
0

0.01

0.01

Electromotive force, v

Graph 4 Power versus Electromotive Force

Speed of the magnet rotation, S (cm/s)

Magnetic Flux Density, B

(T)
0.05732
0.08671
0.13793
0.23409
0.21074
0.14536

3.14
3.46
3.77
4.40
5.03
Average Magnetic Flux Density
Discussion
The relationship and trend of the data is clear. The data in Graph 1 and Graph 3
shows a linear relationship proving that the electromotive force increases when
the speed of magnet rotation increases. When the average value of multiple
trials is used for calculating the electromotive force, the correlation factor is
higher (0.9249) in Graph 3 than in Graph 1.
Table 4 shows that when the number of trials done in an experiment increases,
the standard deviation of the data decreases. As seen in the trials when
revolution of per second is 2.5(a) and 2.75(b) Hertz, the standard deviation of the
data in (b) is greater than (a). At the same number of trials, the experiment with
a greater mean will have a higher tendency to be inaccurate. The difference in
standard deviation is obvious between the trial with a set of 7 data [0.06901]
and the trial with 5 data [0.38622]. Thus, more trials should be conducted and
the number of trials carried out in each experiment should be constant to ensure
the accuracy and minimize random error.
In Graph 2, the error bars are customized to specific values of standard errors
which are shown in Table 4. The horizontal error bars are not used. This is
because revolution per second of the rotating magnet is calculated using slow
motion videos edited into 1 second. The first data point on Graph 2 exhibits a
high level of certainty as the length of the error bar is short. When = 2.75Hz,
=3.0Hz and = 3.5Hz, the possible values of the peak to peak amplitudes at
the listed frequencies lie between the error bars. The certainty of the amplitude

at =4.0Hz is approximately 100% given that its vertical error bar is almost
negligible.
From Graph 2, an anomaly occurred at = 3.5Hz, where its position is about 1
small grid away from the best fit line. The videos of the reading on the
oscilloscope and the action of spinning magnet are recorded using the same
mobile phone. While this choice ensures the constant variable (mobile phone) is
fixed, the reading and the spinning action are not recorded simultaneously. As
the magnet is spun manually, the speed of the rotation does not correspond to
the peak amplitude. This error may be corrected when the screen and the
spinning action are videoed at the same time using 2 devices which are of the
same model.
Graph 4 shows that the power generated increased as the electromotive force
increased. The correlation coefficient of 0.9802 is significantly higher than the
coefficient of Graph 2 and 3.

Given that the electromotive force (emf) is calculated from the peak to peak
amplitude measured, the actual emf should be standard deviation of the
peak to peak amplitude.
From the electromotive force calculated, the magnetic flux density can be found.
= BLv
B=

Lv

Source of error
1. The calibration of the analogue oscilloscope which was not done by a
professional
2. Human error when reading the peak voltage from the oscilloscope
3. Inconsistent speed of spinning of magnet which was done manually
Recommendation
To alleviate errors in the future, changes could be made in the design and
methodology. The method showed several flaws when attempting to manipulate
the speed of the magnet rotation. A different method may be used to rotate the
magnet between the copper coils. A small direct current motor with a known
revolution per minute may be connected to a known voltage supply. The voltage
supplied to the motor is varied to produce different rotation speed. The
amplitude of the peak voltage shown on the oscilloscope would be more
consistent compared to a manually-spun magnet.
Reference
1. Devices used to connect circuit EIEWebMistress- The University of Sydney,
Electrical and Information Engineering. Friday, 17 July 1998
http://www.ee.usyd.edu.au/tutorials_online/topics/labintro/join.html
2. Electromotive
Forcewww.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/183352/electromotive-force

3. IOP Institute of Physics http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/practicalphysics/electromagnetic-induction

4. Graphing Resources Using Error Bars in your Graph by Rosa Wallace NC
State University , 5/16/05 http://www.ncsu.edu/labwrite/res/gt/gt-stathome.html
5. Resources for introductory and intermediate level laboratory courses, David
R. Caprette, Rice University Dates
http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~bioslabs/tools/data_analysis/using_figures.html
6. Physics and physical measurement, Measurement and uncertainties
http://ibguides.com/physics/notes/measurement-and-uncertainties

Appendix
Sample calculation of the magnetic flux density
B

Lv

0.9
5 3.14

= 0.05732 T
Power Generated
P= VI
Where P= power, V= voltage and I= current. The resistance of the 5m copper
wire is calculated using Wire Table for International Standards Annealed Copper
American Wire Gauge. The wire is used for typical house wiring with American
Wire Gauge of 12 that has 0.001588 Ohms per foot.
5 meter of copper wire is converted to feet.
Length of wire, L = 5 3.2808399 feet
= 16.4041995 ft
Resistance of wire,R
= 16.4041995 0.001588 Ohms per foot.
= 0.0260