Cbse Notes Law of Motion (Phy) PDF

CLASS
CBSE-i
XI
UNIT-3
PHYSICS
LAWS OF MOTION
CENTRAL BOARD OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

Shiksha Kendra, 2, Community Centre, Preet Vihar, Delhi-110 092 India
Contents
Preface
Acknowledgement
v
viii
Teachers manual
Learning outcomes
ix
Teaching Notes
xi
Lesson Plan Matrix
xv
Weblinks/vediolinks/other references
xviii
Students Manual

Introduction
Newtons First Law of Motion
Newtons Second Law of Motion
Student activity 1
Student activity 2
Student activity 3
15
17
Newtons Third Law of Motion
Student activity 4
17
Conservation of Linear Momentum
21
Applying Newtons Law
23
Equilibrium for Translatory Motion
30
Friction
33
Student activity 5
34
40
Dynamics of Circular Motion
Student activity 6
40
47
Newtons Laws in Non-Inertial Frames of Reference
Post content student worksheet 1
57
60
62
65
Preface
The Curriculum initiated by Central Board of Secondary Education -International
(CBSE-i) is a progressive step in making the educational content and methodology
more sensitive and responsive to global needs. It signifies the emergence of
a fresh thought process in imparting a curriculum which would restore the
independence of the learner to pursue the learning process in harmony with
the existing personal, social and cultural ethos.
The Central Board of Secondary Education has been providing support to the
academic needs of the learners worldwide. It has about 11500 schools affiliated
to it and over 158 schools situated in more than 23 countries. The Board has
always been conscious of the varying needs of the learners and has been working
towards contextualizing certain elements of the learning process to the physical,
geographical, social and cultural environment in which they are engaged. The
CBSE-i has been visualized and developed with these requirements in view.
The nucleus of the entire process of constructing the curricular structure is the
learner. The objective of the curriculum is to nurture the independence of the
learner, given the fact that every learner is unique. The learner has to understand,
appreciate, protect and build on knowledge, values, beliefs and traditional
wisdom. Teachers need to facilitate the leaner to make the necessary modifications,
improvisations and additions wherever and whenever necessary.
The recent scientific and technological advances have thrown open the gateways
of knowledge at an astonishing pace. The speed and methods of assimilating
knowledge have put forth many challenges to the educators, forcing them to
rethink their approaches for knowledge processing by their learners. In this
context, it has become imperative for them to incorporate those skills which
will enable the young learners to become life long learners. The ability to stay
current, to upgrade skills with emerging technologies, to understand the nuances
involved in change management and the relevant life skills have to be a part of
the learning domains of the global learners. The CBSE-i curriculum has taken
cognizance of these requirements.
The CBSE-i aims to carry forward the basic strength of the Indian system
of education while promoting critical and creative thinking skills, effective
communication skills, interpersonal and collaborative skills along with information
and media skills. There is an inbuilt flexibility in the curriculum, as it provides
a foundation and an extension curriculum, in all subject areas to cater to the
different pace of learners.
The CBSE introduced the CBSE-i curriculum in schools affiliated to CBSE at
the international level in 2010 at primary and secondary level in classes I and
IX and subsequently in the session 2011-12 initiated the curriculum at Class II,
VI and class X. The current session will take the curriculum forward to classes
III, VII and XI.
An important feature of the Senior Secondary Curriculum is its emphasis on
the specialisation in different fields of study and preparing a student for higher
professional life and career at the work place. The CBSE-i, keeping in mind,
the demands of the present Global opportunities and challenges, is offering the
new curriculum in the subject of English, Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Geography,
Accountancy, Business Studies, Information and Communication Technology, and
Mathematics at two levels, Mathematics-I for the students of pure sciences and
Mathematics-II for the students of Commerce and other subjects.
There are some non-evaluative components in the curriculum which would be
commented upon by the teachers and the school. The objective of this part or
the core of the curriculum is to scaffold the learning experiences and to relate
tacit knowledge with formal knowledge. This would involve trans-disciplinary
linkages that would form the core of the learning process. Perspectives, SEWA
(Social Empowerment through Work and Action), Life Skills and Research would be
the constituents of this Core. The Core skills are the most significant aspects
of a learner's holistic growth and learning curve.
The International Curriculum has been designed keeping in view the foundations
of the National Curricular Framework (NCF 2005) NCERT and the experience
gathered by the Board over the last seven decades in imparting effective learning
to millions of learners, many of whom are now global citizens.
The Board does not interpret this development as an alternative to other curricula
existing at the international level, but as an exercise in providing the much
needed Indian leadership for global education at the school level. The Curriculum
envisages pedagogy which would involve building on learning experiences
inside the classroom over a period of time. The Board while addressing the
issues of empowerment and capacity building of teachers believes that all school
must budget for and ensure teachers involved with CBSE-i are continuously
updated.
I appreciate the sincere effort put in by Dr. Sadhana Parashar, Director (Training)
CBSE, Dr. Srijata Das, Education Officer, CBSE and the team of Officers involved
in the development and implementation of this material.
The CBSE-i website enables all stakeholders to participate in this initiative
through the discussion forums provided on the portal. Any further suggestions
are welcome.
Vineet Joshi
Chairman, CBSE
Acknowledgements
Acknowledgements
Advisory
Shri Vineet Joshi, Chairman, CBSE
Dr. Sadhana Parashar,
Director (Training), CBSE
Ideators
Prof. A K Bakshi
Dr. N K Sehgal
Prof. Kapil Kapoor
Ms. Renu Anand
Dr. Barkatullah Khan
Ms. Avnita Bir
Conceptual Framework
Shri G. Balasubramanian, Former Director (Acad), CBSE
Ms. Abha Adams, Consultant, Step-by-Step School, Noida
Dr. Sadhana Parashar, Director (Training), CBSE
Ms. P Rajeshwari
Ms. Urmil Guliani
Ms. Anita Makkar
Prof. Biswajit Nag
Dr. Jacqueline Symss
Ms. Usha Sharma
Dr. Niti Nandini Chatnani

Dr. Anil K Bali
Dr. Preeti Tewari
Dr. Deeksha Bajpai
Mr. S K Agarwala
Biology:
Dr. Ranjana Saxena
Dr. Neeraja Sood
Dr. P Chitralekha
Ms. Mridula Arora
Ms. Lucy Jad
Ms. Priyanka Choudhury
Ms. Prerna Gosain
Ms. Malini Sridhar
Geography:
Ms. K Jaya
Dr. Preeti Tewari
Ms. Rupa Das
Ms. S Fazal Daoud Firdausi
Ms. Neena Phogat
Ms. Sujata Sharma
Ms. Deepa Kapoor
Ms. Bharti Malhotra
Ms. Isha Kaushik
Mr. Riyaz Khan
Ms. Neeta Rastogi

Dr. Anshu
Dr Rajesh Hassija
Mr. Mukesh Kumar
Dr. Om Vikas
Material Developers
English:
Ms Gayatri Khanna
Ms Renu Anand
Ms. P Rajeshwary
Ms. Sandhya Awasthi
Ms. Manna Barua
Ms. Veena Bhasin
Ms. Urmil Guliani
Ms. Sudha Ravi
Mr. Anil Kumar
Ms. Vijaylaxmi Raman
Ms. Neerada Suresh
Ms. Himaal Handoo
Chemistry:
Dr. G S Sodhi
Dr. Vimal Rarh
Dr. Shalini Baxi
Dr. Vinita Arora
Dr. Vandana Soni
Ms. Charu Maini
Ms. Rashmi Sharma
Ms. Kavita Kapoor
Coordinators:
Physics:
Dr. B. Biswal
Ms. Namarata Alwadhi
Mr. Dhirender Sharma
Ms. Vandana Banga
Mr. Vivek
Mathematics:
Dr. Sushil Kumar
Mrs. Monica Talwar
Mrs. Charu Dureja
Mrs. Seema Juneja
Dr. H K Bhatia
Economics:
Mr. S K Agarwala
Ms. Ambika Gulati
Ms. Nidhi Singh
Ms. Malti Modi
Ms. Sapna Das
Ms. Ingur Agarwal
Mr. Shankar Kulkarni
Mr. Sandeep Sethi
Ms. Sugandh Sharma, E O
Dr. Srijata Das, E O
Dr Rashmi Sethi, E O
Mr. Navin Maini, R O

(Tech)
Ms. Madhu Chanda, R O

(Inn)
Shri R. P. Sharma,
Consultant (Science)
Shri Al Hilal Ahmed, AEO
Sh R.P Singh,AEO
Ms. Anjali Chhabra, AEO
Mr. Sanjay Sachdeva, S O
Accountancy:
Mr. S S Sehrawat
Dr. K Mohna
Dr. Balbir Singh
Mr. Bhupendra Kriplani
Ms. Komal Bhatia
Mr. Sandeep Sethi
Business Studies:
Dr. S K Bhatia
Ms. Meenu Ranjan Arora
Mrs. Shegorika
Mr. Sandeep Sethi
Ms. Usha Sharma
Mr. Bhupendra Kriplani
Ms. Komal Bhatia
Ms. Ravisha Aggarwal
ICT:
Mr. Mukesh Kumar
Ms. Nancy Sehgal
Ms. Purvi Srivastava
Ms. Gurpreet Kaur
Ms.S. Radha Mahalakshmi,
EO
Ms. Neelima Sharma,

Consultant (English)
Teachers' manual
Syllabus
Learning Outcomes
Content
Learning outcomes
Force and
Inertia
Students would be able to:

appreciate the intuitive concept of force.
understand that force can be defined as an external agency that is
needed to change the state of rest or of uniform motion of a body.
recognize that external agencies can exert forces on a body even from
a distance
appreciate that a body can continue in its state of rest ,or of uniform
motion in a straight line, only when no external force acts on it.
comprehend the meaning of the term inertia
understand that the mass of a body can be regarded as a measure of
its inertia.
intuitive
concept of
force
definition
of force
inertia
Newtons
laws of
motion
The first law
of motion
Concept of
momentum
Second law
of motion
Impulse
Third law of
motion
state Newtons first law of motion.

cite examples illustrating the first law of motion
define the term momentum and write its mathematical form.
understand that the force, acting on a body , is related to its rate of
change of momentum.
state Newtons second law of motion and write its mathematical form.
obtain the usual form(F=ma) ,of the second law, and know its
limitation.
solve problems based on the second law of motion.
use the second law of motion for writing the dynamical equation of
motion of a given body.
use the second law of motion to define the unit of force.
define the term impulse and write its mathematical form.
state the relation between impulse and change in momentum.
state Newtons third law of motion.
Understand that, in nature, forces always occur in pairs.
Appreciate that forces of action and reaction act on different bodies
and hence cannot cancel each other.
cite examples of Newtons third law of motion in everyday life
situations.
understand that the internal forces in a body, or a system of particles,
always add up to give a null force.
identify different kinds of forces like normal reaction, tension and
weight
Content
Learning outcomes
Law of
conservation
of linear
momentum
and its
applications
state the law of conservation of linear momentum.
Equilibrium
of concurrent
forces
understand that this law is a consequence of the third law of motion.

use the law of conservation of linear momentum in different
situations.
understand the meaning of the term equilibrium and know its

difference from the state of rest.
analyse the details of the equilibrium of a body.
know the necessary and sufficient conditions for the equilibrium of
a body acted upon by concurrent forces.
Friction
recall the concept of the force of friction.
static and
kinetic
friction
differentiate between static and kinetic friction
Laws of
friction
state the laws of friction and appreciate their empirical nature.
Rolling
friction
Lubrication
Dynamics
of uniform
circular
motion
centripetal
force
example
of circular
motion
(vehicle
on level
circular
road, vehicle
on banked
road)
Dynamics for
non inertial
observer
pseudo
force
centrifugal
force
define the term coefficient of friction and write the mathematical

expression for it.
comprehend the meaning of the term rolling friction
know about practical situations in daily life where friction is
undesirable and where it is useful
understand the role of lubricants in reducing friction
recall the concept of uniform circular motion
define the term centripetal force and write its mathematical
expression.
show an understanding of the application of centripetal force to
explain motion of a body moving along a curved path.
analyse the motion of a vehicle on a level circular road in terms of the
different forces acting on it.
appreciate the need for banking of curved roads.
explain the motion of a vehicle on a banked road and appreciate how
the banking of roads can help to reduce the wear & tear of vehicle
tyres.
Differentiate between inertial and non inertial observers

understand the need for pseudo force
Understand the role of the centrifugal force
Cite examples from daily life involving centrifugal forces
Apply Newtons Laws for non inertial observer
Teaching Notes
Newtons laws of motion are one of the striking and land mark discoveries
in the study of Physics. These laws form the basis of study of mechanics and
are extremely useful in other branches of Physics. The teacher may convey the
significance of these laws by making the students understand how these help us
to understand the concept of force, to define a unit of force and prove useful not
only in understanding the cause of motion but also to calculate the subsequent
details of motion of an object on the basis of the available information about its
initial state of motion and the forces acting on it. Suitable examples from dayto-day life situations may be cited to clarify and re-inforce the basic concepts
and to initiate the students to the challenging task of understanding basics of
dynamics of motion.
The concept of momentum is a very basic and fundamental concept. The teacher
may use examples from day-to-day life to emphasize why momentum-often
referred to as the quantity of motion possessed by an object- needs to be defined
as the product of the mass of the object and its velocity. The link between
Newtons third law of motion and the law of conservation of momentum needs
to be clearly brought out. It would be significant to ensure that the students
clearly understand the difference between system and surroundings in a
given physical situation and use this understanding to differentiate between
the internal and external forces for a given system-surrounding set up. The
significance of the absence of external forces as being a critical and fundamental
criterion for the validity of the law of conservation of momentum may be clearly
brought out. Suitable examples-like that of a projectile in motion breaking up
into fragments or of an object breaking up due to internal causes or the system
of two objects undergoing a collision etc. can be and should be used to clarify
this concept.
Having clarified the concept of momentum, it may be worthwhile to point
out the difference between the two apparently equivalent forms of Newtons
second law of motion (Force= rate of change of momentum and Force = mass
X acceleration). It needs to be made clear to the students that second of these
two forms is valid only when the mass of the object remains constant. It is
the first form (Force = rate of change of momentum- that is the basic form of
the second law of motion and the second (but more often used) form (Force
= mass acceleration) is a special case of the basic form that is valid only for
systems whose mass does not change with time. In familiar situations we can
sometime have systems whose mass changes with time. The motion o a rocket
(continuously burning its fuel, a leaking water tanker moving on the road, or
a conveyor belt carrying Stone-dust etc. are some examples of systems whose
mass keeps on changing with time. The need for use of the mathematics of
calculus- for analyzing the details of motion of such systems- may be clarified
and explained.
The concept of equilibrium and its difference from the state of rest needs to
clearly brought out. It may be emphasized that when a system/object is under
the action of a number of concurrent forces whose resultant equals zero, it
would be in equilibrium because, under such a condition, there would be no
change in the state of motion of the system/object. This would be a suitable
situation to clarify that an object, initially at rest, or moving with a constant
velocity is regarded as undergoing no change in its state of motion if it continues
to be at rest, or, continues moving with its constant velocity. The students
would thus be enabled to differentiate between static and dynamic equilibrium.
It may be useful to point out the significance of the word concurrent so that
the students realize that for system on non-concurrent forces, a system need
not be in equilibrium even when the resultant of all the forces acting on the
system is zero. They would then be in a better position to understand the general
complete set of conditions of equilibrium (resultant of all forces to be zero as
well as the sum of moments of all the forces about a given point to be zero)
when they study the details of rotational motion.
The concept of friction and the nature of frictional forces and their significance
can be introduced through familiar day-to-day life situations. It would be
worthwhile to point out the role of the force of friction in walking and cycling.
In both these cases (unlike the usual situations), the force of friction acts along
the direction of walking and cycling but only on the rear-wheel of the cycle that
is connected to the pedals) and the reason for the same should be explained
through Newtons third law of motion. The difference between static, kinetic and
rolling friction needs to be clearly explained. The study of friction and frictional
forces should also be used as a suitable point for introducing the students to
the concept of free-body diagrams and their role and usefulness in solving a
variety of problems on the basis of the second law of motion. The students can
also be made familiar with different terms like tension, thrust, normal reaction
etc. used to describe different types of forces in different situations. It hardly
needs to be emphasized that the students may be given sufficient practice in
solving variety of problems through free body diagrams so that they become
confident in using second law of motion and appreciating its role in analyzing
the details of motion of objects in different situations.
The study of dynamics of uniform circular motion is a good situation to
explain how the speed of an object can remain constant even when it is being
constantly acted upon by a force. The concept of centripetal force and its role
and significance in ensuring that a particle keeps on moving in its circular path
has to be clearly brought out. Examples of planets orbiting the earth or the
electrons orbiting the nuclears along with the familiar example of a ball being
swung in a circular path by a string can be used to explain different sources of
centripetal force in different situations. It may be explained as to why there is a
need for a tangential force along with the radial centripetal force to being about
a change in the speed of motion of a particle moving in a circular path.
The concept of centripetal force along with the associated concept of centrifugal
force can be used to explain why the equal and opposite forces of action and
reaction do not cancel each other. The students may be helped to understand
that the forces of action and reaction do not cancel each other because they
act on different objects. They would then be able to appreciate that there is no
built-in conflict between the third law of motion and the first law of motion.
The unit also intends to introduce students to the difference between inertial
observers and inertial frames of reference and non-inertial frames of
reference.
This introduction will also enable the students to appreciate how a change in
the frame of reference can alter the perspective of observing and analyzing the
details of motion of a given system. The concept of centrifugal force coupled
with that of the frame of reference will help the students to get a basic feel
about the difference between real forces and pseudo or fictitious forces. It may
be worthwhile to just introduce the students to the fact that the concept of
pseudo or fictitious forces can prove useful and helpful in understanding the
details of motion on the basis of Newtons laws of motion in apparently difficult
situations.
The concepts studied in this unit are to be used in almost every successive unit.
Hence understanding of their minute details needs to be strengthened by citing
number of daily life examples and by providing hands-on-experiences with
activities given in the students mannual. The activities should be accompanied
with appropriate questions. While dealing with problems; the students may be
asked to prepare a check list of
(a) The system
(b) The appropriate observer
(c) The appropriate axis system and
(d) The free body diagram related to the given system/problem
The students also need to be made aware of the common misconceptions, some
of which have been pointed out in the study material.
Finally, the students have to be encouraged to attempt as many unsolved
problems as possible. One needs to remember that a clear understanding
of the laws of motion is the foundation on which the students subsequent
understanding of the concepts of Physics rests to a large extent. One needs
to give maximum attention to make this foundation as soild and strong as
possible.
Lesson plan matrix

Content
Skills
Learning Outcomes
Force
Observations
Understand the meaning of force
Understanding the
concept
Realize that unless there is a net

force acting on the body, a change
in the state of its motion is not
possible
Recognize that external agencies
can exert force on a body even from
a distance
Define the SI unit of force
Inertia
Analytical reasoning
ability
Define the term
Classification of inertia.
Differentiate between inertia of rest

and inertia of uniform motion
Observations with respect

to daily life situation.
Understand that mass is a measure

of the inertia of a body
Newtons first
law of motion
Application of acquired
knowledge
State the first law
Momentum
Assimilate the concept
Define the term
Cite examples of first law of motion

Know the SI unit of momentum
Newtons second
law
Deductive reasoning
State the second law of motion
Comprehend the concepts
Obtain the usual equation of force

(F = ma) from the concept of rate of
change of momentum
Understand that for a constant
force, acceleration of a body is
inversely proportional to its mass.
Solve numerical problems based on
Newtons laws of motion
Impulse
Higher order thinking

based learning
Understand the relation between

force, time and the change of
momentum (impulse) of an object
Know the SI unit of impulse
Content
Skills
Learning Outcomes
Newtons third
law
Analytical thinking
State Newtons third law of motion

Appreciate that forces always occur
in pairs
Comprehend that forces of action
and reaction act on different bodies.
Equilibrium of
concurrent forces
Understanding the
significance of the term
concurrent forces.
Understand the significance of the

term equilibrium
Friction
Analytical thinking
Understand the concept and cause

of friction
Static friction
Exploration
Differentiate between static and

kinetic friction
Kinetic friction
Differentiate between
static and kinetic force of
friction
Rolling friction
Finding the relations between the

different forces acting on a body is
equilibrium
Know the laws of friction

Understand the terms: Coefficients
of static and kinetic friction
Realize that kinetic friction is less
than static friction
Investigate methods to reduce the
force of friction
Understand the use of lubricants
Appreciate that friction is a
necessary evil
Meaning of rolling friction
Differentiate between sliding
friction and rolling friction
Dynamics of
uniform circular
motion
Recall
Centripetal force
Identify the agency/cause

providing the centripetal
force in different
situations
Define the term and obtain the

expression for the centripetal force
Scrutiny of daily life

situations
Understand the role of static friction
Vehicle on level
circular road
Co-relating the concepts
Recall the basic concepts of circular

motion
Find the applications of centripetal

force.
Draw free body diagram
Write the equations and solve the
problems.
Content
Skills
Learning Outcomes
Vehicle on
banked road
Correlate the theoretical

concept with practical
situations
Appreciate the role of banking of

roads
Draw free body diagrams
Write the equations and solve the
problems
Comprehend the concepts

Non inertial
frame of
reference
Analytical thinking
Differentiate between inertial and

non inertial observers.
Draw appropriate free body
diagram according to different
observers
Appreciate the significance of
pseudo forces
Find the magnitude and direction
of pseudo force in some simple
situations.
Understand when the centrifugal
force can be regarded as a pseudo
force.
Web-links/vedios/other references
http://www.hazelwood.K12.mo.us/~grichert/sciweb/applets.html
http://www.clickandlearn.org/Physics/sph3u/friction_force.html
http://www.tribology-abc.com/abc/friction.html
http://www.hazelwood.k12.mo.us/~grichert/sciweb/applets.html
cbse-i
Teacher
student
support
material
cbse-i
INTRODUCTION
We know that we need three basic conceptsdisplacement, velocity and

accelerationto describe the details of motion of a given object. This type
of descriptive study of motionwhere we learn about the ways and means
of describing motionis known as kinematics. The kinematical equations of
motion have different forms for different types of motion but along with the
appropriate use of mathematics of differential and integral calculus, they form
the framework through which one can describe and know the details of any
type of motion.
A little reflection, however, shows that our study of motion needs to go beyond
a mere description of the same. We also need to know the basic cause of motion
and the cause/s that bring about changes in the motion of a given object. Our
simple observations on different objects immediately reveal the following simple
fact:
Any change in the motion of an object is, invariably, the result of some
interaction (direct or indirect) between the object and something else in its
surroundings.
We use the term Force for any such interaction. We can, therefore, say that
force is the cause of motion as well as the cause of any change in its state of
motion. The study of motion, through considerations of the forces involved, is
known as dynamics.
Our basic concepts concerning the dynamical study of motion have stemmed
from the works of Galileo (1564-1642) and Newton (1642-1727). These two
scientists are universally regarded as the founders of the subject of dynamics.
Newtons bookthe Principiais regarded as the basic pillar of the study of
mechanics.
Unit 3 : Laws of Motion
cbse-i
Sir Isaac Newton

(1642-1727)
Sir Isaac Newton was a great scientist whose many discoveries greatly
influenced our lives. These still form the basis for describing and
understanding the observations in our surroundings. His discovery of
the well known three laws of motion form the basis of our qualitative
and quantitative definition of force.
Principia Mathematica a book written by Newton is considered as
bible for Classical Physics. He was born in Woolstrope, England, on
Christmas day in 1642, and died on leaving behind a legacy of the use of scientific method
in our life. His words, said to be quoted by him towards the end of his life:
I feel like a child playing on the seashore and finding a pretty pebble or a nice shell here
and there while the vast ocean of truth still lies unexplored before me
are a source of inspiration for all of us to continue our unending search for the secrets
and mysteries of nature.
3.1.1 First law of motion

A block kept on the floor doesnt move on its own. If the same block is pushed
with some force along the floor, it slows down as it moves forward. Is there
anything common in these two situations?
Galileo tried to analyze and compare the state of motion and rest with the help
of some thought experiments.
In one of such experiments, a ball is considered to be rolling back and forth
between two identical smooth inclines.
(a) Galileo suggested that if a ball is dropped along the left Incline from some
point A it will eventually reach a point B at same height on the right incline.
(b) If the right incline is made less
steeper, the ball would reach the
same height but would have to cover
a greater distance.
(c) If the right incline is made horizontal,

the ball will continue to move forever
to attain as it seeks the same height. Hence
the velocity of the ball, moving on the flat
horizontal track, will not change.
BA
Figure 1
Figure 2
cbse-i
Galileo concluded that it is not in the nature of an object to stop once set in
motion; rather, it opposes any changes in its motion. This tendency of an object
to resist or oppose any change in its state of motion is called inertia. Physical
quantities, contributing to this tendency, are not known fully. Our daily life
experiences suggest that inertia of massive objects is more, because we find
greater difficulty in changing the state of motion of heavier objects. For example,
with the same muscular effort, one can throw a basketball with greater velocity
than a shot put.
Mass can be a measure of inertia as it is observed to control the inertia of
objects even when they are in different states of motion.
(a) State of rest of an object can be associated with inertia of rest i.e. objects,
at rest, remain at rest unless an external force acts on them. When a vehicle
starts moving suddenly, passengers sitting in the vehicle fall backwards,
as passengers tends to remain at rest due to inertia.
(b) State of motion (speed) leads to inertia of motion i.e. objects in motion
keep moving unless an external force acts on them. When a moving vehicle
stops suddenly, passengers sitting in it tend to fall forward as the upper
parts of their bodies continue to move due to inertia of motion.
(c) We can also speak of the inertia of
direction i.e. objects in motion try to
maintain their direction of motion
unless an external force acts on them.
When a vehicle takes a sudden turn,
objects in it tend to fall outwards
as they tend to continue to move in
straight line due to their inertia of
direction.
One can thus say that an external effort is
needed to change the state of rest, direction
of motion or the speed of a body; this
external effort is called force.
Figure 3
In Newtons own words everybody persists in its state of being at rest or

of moving uniformly straight forward except in so far as it is compelled to
change its state by the force impressed on it.
cbse-i
It implies that:
(a) An object at rest will continue to remain at rest unless an external force
acts on it.
(b) An object in motion will continue to have a uniform velocity i.e. keep on
moving with the same speed and in the same direction, unless an external
force acts on it.
Many scientists and philosophers before Newton like Galileo and Descartes, had
hinted upon the property of inertia. Newton in fact gave the credit of first law
of his above conclusion, which we now call as his first law of motion to Galileo
(1564-1642). The first law of motion is also known as Law of inertia.
Concept Probe
Can you find the acceleration of the earth, due to its rotational or revolutional motion, at
a point on its equator?
Read more.
http://www.hazelwood.K12.mo.us/~grichert/sciweb/applets.html
3.2.1 Second law of motion

Suggested Activity 1
A basketball and a shot put, both are to be given the same speed or to be thrown to the
same distance. In which case it will be easier? The answer would be: basketball.
Do you know?
Why? Because it has lower mass.
Now throw a basketball towards another person with different speeds. Ask the person to
stop them. In which case was it easier to stop?
Our experiences in daily life, like the above activity, suggest that both mass
and velocity are important for deciding the magnitude of force needed in a
given situation. Different forces are needed to give the same speed to basketball
and shot put, also different forces are needed to stop a basketball moving with
different speeds.
cbse-i
On clubbing the two quantities, mass and velocity, a new quantity is coined
called momentum. It is defined as the product of mass (m) and velocity (v) of
given object and written as
p = m v
Momentum is a vector quantity whose direction is same as that of the velocity.

Its SI units are kg m/s.
It can be understood as measure of quantity of motion, as in daily life anything
having strong momentum is considered to carry that state for long. Force acting
on an object depends on the change in momentum in a given interval of time.
Accordingly, net force on an object is directly proportional to the rate of change
of momentum of that object.
Hence instantaneous force is given by:
dp
= k
dt
F =
dp
dt
dp
dt
The value of the constant of proportionality, k, depends on the way we define

the unit of force. In SI units, we take k = 1. Hence
The above expression gives a quantitative way to define and measure force.
We realize that force depends not only on the change in momentum but also
the interval in which this change takes place. Force is a vector quantity and its
direction is same as that of the change of momentum.
We have:

Now

F av =
F =
p f pi
p
=
t (t2 t1 )
d p d (m p )
d v dm
=
=m
+v
dt
dt
dt
dt
cbse-i
dm
If mass of an object does not change with time, we have

= 0. Hence force
dt
can be written as
F =
(where
dv
a =
dt
dv
m
=ma
dt
is the acceleration of the given object)
The direction of force is, therefore, the same as that of acceleration of the
given object.
In rectangular coordinate form, force and acceleration can be written as
F = Fx i + Fy j + Fz k
a = ax i + ay j + az k
Fx i + Fy j + Fz k = m ( ax i + ay j + az k )
This implies that

Fx = max
Fy = may
Fz = maz
Hence the forces along the x, y and z axes can be expressed as:

Fx = max
Fy = may
Fz = maz
Units of force
SI units of force is the newton, (symbol N) in the honour of Newton who
discovered the laws of motion. In CGS units, the absolute unit of force is dyne
(symbol dyn).
cbse-i
One Newton can be defined as the force that would cause an acceleration of
1 ms2 in a mass of 1 kg.
One dyne, similarly, equals the force that would produce an acceleration of
1 cms2 in a mass of 1g.
It follows that 1 N = 105 dyne.
Sometimes gravitational units are used to measure force. In SI units the
gravitational unit of force is the kilogram weight (kg wt). It is also known as
kilogram force (kgf).
One kilogram weight or kilogram force is that force which can cause an
acceleration of 9.8 ms2 in a body of mass 1 kg.
1 kg wt = 9.8 N
In the CGS system, the gravitational unit is gram weight (g wt).It is also known
as gram force (gf). One gram weight or gram force is that force which can cause
an acceleration of 980 cms2 in a body of mass 1 g.
1 g wt = 980 dyn
Using a digital weighing balance, get an estimate of a force of 1 N by pressing it with the
help of your finger. 1 N can also be regarded as nearly equal to the force experienced by
our (stretched) palm when a mass of 100 g is put on it.
Did You Know?
Weighing machines actually tell the weight (force on a body due to earth) in terms of kgwt.
Try to find out your weight in terms of newton.
An Interesting Query: Force applied and the Resulting Direction of motion.

Suppose we ask ourselves this question:
A force, say F , is applied on an object. Would the direction of displacement of
the object be along that of F ?
cbse-i
It is usual to expect a layman to say Yes to this question. However, a close

look at the basic terms (used for description of motion) and Newtons second
law reveals that, in general, this is not so.
ds
v=
dt
We know that
. Hence d s = v dt , which implies that the instantaneous
direction of displacement of an object is along the direction of its instantaneous
velocity. Further, as per Newtons second law, F = m a . This implies that it is

the acceleration of the object (and not its velocity) which has the same direction
as that of the force applied.
From kinematical equations of motion, we know that
v = u + a t
Hence the direction of v (and, therefore, of displacement) can be the same as
that of a (and, therefore, of the force applied) only if
Either (i) | u| = 0
Or (ii) a has the same direction as that of u
Thus, an object would get displaced, along the direction of the force applied
on it, only when
Either (i) the object is initially at rest
Or (ii) the force applied is along the same direction as that of the initial velocity
of the object.
In general, however, the displacement of the object would be in a direction
different from that of the applied force.
A closer look at the two forms of Newtons second law of motion:
Newtons second law of motion, has the mathematical form:
10
F =
dp
dt
cbse-i
Since p = m v , this implies that
F =
d
d v dm
(m v ) = m
+v
dt
dt
dt
In most of the ordinary situations, we can regard M to be a constant and therefore

dm
dt
equals zero. However,
(i) For objects moving at speeds close to that of light, we have, from Einsteins
theory of relativity
m=

m0
1
v2
, which indicates that m keeps on changing with changes in v.
c2
(ii) For objects like a rocket burning out its fuel or a leaking water tanker,
the overall mass of the object keeps on changing with time.
We cannot, therefore, regard the mass of the object to be a constant in all
situations. The often used form of the second law, namely,
F = m a
is, therefore, a special form of this law that can be used only for objects whose
mass does not change with time. It is the form
F =
dp
dt
of the second law that must therefore be regarded as the fundamental and
general mathematical representation of Newtons second law of motion.
Illustration 1. A ball of mass 1kg is dropped from a point 20 m above the
ground which after hitting the ground rises to a same height.

Find the change in momentum of ball due to collision with
the ground.
Solution. mass m = 1 kg

speed with which ball strikes the ground
v2 u2 = 2as
11
cbse-i
v2 0 = 2 (10) (20)
v =
400 = 20 m/s
downwards
Velocity before colliding with ground
20 m
y
vi
Figure 4
v f = 20 j
vf
Speed after colliding with ground will be same as it eventually attains same
height. Velocity of ball after collision
v f = 20 j
Change in momentum during collision
p = p f pi = m( v f vi )
Illustration 2. In the previous problem find the force exerted by ground on
the ball if interaction time between ball and ground is 0.1

second?
Solution. Average force on the ball due to ground
Fav
p p f pi
=
=
t
t 2 t1
p = 40 j
Fav =
pf
40 j
= 400 j
0.1
x
pi
Figure 5
Illustration 3. A 1000 kg car developed a snag and is standing in the middle of a
road. The driver and a help pulled it with two ropes respectively
with forces 200 2 N 45 east of south and 400N 30 north of east.
Assuming negligible friction, find the acceleration of car.
12
cbse-i
Solution.
y
y
N
30
200 sin 30
200 cos 30
x
E
45
S
200 N
200 N
30
200 2 sin 45
45
200 2
S
200 2 cos 45
200 2
Figure 6
Choose a coordinate system as shown in figure
Net force along x-axis

Fx = 200 2 cos 45 + 400 cos 30
Fx = 200 2
Fx = 200 + 400 0.86
Fx = 544 N
1
2
+ 400
3
2
Similarly net force along y-axis

Fy = 400 sin 30 200 2 cos 45
Fy = 400
Fy = 200 200
Fy = 0 N
1
200
2
1
2
Using Newtons second law

F = Fx i + Fy j
F = 544i = m a
a =
544
i = 5.44i m/s2
100
Therefore acceleration is along +x-axis i.e. due east.
13
cbse-i
3.2.2 Mass
The first law helps us to define mass as measure of inertia. It is a characteristic
property of a body which, in a way, can be regarded as related to its existence.
Literally, mass can be regarded as the matter content of a body. Hence it depends
on the number of atoms or molecules it has got.
The second law of motion provides us with a quantitative way to define mass.
As per this law, mass can be defined as ratio of net force acting on the body to
its resulting acceleration.
m =
F

a
(1)
Consider two blocks A and B under the influence of same net force. Let the
acceleration of block B be more than that of block A (i.e., aB > aA)
From the above equation, we get
ma
mB
aB
aa
>1
Hence we can conclude that the more massive an object is, the smaller is its
acceleration for a given force. We also realize that by comparing the acceleration
of a given object, with that of a standard mass of 1 kg, we can find the mass
of that object.
The mass of a body is a scalar quantity.
3.2.3 Weight of a body

The concept of weight is often used in daily life as an indicator of its heaviness
or lightness. In physics, it is the force experienced by a body due to the
gravitational pull of the earth that is called as its weight. We are aware that the
acceleration due to earths gravitational force, for bodies near the earths surface,
is 9.8 ms2. By Newtons second law, weight of a body is given by
F = m g
Here g is acceleration due to gravity. Its value can vary with the location of
place on the earth. The direction of weight is same as that of acceleration due
to gravity i.e. towards the centre of earth, or vertically downwards.
14
cbse-i
mg
mg
h
Re
Figure 7
Concept Probe
1. How can one measure mass in a space station?
2. How can one change the weight of an object?
3.2.4 Impulse
Let different students be asked to catch water balloons of different sizes that have been
thrown to different heights. They can discuss the best strategy to catch the balloon safely.
Change in speed, for balloons of a particular mass thrown to a particular height is same
but the duration over which the catch is spread is important. Why?
The above activity can help us to understand that for a given change in
momentum but taking place over different time intervals results in different
forces. Greater the interval of impact, lesser the force experienced by the person
catching the balloon, (for the same change in momentum). It follows that while
catching the balloon, one should take the hands back, and thereby increase the
interval of impact.
We know that the force acting on a body can cause it to accelerate and thereby,
changes its momentum. Sometimes the force acting on the body is
(i) not constant during the impact
(ii) acts for a very small duration
A tennis ball hit by a racket, collision of two billiards ball, can be viewed as
examples of such situations. In such cases, it is very difficult to measure the
15
cbse-i
duration of impact or variation of

force during the impact. In such
situations, the impact or effect of a
force can be measured through the
change in momentum of the body.
The change in momentum, caused
by a force is called the impulse of
force.
Figure 8
The expression for the impulse of force is therefore, But
I = Pf Pi = P
dP
dt
But
= F
I =
F dt
t1
We can also write:
P
t
t2
= Fav
Where Pf is the final momentum and Pi is the initial momentum of the body
on which the given force acts.
One can write the impulse expression also as
I = Fav t
P
t
= Fav
The impulse of force can therefore be also defined as the product of the force
and the duration for which it acts on a given body.
In case of varying forces, we can write
I =
t2
t1
16
F dt
cbse-i
The SI units of impulse are Ns or kg m/s. It is a vector quantity whose direction

is the same as that of force or that of the change in momentum.
3.3 NEWTONS THIRD LAW OF MOTION
Materials required:

balloons (one for each team)

plastic straws (one for each team)
cello tape
plastic string, 8 - 10 meters in length
a stopwatch
a measuring tape
Straw
Balloon
Procedure:
1. Divide students into groups of four or five.
2. Attach one end of the string to the blackboard with tape. Ask one member of the
team to hold the other end of the string so that it is taut and roughly horizontal.
3. Ask one member to blow up a balloon and hold it, at its opening, in his or her fingers.
Now ask another member of the team to tape the straw along the side of the balloon.
Thread the string through the straw and hold the balloon at the far end of the line.
4. Assign one member to time the race till it reaches the blackboard or when it stops
moving.
5. Measure the exact distance the rocket travelled. Calculate the average speed at which
the balloon travelled.
Distance (cm)
Time (s)
Speed (cm/s)
Team 1
Team 2
Team 3
Team 4
The winner of this race is the team with the fastest average balloon speed.
17
cbse-i
What makes the balloon rocket move? What exerts force on the balloon? What
makes the air rush out of the balloon? One can explain it like this: the air,
gushing out of balloon, exerts a force on the balloon while the balloon exerts
force on the air in the opposite direction.
In a similar way, a billiard ball, when it strikes another ball at rest, causes the
change in velocity of both. This also suggests that the two balls exert forces
on each other in opposite directions, resulting in the change in momentum of
both.
The results of such observations led Newton to suggest that for every action
between two bodies, there is always an equal and opposite reaction. One can,
therefore say that the mutual forces between two bodies are always
(i) equal in magnitude
(ii) opposite in direction
(iii) collinear
(iv) act on different bodies
These results were formalized by Newton in the form

of a statement that is now known as third law.
B
FAB
FBA
Figure 9
According to Newtons third law:

For a system of two bodies A and B, the force on A due to B, is equal and
opposite to the force on B due to A.
Force on A due to B

(FaB ) = ( FBa )
Force on B due to A
Newtons third law implies that, in this universe, no
force is isolated and every force has its counterpart
which is equal and opposite to it i.e. forces occurs in
pairs.
In the light of this law, it would be amusing to realize
that a man of 70 kg standing on the surfaces of force,
experiencing a force (equal to his weight) of 686 N
due to earth must be pulling the earth with the same
force.
18
man
mg
mg
Figure 10
Earth
cbse-i
If one calculates the acceleration of the man due to this force, it comes out to
be 9.8ms-2. What will be the earths acceleration? Mass of earth is very large
(Me = 6 1024 kg) as compared to mass of man (m = 70 kg) . Therefore, for the
same force, the ratio of the acceleration of the earth and the man is
aearth
aman
m
70
=
Me 6 10 24
1023
Hence acceleration of earth is insignificant as compared to man.

Communication is heavily dependent on satellites these days, which are put
in space, with the help of rockets. What causes these rockets to go up, even
though the earth is pulling them down continuously? We all know that in case
of rockets gases are produced by burning of their fuel. As these gases ooze out
in the downward direction, the rocket moves in the upward direction. The third
law thus helps us to understand how satellites go up in space.
Equation of Motion of a Rocket

We can obtain an equation for the motion of a rocket which is burning its fuel
gases at a constant rate.
Let M0 be the initial (total) mass of a rocket and let it be burning its fuel gases
at a constant rate of mass units per unit time. Let us also assume that the
exhaust gases escape out of the rocket with a constant speed, say, u.
Let M be the mass of the rocket at an instant t and let v be its speed at that
instant. We have

dm
dt
dM = dt
This decrease dM in the mass of the rocket comes about because of the burning
of its fuel. Since the escape gases go out with a speed u, the rocket speed must
go up by an amount dv such that

(dM) u = (M) dv
or
u dt = M dv
dv = udt
m
19
cbse-i
But M = M0 t.
Hence
dv =
udt
(m 0 t )
By integration we get
v
dv = ua
u
( )
dt
(m 0 t )
v =
or
v = u [loge M0 loge (M0 t]
= u
log e (m 0 t )
or
1
loge
t
1
m0

= u loge 1
u loge 1 +
m0
m0
for those values of and t for which we can assume t << M0.
This equation gives us the speed of the rocket at any time t after it starts from
rest. We can therefore regard it as the equation of motion of rocket under the
special conditions assumed here.
A COMMON MISCONCEPTION
Force causing action occurs first and the force of reaction comes into play thereafter.
Action and reaction forces being equal and opposite, the net force, on any object, should
be zero.
Look for the correct explanation of these misconceptions!
20
cbse-i
Did You Know?
Ernst Mach of Germany, suggested that whatever Newton said can be said in a single
sentence even without the use of a term like momentum. He said when two point sized
objects act on each other, they accelerate in opposite directions and the ratio of their
accelerations is always the same. Try establishing the equivalence of Mach and Newtons
statements.
Concept Probe
1. Can one deduce Newtons three laws of motion from one of these laws?

How is this possible?
2. Action and reaction are always equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. How can
anything ever be accelerated then?
3.4 Conservation of linear momentum
What makes the sparkles of a firecracker spread in all directions, as it bursts

in midair? We know what makes rockets move up. If rocket and its exhaust
gases are together taken as a single system, what is the net force on the system?
From the third law we know that the rocket and gases exert equal and opposite
forces on each other and for the rocket-gases system, these forces are internal
forces of the system. Since the external force on the system is zero (if gravity
is neglected by considering the rocket far away from the earth) the systems
acceleration must be zero. The momentum of this system will, therefore, remain
constant, as the acceleration of the system is zero.
We have

Fext = ma =
dp
dt
= 0,
p = constant
pinitial = pfinal
21
cbse-i
We can, therefore, say that if no external force acts on a system of particles, the
total linear momentum of the system remains unchanged.
The above statement is also valid for closed and isolated system.
Consider a system comprising of more than one body, under the influence
of zero external force. For such a system, the internal forces can change the
momentum of parts of the system but the total linear momentum of the whole
system remains the same.
The above equality can be expressed in terms of the rectangular components
of the momentum vectors. One can conclude that if the external force along
one axis, say x-axis is zero, the momentum along that axis (x-axis) will remain
unchanged. Therefore, depending on the external force acting on the system,
linear momentum can be conserved along one or two directions even though it
may not not be considered in all directions.
Concept Probe
An object, when thrown up, breaks up in the mid air. Is momentum conserved for this
object?
Solving problems using Newtons law

It is often convenient and easy to follow the steps given below to solve problems
using Newtons laws of motion:
(a) Select a non accelerating observer or an inertial frame of reference.
(b) Select a closed and isolated system i.e. a system in which no external force
acts on the system.
(c) If the external force is not zero i.e. system is not isolated, identify the axis/
axes or direction/directions along which the component of the external
force is zero.
(d) Find the initial and final momenta of the constituents of the system and
equate them along the above axes or directions.
22
cbse-i
3.5 Applying Newtons Law
In order to solve problems related to Newtons laws, we often use the following
terms/concepts along with others.
1. Normal reaction
When two bodies are in contact and are pressed against each other, they exert (a
push) force on each other called the normal reaction. It is always perpendicular
to the surfaces in contact and is always a push. This force lasts as long as the
contact between two surfaces lasts. Let us consider few situations to understand
how normal reaction acts.
(a) When a block is placed on a horizontal surface (like ground, table top etc.), the
block pushes the surface down with a force N 1 in the downward direction, while
the horizontal surface pushes the block with a force N 2 in the upward direction.
According to Newtons third law N 1 = N 2

N1
It may be noted that weight of the block is

the force between the earth and it while the
forces, discussed above, are between the block
and the horizontal surface in contact.
N2
Figure 11
(b) When two blocks are kept in contact on a

horizontal surface, as shown here, the two blocks can exert forces on each other
when an external force (say, F ) acts on any one of them, say on block A.
For the set up shown here, the block A
pushes block B with a force N Ba towards

right while block B pushes block A with
a force N aB towards left. According to
A
F
NBA
B
NAB
Figure 12
Newtons third law N Ba = N aB .
23
cbse-i
(c) Let the block be placed on an inclined surface,

as shown here. The block exerts a normal push
N1
on the surface (say, N 1 ) and the inclined
N2
q
surface pushes the block with a force N 2 along

a direction normal to the surface.

Figure 13
According to Newtons third law: N 1 = N 2 .
2. Tension
A taut rope can be used to exert a force and is used in daily life in situations like
pulling a water bucket out of a well, tow a vehicle, lift weights in gymnasium
and so on. In all such cases, one part of a rope pulls its adjacent part; it can
also pull a body attached to its end.
We often refer to such a pulling force as tension.
In the adjoining figure, the part AB of the rope pulls
the part OA with a force (or tension) T1 (towards
right) and, in return, it itself is pulled with a force (or
tension) T2 (towards left) as per the third law.
A
T1
T2
B
T1
T2
Figure 14
Similarly, the part AB of rope pulls its part BC with

a force (or tension) T2 (towards left) and in return gets pulled with a force (or
tension T2) (towards right) as per the third law.
The part AB of rope is, therefore, pulled outwards by
forces T1 and T2 as shown.
For a massless rope, the value of tension, at all points
along its length is same. Thus, in the above case, we
have T1 = T2, provided the mass of the rope can be
neglected.
T1
T2
Figure 15
Additional suggestions for solving problems using Newtons laws:

For analyzing the details of motion of a given object, or system, we need to
be aware of what constitutes the system in our problems and what are the
different forces acting on the system. Hence we can proceed as follows:
24
cbse-i
(a) Draw a neat diagram and identify the system.

(b) Indicate all the forces acting on the constituent parts and bodies, in the
system. Here it would be worthwhile to remember that strings, or ropes,
exert forces of tension on objects joined to them; surfaces, in contact, exert
forces of normal reaction on each other, earth exerts a vertically downward
force (called the weight), on objects near it, and so on.
(c) Select a non-accelerating or inertial observer and a coordinate axis system. It
can be different for different bodies with one of the axis along the direction
of motion while other axis is perpendicular to it.
(d) Draw a free body diagram, a simplified diagram for each body separately
showing only those forces, which act on it. Resolve the forces along the
axes and equate net forces along each axis to the product of the mass and
the acceleration along that axis. Thus.

Fx,net = max
Fy,net = may
(e) It is always good to check whether the results are physically relevant or
not.
We now consider few illustrations to show how these suggestions can be put
to use in different situations.
Illustration 4. Two bodies of masses 40 kg and 20 kg respectively kept on a
smooth horizontal surface are tied to the ends of a light string.

A horizontal force F = 300 N is applied at (i) A (ii) B along the
direction of string. Find the tension in the string in each case.
Solution. Consider the observer to be standing on the ground and draw different
forces acting on the two bodies.
A
N1
mg
N2
m2 g
Figure 16
25
cbse-i
(i) Drawing free body diagrams (FBD) for these two bodies
FBD for B
FBD for A
y
N2
N1
x
m1g
m2g
Figure 17
Writing equations:
For block B: T = 20 a
(1)
For block A: F T = 40 a
(2)
Substituting values of T and F, in the second equation, we get,

300 20 a = 40 a
a =
300
= 5 ms2
60
Hence both the bodies will move with acceleration = 5 ms2.

T = 20 5 = 100 N
(ii) If the force is applied at B

B
N1
N2
F
m2g
m1g
Figure 18
FBD for B
FBD for A
y
N1
N2
x
m2g
m1g
Figure 19
26
cbse-i
Writing equations,

For block B: F T = 20 a
(3)
For block A: T = 40 a
(4)
Using equations (3) and (4)

300 40 a = 20 a
300 = 60 a
a = 5 ms2
300 T = 20 5 = 100
T = 200 N
Illustration 5. Two masses 4 kg and 16 kg are connected at the two ends of a
light inextensible string that goes over a frictionless pulley. Find

the acceleration of the masses and the tension in the string when
the masses are released.
Solution.
Consider the observer to be standing
on the ground and draw forces on
the blocks.
free body diagram for the two

blocks.
T
a
m1g
T
m1 = 4 kg
m2g
Figure 21
T
m2 = 16 kg
m1g
Figure 20
27
cbse-i
Writing equations
For block of mass m1
T m1g = m1 a
(1)
For block of mass m2
m2 g T = m2 a
(2)
On adding equations (1) and (2)
m2g m1g = (m2 + m1) a

a =
(m2 m1 ) g
= 6 ms-2
(m2 + m1 )
Substituting the value of a in the equation (1), we get:
T m1g =
T =
m1 (m2 m1 ) g
(m2 + m1 )
2 m1 m2 g
= 64 N
(m2 + m1 )
Hence the tension on the string will be 64 N while the acceleration of the
body will be 6 ms2
Illustration 6. A block of mass m is kept on the floor of an elevator. Find the

apparent weight of the block when
(i) elevator moves down with uniform velocity v

(ii) elevator moves down with uniform acceleration a < g
(iii) elevator moves up with uniform acceleration a
(iv) elevator falls freely
Solution. How much we weigh (apparently), depends on the force exerted by the
supporting surface like floor. The true weight of an object is the gravitational
force acting on it due to earth i.e., mg.
Consider the observer to be standing on the ground and draw forces on
the block.

28
(i) Two forces act on the block namely weight (mg) in downward
direction and normal reaction (N) from the floor in upward direction.
As acceleration of block is zero, hence net force on the block is zero.
cbse-i
x
mg
mg
FBD of block
Figure 22
mg N = 0
N = mg

(ii) As the block accelerates downwards, the net force is in downward
direction and hence mg > N.
mg N = ma
N = m(g a)
Apparent weight is lesser than true weight.

(iii) As the block accelerates upwards, the net force is in upward direction
and hence mg < N.
N mg = ma
N = m(g + a)
Apparent weight is more than true weight.

(iv) As the block accelerates downwards, the net force is in downward
direction.
mg N = ma
In case of free fall a = g

mg N = mg
N = 0
The block would be apparently weightless.
What will happen if the elevator accelerates down with acceleration more
than acceleration due to gravity?
29
cbse-i
3.6 Equilibrium for translatory motion
Is it essential for a body to be at rest when no force is acting on it? What happens
when forces are acting on it? Does our answer change if sum of all the forces
acting on it is zero?
Is it possible for a body to keep moving in the absence of any force on it or
when the sum of forces acting on it zero?
When the forces acting on a given body are such that the net sum of all these
forces is zero, the given body is said to be in translatory equilibrium. It is worth
remembering that when the net force is zero, the sum of components of all the
forces, along the (respective) axes are also zero.
Equilibrium of Concurrent Forces; Lamis Theorem

It is easy to prove the following results for a set of concurrent forces that keep
an object in equilibrium:
(i) A given system of concurrent forces comes in equilibrium when another
concurrent force, equal and opposite to their resultant, is added to the
system.
This new force, which brings the given system (of concurrent forces) in
equilibrium, is known as the equilibrant of that system.
(ii) When a system of concurrent forces is in equilibrium, we may regard each
of these forces as the equilibrant of all the other forces of the system.
(iii) All the forces of a given system of concurrent forces in equilibrium would
be representable by the sides of a polygon taken in order.
(iv) For a system of three concurrent forces in equilibrium, we have a special
result, known as the Lamis theorem. According to this theorem:
In a system of three concurrent forces (say P, Q and R) in equilibrium,
each force is proportional to the sine of the angle between the other two
forces. Thus

30
P
Q
r
=
=
sin
sin b sin g
cbse-i
This result follows immediately from the two figures given here. This
theorem proves quite useful in solving many problems.
(p a)
Q
a
P
b
Figure 23
Illustration 7. A block of mass 10 kg hangs
A
37
53
by a string as shown in the

figure. If the three strings are
of negligible masses find the
tension in the three strings.
(take g = 10 m/s-2)
10 kg
Figure 24
Solution. The forces on the block are weight due to earths gravitational pull (10 kg
downward) and tension force due to string (T upwards). These forces are
along vertical axis (y-axis) and as the block is in equilibrium, net force on
the block is zero.
T2
FBD of 10 kg block
37
53
T1
B
T
T
y
10 kg
10 kg
10 kg
Figure 25
31
cbse-i
Fy,net = 0 = T mg
T = 10 g = 100 N
(1)
Now consider the knot B, it is being pulled down by tension force T, pulled
along string BA with T1 and pulled along string BC with T2 as shown in the
figure. The knot is also in equilibrium, hence net force on it zero. Consider
x-axis along horizontal and y-axis along vertical. On resolving T1 and T2
along these axes, we get
FBD of knot B
y
T2
T2 cos 53
T1
T1 cos 37
53
37
x
T2 cos 53
T1 cos 37
T
Figure 26
Fx,net = 0 = T1 cos 37o T2 cos 53o
T1 cos 37o = T2 cos 53o
T1
4 T1 = 3 T2
0 = T2
4
3
+ T1
T
5
5
4 T2 + 3 T1 = 100
From equation, (2) and (3) we can write
32
(2)
Fy, net = 0 = T1 sin 37o + T2 sin 53o T
4
3
= T2
5
5
T2 = 16 N and T1 = 12 N
(3)
cbse-i
3.7 FRICTION
Have you ever tried to push a heavy box placed on a floor? We often find that
it is not so easy. As per Newtons second law, a substantial force could cause
significant acceleration in objects of daily life
but sometimes they dont seem to budge at
all.
F
We can understand such situations by realizing

that in such cases, there must be an additional
force acting on the box opposing the external
force. The force needed to push the box
f
reduces considerably if the box is kept on a
Figure 27
smoother surface. This force which opposes
the impending motion is called the force of
friction (f). The force of friction not only opposes the relative motion between
the two sliding surfaces but can cause abrasion and wear of surfaces. On the
other side, absence of friction force would make all bolts and nuts useless. Nails
will not get stuck inside the grooves made in walls, and walking on slippery
surface would just not be convenient at all!
Leonardo da Vinci
The Great scientist, Leonardo da Vinci, discovered the laws
governing friction (in 1508), but he never published this
work. Later, Frenchman Amontos in 1699 rediscovered these
laws independently. He added more to what Vinci wanted
to say.
3.7.1 Origin of friction force

Rough surfaces (surface irregularities or coarse) are known to offer greater
friction force as it is easier to move a body on the floor of a room than to move
33
cbse-i
it on a road. When the two surfaces in contact are rubbed with sand paper or
polished, friction decreases. However on smoothening the surfaces beyond a
certain limit, the friction force increases. Therefore, roughness of surface alone
is inadequate to explain the origin of the force of friction.
In 1950s, Bowden and Tabor suggested that surface adhesion is the most
important factor to understand friction. The points of contact between two
bodies get welded with each other due to the formation of bonds between the
molecules of two bodies. During sliding, these bonds get broken resulting in
frictional force but new bonds keep on getting formed at new contacts. One can
hence conclude that the nature of the surfaces of the two bodies must affect the
frictional force between them.
(a)
(b)
Figure 28
3.7.2 Static friction

The force of friction that comes into play between two surfaces before the onset
of any relative motion between them is known as the force of static friction. Let
us look at some characteristics of this force through an activity.
How to measure friction force?
1. By suspending weight. The force of static friction (between
a block and a surface) can be measured by measuring the
load suspended from a cord; the load values being such
that the block continues to remain at rest. It would be
observed that the force of static friction can have a range
of values. We can find the maximum value of load for
which block remains at rest.
Place additional weights on the top of the block and the observe the maximum value
of load for which the block remains at rest.
34
cbse-i
2. By using a Spring balance. Arrange

the spring balance-block set up in
the manner shown.
Pull the spring balance connected to
the block and slowly increase the force until the block just begins to slide. Make sure
that the spring balance is pulled parallel to the surface. Measure the maximum reading
on the spring balance scale up to which the load remains at rest.
Observe the change in this value when the object
slides over the surface with a constant speed. Repeat
these observations for different combinations of blocks
and/or materials
Fapp
(rest)
fstate
The maximum force of friction acting along the contact
of surfaces of two bodies up to which the external
force is unable to slide one over the other is called the limiting force of static friction.
Before this limiting stage is reached, the force of static friction must have increased
with an increase in the value of the externally applied force. We express this fact by
saying that the force of static friction is a self adjusting force. Its direction is always
opposite to that of external force or the direction of intended relative motion between
the surfaces in contact.
3.7.3 Limiting force of friction

We have noted above that we have to apply a certain minimum (external) force
on the given body to make it finally move on a given surface. The (static) force
of friction can increase up to a maximum value. When the external force exceeds
this limiting value, the given body starts sliding on the surface. One can define
limiting force of friction as the (maximum) force of static friction which comes
into play between the surfaces of two bodies as one just begins to slide over
the other.
The laws governing the limiting force of friction are as follows:
1. The limiting force of friction is directly promotional to the normal reaction
between the the two surfaces in contact i.e.

flim N
flim = s N
The constant of proportionality, s, is known as the coefficient of static

friction for the given pair of surfaces.
35
cbse-i
The value of s depends on the nature of the materials of two surfaces in

contact, their roughness, temperature, their state of lubrication etc.
2. The limiting force of friction is (nearly) independent of the area of surfaces
in contact, provided the normal reaction remains unchanged.
3.7.4 Kinetic friction

It is a matter of common observation that it is more difficult to start a relative
motion between a given pair of surfaces but relatively easier to maintain this
motion once it has started. Leonhard Euler observed this distinction and
suggested that static friction is different than kinetic friction.
The force of friction, coming into play, along the
surface of contact, when one body slides over other,
is called the force of kinetic friction (fk). This force
is a little less than the limiting force of friction. Its
direction is however again opposite to the direction
of relative motion of the two surfaces in contact.
The laws governing the force of kinetic friction are
as follows:
Fapp
fkinetic
Figure 29
1. The force of kinetic friction is directly proportional to the normal reaction

between the two surfaces in contact (after the start of relative motion
between them) i.e. (after the start of relative motion between them)

fk N
fk = k N
The constant of proportionality, k is known as the coefficient of kinetic

friction.
The value of k depends on the nature of the material of two bodies in
contact, roughness, temperature, their state of lubrication and so on.
2. The force of kinetic friction is (nearly) independent of the area of surfaces
in contact.
In general, s is greater than k. Can you guess why? There can be
exceptions to this rule.
36
cbse-i
Did You Know?
Study of frictional forces is called tribiology
3.7.5 Variation of force of friction with applied or external

force
Consider a block kept on a rough (and hard) surface as shown in the figure.
Fapp
(rest)
Fapp
(about to move)
flim
fstate
Figure 30
Let Fapp be the external force acting on the block along the horizontal direction.
We observe that as this force increases from zero value, the block initially,
continues to remain at rest. Hence the force
of static friction must be acting on the block
opposite to the direction of Fapp. It increases
as the applied force increases, till it reaches its
rest
motion
limiting value flim. For values of (externally)
flim
f
applied force greater than this limiting value, the
fk
block starts sliding. The force of friction that acts
now, is the force of kinetic friction and remains
Fapp
almost constant as shown in the graph.
Figure 31
3.7.6 Rolling friction

Have you ever tried cycling with one of the wheel jammed by locking it? Oh!
it is so difficult! One can say that rolling a wheel is easier than sliding it over
a surface.
37
cbse-i
It is this observation that helps us appreciate why the invention of the wheel
led to a revolution in transportation.
Sliding is different than rolling. Roughness of surfaces plays a role in sliding
but it is the softness of surfaces, in contact, which is the major cause of rolling
friction. When a body like a wheel tries to roll over a soft surface, the surface
gets deformed a bit and the wheel is inside a small crater. As a result, the front
part of the wheel experiences a normal reaction from the bump, which opposes
the motion of the wheel.
In fact in case of perfect rolling, the two surfaces in contact do not have any
relative motion between them. It is this difference in the nature of the cause of
friction in the two cases, that makes rolling friction much smaller than sliding
friction.
Grater
(b)
(a)
Figure 31
Read more.
http://www.clickandlearn.org/Physics/sph3u/friction_force.htm
http://www.tribology-abc.com/abc/friction.htm
Concept Probe
1. It is very difficult to move a bicycle with a flat tire. Why?
2. Wheels of vehicles, moving in desert areas, have large radii. Why?
Illustration 7. Two blocks of mass 2 kg and 5 kg are connected by an ideal string

passing over a pulley. The block of mass 2 kg is free to slide on
a surface inclined at an angle of 30o with the horizontal whereas
38
cbse-i
5 kg block hangs freely. Find the acceleration of the system and

the tension in the string. Given = 0.50.
Solution. Consider the observer to be standing on the ground and draw forces on
the blocks.
The 5 kg block is pulled down
by 50 N force while 2 kg block
is pulled along the plane with 2g
sin 30o = 10 N. Therefore the 2 kg
block has a tendency to move up
the inclined plane. Therefore force
of friction is down the incline
plane.
2 kg
T
f
5 kg
30
5 kg
For 2 kg block. Consider two axes

one along the surface of inclined
plane and other perpendicular to
the plane
Figure 32
Along perpendicular to the inclined plane

N = 2 g cos
N
T
5 kg
2 kg (FBD)
f
5g
sin
30
30
2 g cos 30
2g
Figure 33
Along the surface of incline plane

T (f + 2 g sin ) = 2 a
T ( N + 2 g sin ) = 2 a
(as f = N)
T (0.5 2 10 cos 30) = 2 a
(1)
39
cbse-i
For 5 kg block
5 g T = 5 a
(2)
Add equations (1) and (2)

5 g (0.5 2 10 0.87) = 2 a + 5 a

(Taking g = 10 ms2)
7 a = 41.3
a = 5.9 ms2
Substituting the value of a in equation (2)

T 5 g = 5 5.9
T = 79.5 N
Hence the bodies will have the acceleration equal to 5.9 m s-2 and string
will have the tension equal to 79.5 N
3.8 Dynamics of Circular motion
Ask a volunteer to tie one end of a string (about half a meter long) to a bob and its other
end to a spring balance. Holding the fixed hook of spring, make the bob move in a circular
path above the volunteers head. Another volunteer, standing besides the first volunteer,
may (carefully) observe the reading in the spring which would be an indicator of the
tension in the string.
We often see objects move in circular paths all around us e.g. giant wheels in
carnivals or theme parks, cycles in velodromes, a stone tied with a string and
whirled around, and so on.
We are aware that even when the speed of the body moving in a circle is
constant, its motion is still accelerated. This acceleration is called the centripetal
(or radial) acceleration and is always directed towards the centre of the circular
40
cbse-i
path. It is given by

ac =
v2
r
ac
F
where v is the speed of the particle and r is the radius

of the circular path.
Figure 34
Hence, from second law of motion, we have

F = ma = m
v2
r
v2
Therefore, a net force of magnitude F= ma = m

must be acting (towards the
r
centre i.e., radially) on the body to keep it moving with a uniform speed along a
circular path. In the absence of this force, the body would move along a straight
line. This force is therefore responsible for the change in the direction of velocity
of the body while the speed remains the same. Because of its radial nature, this
force is known as centripetal force. This force may be due to a single force like
tension, normal reaction, and friction etc. or it can be a resultant of many forces
acting on the given body. We can have any force or resultant of forces that is
responsible for a body to move in a circular path and such a force is called the
centripetal force.
Concept Probe
Is the direction of net force on an object towards the centre of the circular path when it
has a varying speed?
3.8.1 Vehicle on a flat circular road

Consider a vehicle moving with a uniform speed v along a flat circular road
of radius r. A net force must act on the vehicle to
move it along the circular path. Forces, like weight
(mg) and normal reaction (N) cant play the role of
the centripetal force as they are perpendicular to the
direction of acceleration of the vehicle. The force of
friction between the tyres of the vehicle and the road
can be only possible (horizontal) force which can
Figure 35
41
cbse-i
play the role of centripetal force. This suggests that the vehicle, as it moves the
circular road, has a tendency to slide away from the center because only then
we can have a frictional force towards the centre of the track. One can relate
this with the situation where a car takes a sharp turn and its passengers feel as
if they are falling out of the car.
ac
fs
r
mg
Figure 36
Consider various forces acting in a vertical direction, (y-axis),

As there is no net force along the vertical direction,
N = mg
Along the horizontal direction (x-axis), the force of static friction provides the
centripetal force.
v2

fs = m ,
r

where, v = speed of the vehicle,

m = mass of vehicle and

r = radius of the curved path.
As the force of static friction is less than, or equal to, the force of liming friction,
we have
fs s R
Combining these two equations, we get
42
v2
m
or
v2
m
mg
cbse-i
v2
v2 s gr
or
v s rg
or
Hence, vmax = s rg , is the maximum speed with which a vehicle can have a
safe turn on a horizontal curved path.
3.8.2 Bending of a cyclist while turning

We have often seen that a cyclist or motorcyclist
bends towards the centre while moving along a
circular path especially in races. In the case of a car,
one can depend on the friction between tyres and
the road but that (as we have seen above) limits the
(safe) speed with which one can take a turn.
Figure 37
Let us try to figure out how bending can help the

cyclist. We draw all the forces acting on the cyclist, as shown in the figure
y
N
q
N cos q
fs
ac
N sin q
fs
mg
mg
Figure 38
We can see that besides the force of friction, a component of normal reaction
also now contributes towards the centripetal force. We now have
Along x-axis: fs + N sin = m
v2
r
Along y-axis: N cos = mg
(1)
(2)
43
cbse-i
For the maximum permissible safe speed, we have to take the force of friction
as equal to the limiting force of friction
Now
mg
fs s N s

cos q
(3)
From equations (1), (2) and (3), we get

v s + tan q rg
cos q
(4)
The maximum safe speed in this case is thus seen to be more than the maximum
permissible safe speed in case of a flat circular road where there is no bending
of the moving object.
Also one can observe that if we substitute s = 0, we get

v rg tan q
This is called optimum safe speed. For a vehicle moving with a speed lower
than or equal to this value, the component of normal reaction is sufficient to
provide the necessary centripetal force and the (variable or unpredictable) force
of friction need not come into play.
3.8.3 Banking of roads

It is very common to see curved roads with one side elevated than the other
one especially on highways or clover leaves of flyovers. What purpose does this
design serve?
After understanding the reason for bending of a cyclist while turning, it is easy
to conclude that elevating one side of road, called banking of roads, is done to
tilt the vehicle and thereby get the component of normal reaction to contribute
towards providing centripetal force.
Consider a vehicle on a banked road moving with speed v. Considering all the
forces on the vehicle, we can say that the centripetal force is now provided by
the horizontal component of the force of friction and normal reaction.
44
cbse-i
N cos q
fs
N sin q
mg
q
fs cos q
fs sin q
Side view
mg
Figure 39
Along x-axis: fs cos + N sin = m
v2
r
(1)
Along y-axis: N cos = mg + fs sin
(2)
For the maximum permissible speed, without sliding or skidding, the force of
friction has to be considered as having its limiting value
Hence
fs s N
(3)
From equations (1), (2) and (3), we get

s + tan q
rg
1 s tan q
For optimum safe speed, when friction does not come into play, we get (by
putting s = 0)

rg tan q
Banked roads help us in following ways:

One can negotiate the curve at a higher (safe) speed.
Driving becomes safer, even under the situations of flattened tyres or

decrease in friction (due to reasons like rain or mud), as the (horizontal)
component of the force of normal reaction contributes towards the
centripetal force.
Sideways friction can be avoided and this can prolong the life of the
tyres.
45
cbse-i
Concept Probe
1. Can a vehicle go around a banked curved road even if there is no friction?
2. Aircrafts, while in air, take a tilt during a turn. Why?
Illustration 8. Conical pendulum. A particle of mass m is suspended from a ceiling

through a string of length L. The particle moves in a horizontal
circle of radius r. Find (i) the speed of the particle and (ii) the
tension in the string.
Solution. Consider the string to make an angle with vertical as shown in the figure
and the particle moves in a horizontal circular path of radius r. Let the
observer be standing on the ground.
FBD of particle
y
q
x
r
mg
mg
Figure 40
Let x and y axes be along horizontal and vertical directions respectively.

According to the observer, only two forces act on the particle namely
weight (mg downward) and tension (T). On resolving tension along X
and Y axes, T sin will contribute to centripetal force as it is the net force
towards the centre of circle.
46
mv 2

r
Along X-axis: Fnet, x = T sin =
Along Y-axis: Fnet, y = 0 As the particle has no motion along Y-axis
T cos = mg
(1)
(2)
cbse-i
Therefore tension in the string T =
mg

cos q
(where cos =
l2 r 2
)
r
Dividing equation (1) by equation (2)

Speed of the particle v =
rg tan q (where tan =
r
2
l r2
3.9 N
ewtons laws in non-inertial frames of
reference
Consider a block kept on the smooth floor of a cabin which is accelerating.

Also consider two observers one standing out on the ground (inertial observer)
and another one inside the cabin (non-inertial observer). Let us try to analyze
the motion from the point of view of
observer standing on the ground. The net
Cabin
force on the block is zero as its weight,
N
and the normal reaction from the floor of
a
the cabin balance each other. Therefore,
Observer
the acceleration of block with respect to
mg
the observer on the ground is zero.
Consider the situation from the point
of view of an observer in the cabin.
According to this (non-inertial) observer,

Figure 41
a block, cabin = 0 a = a
Hence, according to the (non-inertial) observer in the cabin, the block must be
experiencing a force of

F = m a
47
cbse-i
Physical forces, like weight and normal

N
reaction, cant explain this net force on
a
the block. Therefore, this observer in
F
Observer
cabin must invent a new force to explain
the acceleration of the block observed by
mg
him/her. This force is known as pseudo
Figure 42
or a fictitious force. The name implies
that this force has no known physical
origin, like interaction between bodies etc. The only condition is that this force
is, associated with an accelerating observer, or with a non-inertial frame of
reference. It is always in a direction opposite to that of observer. The force may be
termed pseudo but its effects are real. For example, when a bus starts suddenly,
we know that the passengers fall backwards due to inertia. This situation can be
viewed by the observer in the bus. Our (non-inertial) observer would now be an
accelerating one. Hence, according to this observer, the fellow passenger must
experience a (pseudo) force in a direction opposite to the direction of acceleration
of the observer. This helps the non-inertial observer to explain falling of the
passengers backwards.
3.9.1 Centrifugal force

What happens to a person sitting on a merry go round? Analyze this situation
from the point of view of an observer standing on the ground. What if the
observer is the person himself on the wheel? The person feels there is something
which pushes him off the wheel. How much is this force according to him? Is
it different from that observed by the observer standing on the ground?
We have seen that objects moving along circular paths with uniform speeds need
some force or net force acting towards the centre and aptly called the centripetal
force. This dynamics of circular motion is from the point of view of an observer
standing on the ground.
Consider a bob tied to a string, being rotated in a
circular path of radius r in the horizontal plane. For an
inertial observer or observer standing out, the tension
T in the string will provide the centripetal force.

48
T = F =
mv
r
v
r
T
Figure 43
cbse-i
where r is a unit vector along the radius in the outward sense.

In the rotating frame which is a non inertial frame i.e. an observer moving
on the circle along with the bob, the bob is at rest.
For this (non-inertial) observer, the bob experiences
v
not only the tension, T but also a pseudo force called
Observer
the centrifugal force F in the outward direction. The
F
r
T
magnitude of the centrifugal force would be equal to
the tension but opposite in direction. It would be only
then that the bob can be at rest for the observer in the
Figure 44
rotating frame. Hence, one can write for the observer
in rotating frame,

T + F centrigual = 0
T = F =
mv
Illustration 9. A disc revolves in a horizontal plane at a uniform rate of 3
revolutions per second. A coin just remains on the disc if kept at

a distance of 2 cm from the centre of disc. (a) What is the coefficient
of friction between the coin and the disc. (b) Find the maximum
revolutions per second the disc can have so that the coin, placed
at 1 cm from the centre of disc doesnt move with respect to the
disc.
Solution. The given problem can be done by considering the accelerated observer.
Let us consider an observer moving along with the coin.

(a) Forces on the coin according to this observer are: weight (mg
(downward)), normal reaction (N (upward)), centrifugal force
mv
(radically outwards)) and friction force (fs (radially)) inwards as the

coin has a tendency to go outwards due to the centrifugal force. Let
x and y axes be along horizontal and vertical directions respectively.
The coin is in equilibrium, hence net force on the coin is zero.
49
cbse-i
Observer
f
r
Coin
x
mg
Figure 45
Along X axis:
Fnet, x = 0
flim =
N =
N =
Along Y axis:
mv 2
r
m ( 2 pr )2
rT
m 4 rp2
T2
(speed v =
2 pr
)
T
...(1)
fnet, y = 0
mg = N
...(2)
Using equation (1) and (2)
g =
4 rp2
T2
...(3)
4 0.02 3.14 3.14 3 3

= 0.725
10
(b) The coin will remain at rest with respect to the disc as long as the
friction force can balance the centrifugal force. The maximum value
of revolutions per sec for the disc will be regulated by the limiting
friction force. Using equation (3) from above
1
T
No of revolutions per second f = =
1 1 0.725 1
=
=
8.5 = 0.68 s-1
2 p r 2 p 0.01 2 p
Frame of Reference
We know that the concepts of rest and motion are relative concepts. A given
object at a give time may be regarded to be at rest or in motion depending on
50
cbse-i
the observer observing its motion. A more formal way, of stating this result is
through the concept of what are known as frames of reference
To describe the motion of any given object it is necessary to select
(i) A reference point, or origin and
(ii) a co-ordinate system, or axis, defining the reference directions.
A frame of reference may be said to have been defined when its origin and its
co-ordinate system have been selected and defined.
Which frame of reference do we need to used to describe a given motion? A
convenient rule for this is:
To describe any given motion, consider that frame of reference in which the
(relevant) description of that motion is the simplest.
It is important to note here that there is no single unique frame of reference
to which all motions can be referred. We need to follow the convenient rule,
quoted above and thereby select the appropriate frame of reference for any
given system/situation.
Inertial Frames of Reference

We know that we can use Newtons second law of motion to give a dynamical
and hence a kinematical description of any given motion. The second law
is usually used in the form: F = m a . Here F stands for physical forces, i.e.,
forces, that originate due to interactions between different entities.
We say that any frame of reference, in which Newtons second law, (in the
form
F = m a ) can be used to describe motion is known an inertial frame of reference.

All frames of reference, that are either at rest or having a uniform motion
(i.e., having a constant speed along a straight line) can be regarded, as inertial
frames of reference.
Two basic characteristics of an inertial frame of reference are:
1. This is a frame of reference which is either at rest or, is having a uniform
motion along a straight line path.
51
cbse-i
2. In other words, the acceleration associated with an inertial frame of

reference is zero.
We can use Newtons second law of motion, in the form F = m a (to have a
dynamical description of motion) in all inertial frames of reference,. The forces,
needed to find F in such a frame have to be physical forces only, i.e. forces
that arise due to interactions between different entities.
It is interesting to note that for our usual laboratory scale terrestrial experiments,
we can regard the earth itself to be an inertial frame of reference. We do so
despite knowing that the earth is having an accelerated motion and, therefore,
does not satisfy the basic criterion (zero acceleration) of an inertial frame of
reference.
How do we justify this built in contradiction? We justify it by noting that the
time duration of ordinary laboratory scale terrestrial experiments is quite
small in comparison to the time period of earths orbital motion. Hence we can
ignore the small changes in its velocity and assume it to (approximately) have
a constant velocity. Under this approximation, the earth can then be viewed
as an inertial frame of reference.
Non-Inertial Frames of Reference

It is now easy to realize that any frame of reference having an acceleration (i.e.,
one for which the acceleration has a non-zero value) would be a non-inertial
frame of reference. For example
(i) a frame attached to a train that is accelerating or retarding
(ii) a frame attached to a Merry-go-round and
(iii) the earth itself from the point of view of astronomical phenomenon or
observations are all examples of non-inertial frames of reference.
The (dynamical) description of motion from the point of view of a non-inertial
frame of reference is relatively much more difficult than the corresponding
description of that motion from the point of view of an inertial frame of reference.
This is because of the need of introducing the concept of non-physical or pseudo,
or fictitious forces in a non-inertial frame of reference.
52
cbse-i
Read more.
http://www.hazelwood.k12.mo.us/~grichert/sciweb/applets.html
Pseudo or Fictitious Force

Newtons laws of motion, we know, form the basis for the study and analysis
of motion of different objects under the action of the forces acing on them.
However, it turns out that an observer in a non-inertial (or accelerated) frame
of reference cannot analyse the details of motion through these laws if he/she
limits himself/herself to the physical forces relevant to the system/object under
consideration. Such an observer needs to think of some additional force/forces
__ other than the physical forces __ to be able to use Newtons laws for his/
her analysis of the system/object under consideration. These additional thought
forces are not physical forces in the sense that they can be thought of as some
interaction between some entities. Because of this reason, these thought forces
are referred to as pseudo forces or fictitious forces or as virtual forces. The
use of such forces, by a non-inertial (accelerated) observer then enables him/
her to understand motion in terms of Newtons laws. It is for this reason that
the concept of pseudo forces is regarded as an important and useful concept
for a non-inertial observer.
We can now say that since pseudo forces are relevant only for a non-inertial
observer, we can think of these forces as a consequence of the acceleration of
the frame of reference itself. The non-inertial observer needs a pseudo force
which is equivalent to the product of the mass of the object and the opposite
of the acceleration of the frame of reference.
Consider for example, a pendulum suspended from the ceiling of a train
compartment which is initially at rest. As the train accelerates forward the
pendulum is observed to get pushed in the backward direction. One can think
of this backward push of the pendulum, as a result of a backward directed
pseudo force acting on the pendulum.
Similarly, for a man standing in a lift accelerating upwards, his apparent weight
is observed to increase. One can again think of this increase in weight as being
caused by a pseudo force acting on the man in the downward direction.
53
cbse-i
The apparent weightlessness of astronauts in a satellite orbiting the earth can

again be thought of as being due to an away from the centre pseudo force
acting on them. This pseudo force may be thought of as balancing the effect
of the gravitational pull of the earth and thereby making the astronauts within
the padellite abbess as weightless.
The centrifugal force as viewed/interpreted from different frames of
reference:
The concept of centrifugal force provides an interesting example of how a change
in the frame of reference can lead to a different interpretation of the motion
of a given object. It also provides an illustration of the need and necessity of
a pseudo force for a non-inertial observer.
Consider a particle moving in a circular path. The particle, for example, could
be a planet orbiting around the sun or an electron orbiting around the nucleus
or a person enjoying a ride in a merry-go-round.
From the point of view of the laboratory observer, the particle moving along the
mv 2
circular path is experiencing a centripetal force =
directed towards the
r
centre of its circular path. The source of this physical force, may be thought
of as sun (for the planets) or the nucleus (for the electrons). Newtons third law
then suggests that we can think of the planet (or the electron) as exerting an
equal and opposite force on the sun (or the nucleus). It is the reaction force
that would be viewed as a centrifugal force by the laboratory observer. From
the point of view of the observer, the centrifugal force is acing not on the
particle moving in the circle but on the source of the centripetal force on this
particle. Thus from the point of view of the laboratory observer (or an inertial
frame of reference):
mv 2
(i) The centripetal force =
acts on the particle moving in the circle
r
(i.e., the planet or the electron) and this force is directed inwards towards
the centre of the circle.
mv 2
(ii) The centripetal force again equal to
acts on the source (of the
r
centripetal force) positioned at the centre of the circular path (i.e., the sun
or the nucleus) and this force is directed outwards, away from the centre
of the circle.
54
cbse-i
The laboratory observer can thus say that though the centripetal force and the
centrifugal force are equal and opposite to each other, they cannot cancel, or
balance out, each other because they act on two different objects. This observer
would regard them as action and reaction forces which do not balance each
other because they act on different objects.
Let us now look at this situation from the point of view of the non-inertial (or
accelerated) observer, attached to the particle moving in the circle. For this
observer, the particle would be at rest because the observer and particle are
always together (and therefore in one and the same position) in their noninternal frame of reference. This observer would therefore have to think of an
away from the centre (or centrifugal) force, acting on the particle in addition to
the centripetal force exerted on it by the source (of the centripetal force) sitting
at the centre. This thought of centrigual force can be regarded as balancing
the centripetal force. It thereby makes this particle appear at rest, from the
point of view of the (non-inertial) observer attached to the particle itself. We
can, therefore, say that the centrifugal force is a pseudo or fictitious force)
__ for the non-inertial observer. From the point of view of the observer, both
the centripetal force (a physical force, having a source) and the centrifugal force
(a pseudo force, thought of by the non-inertial observer), act on the particle,
moving in the circle. For this observer, there are two equal and opposite forces,
simultaneously acting on the particle and this ensures that the particle stays
at rest.
To sum up, one can say

For the laboratory observer:
The centripetal and centrifugal forces are equal and opposite forces but only in
the sense of action and reaction forces. They act on two different objects and,
thereby, cannot be viewed as balancing each other. In this frame of reference,
both the centripetal and centrifugal forces can be viewed as physical forces
associated with the interaction between different entities.
For the non-inertial observer, attached to the particle moving in the circle:
The centripetal and centrifugal forces are equal and opposite forces that both
may be thought of as acting on the particle moving in the circle and thereby
make it stays at rest. In this frame of reference, the centrifugal force is to be
viewed as a pseudo force. This (pseudo) force has to be imagined to act on
the particle so that it appears to remain at rest.
55
cbse-i
We thus realize that our interpretation of a given motion is very much dependent
on the frame of reference. The same force, which appears as a physical force,
in an inertial frame of reference can be thought of as a pseudo force (or
fictitious force) in a non-inertial frame of reference. Further, a change in the
frame of reference can also make us view the same force as acting on different
entities.
56
cbse-i
Post Content
Student Worksheet 1
Q.1 A coin is dropped from some height. Describe the path of the coin as seen by
the person
(i) standing in a freely falling elevator
(ii) standing in a lorry moving with uniform velocity.
Q.2 In the adjoining figure, the block is at rest.
How does the following quantities vary as the
angle between horizontal direction and force
increases
(a) normal reaction

(b) static force of friction
(c) limiting force of friction

Q.3 Why is it that when a man jumps from a height of several feet into a stretched
tarpaulin, he does not get injured.
Q.4 An astronaut accidentally gets thrown out of his small spaceship accelerating in
inter-stellar space at a constant rate of 100 m s-2. What is the acceleration of the
astronaut, the instant he is outside the spaceship?
Q.5 A meteorite burns completely in the atmosphere before it reaches the Earths
surface. What happens to its momentum?
Q.6 Why doesnt the satellite moving around earth fall towards earth due to
gravitational force?
Q.7 Fan attached to a boat pushes the air towards the sail. Will the boat start
moving?
Q.8 A girl riding a Ferris wheel (giant wheel) in an
amusement park experiences contact force due to
seat of the wheel. Which of the following positions
of the girl corresponds to maximum value of contact
force, if the wheel rotates with uniform speed
(a) when the girl is at highest position
(b) when the girl is at lowest position
(c) when the girl is halfway from the ground
57
cbse-i
Q.9 Pulling is easier than pushing a lawn roller. Explain.

Q.10 Can we jump off from the frictionless surface? Why?
Q.11 An apple falls down from the tree when its branch is shaken. Explain.
Q.12 What is the reading of spring balance in the following cases? Given mass of each
block is 10 kg.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Q.13 Find tension in the string for a block of mass 10 kg tied to the string and placed
over a rough inclined plane as shown in the figure? (Coefficient of static friction
for the surface is 0.6)
30
What is the acceleration of the block if string is cut? How do the answers of the
previous parts change if mass of block is increased?
Q.14 Sand is thrown on tracks covered with snow for safe driving. Why?
Q.15 A car is moving at speed v towards a wall. What is the minimum distance from
the wall within which the driver must act if
(i) the driver applies brakes along a straight line, or
(ii) turn in a circle without applying brakes. Which is a better strategy?
58
cbse-i
Q.16 In an experiment to measure coefficient of static friction, following observations

were made regarding normal reaction and force for which the block on the table
just moves(hanging weight)
N
Normal Reaction (N)
12
16
Hanging Weight (W)
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
(i) plot a graph between limiting force of friction

(ii) calculate the coefficient of static friction
59
cbse-i
Post Content
Student Worksheet 2
Q.1 A body acted upon by a constant force has uniform
(a) speed
(b) velocity
(c) acceleration
(d) momentum
Q.2 A body of mass m has its position x at a time t, expressed by the equation
x = 3t3/2 + 2 t . The instantaneous force F on the body is proportional to
(a) t3/2
(b) t
(c) t-1/2
(d) t0
Q.3 A body of mass 40 g is moving with a constant velocity of 2 cm s-1 on a horizontal

frictionless table. The force on the table is:
(a) 39200 dynes
(b) 160 dynes
(c) 80 dynes
(d) zero
Q.4 A jet plane flies in the air because

(a) the gravity does not act on bodies moving with high speeds
(b) the thrust of the jet compensates for the force of gravity
(c) the flow of air around the wings causes an upward force which compensates
for the force of gravity
(d) the weight of the air whose volume is equal to the volume of the plane is
more than the weight of the plane
Q.5 Consider an elevator moving downwards with an acceleration a. The force exerted
by a passenger of mass m on the floor of the elevator is:
(a) ma
(b) mg ma
(c) ma mg
(d) mg + ma
Q.6 A lift moving up in the upward direction comes to rest with a retardation. The
weight of the man in it:
(a) Increases
(b) Decreases
(c) remains same
(d) either increases or decreases
Q.7 A weight W rests on a rough horizontal surface. If the angle of friction be , the
least force that will move the body along the plane will be
(a) W cos
(b) W tan
(c) W cot
(d) W sin
Q.8 A 0.5 kg ball moving with a speed of 12 ms1 strikes a hard wall at an angle
of 30o with the wall. It is deflected with the same speed and at the same angle.
If the ball is in contact with the wall for 0.25 s, the average force acting on the
wall is
(a) 96 N
60
(b) 48 N
(c) 24 N
(d) 12 N
cbse-i
Q.9 A man is walking from east to west on a level rough surface. The friction force
on the man outing is directed:
(a) from west to east
(b) from east to west
(c) along the north
(d) along the west
Q.10 A wooden box of mass 8 kg slides down an inclined plane of inclination 30o
to the horizontal with a constant acceleration of 0.4 ms2. What is the force of
friction between the box and inclined plane? (g = 10 ms2)
(a) 36.8 N
(b) 76.8 N
(c) 65.6 N
(d) 68.4 N
Q.11 A block is at rest on an inclined plane making an angle with the horizontal.
As the angle of the inclination is increased, the block just starts slipping when
the angle of inclination becomes . The coefficient of static friction between the
block and the surface of the inclined plane is:
(a) sin
(b) cos
(c) tan
(d) independent of
Q.12 Two bodies having masses 30 gm and 40 gm are attached to the ends of a string
of negligible mass and suspended from a light frictionless pulley. The acceleration
of the bodies is:
(a) 1.4 ms2
(b) 1.4 cms2
(c) 2.8 ms2
(d) 2.8 cms2
Q.13 A 4 kg block A is placed on the top of 8 kg block B which rests on a smooth table.
A just slips on B when a force of 12 N is applied on A. Then the maximum
horizontal force F to be applied on block B required to make both A and B move
together is:
(a) 12 N
(b) 24 N
(c) 36 N
(d) 48 N
Q.14 A body of mass 5 kg is acted upon by a force of 3 N and 4 N along x and

y axes respectively. If initially the body had 6 m/s and 12 m/s along x and y
axes respectively, the time at which it has velocity 2 m/s along y axis is
(a) Never
(b) 10 s
(c) 2 s
(d) 15 s
61
cbse-i
Post Content
Student Worksheet 3
Q.1 Two billiard balls of mass 70 g moving in opposite directions with speed of
20 ms1 collide and rebound with the same speed. What is the impulse imparted
by each ball to the other?
Q.2 A cricket ball of mass 250 g is moving with a velocity of 15 ms1, and is hit by
a bat so that the ball is turned back with a velocity of 40 ms1. The force of the
blow acts for 0.05 second on the ball. Find the average force exerted by the bat
on the ball.
Q.3 A ball moving with the momentum of 5 kgm/s strikes a wall at an angle of 30o
with the normal to the wall. If it is reflected at same angle then calculate the
impulse imparted to the ball by the wall. (5 kgm/s)
Q.4 The strings of a parachute can bear a maximum tension of 36 kg wt. By
what minimum acceleration can a person of 45 kg descend by means of this
parachute?
Q.5 A mass of 50 kg is suspended by a rope of length
5 m from a ceiling. A force of 200 N in the
horizontal direction is applied at the midpoint
of the rope. What is the angle the rope makes
with the horizontal in equilibrium? Take g = 10
ms2. Neglect mass of the rope.
200 N
50 Kg
Q.6 A hot air balloon of mass M descends down with an acceleration of a (less than
g). How much mass should be thrown out of the balloon to accelerate it upward
with same acceleration? Consider the buoyant force by the air on the balloon to
be constant. (2Ma/(g + a))
Q.7 A painter of mass 75 kg stands on a platform of mass 15 kg.
He pulls on a rope that passes over a massless pulley. Find
the tension in the rope when
(i) he is at rest
(ii) he accelerates upwards at 1 ms2.
62
cbse-i
Q.8 A curve in a road forms an arc of radius 800 m. If the road is 19.6 m wide and
outer edge is 1 m higher than the inner edge, calculate the speed for which it is
banked.
Q.9 A body of mass 10 kg initially at rest explodes and breaks into fragments of
masses in the ratio 1 : 1.3. The two pieces of equal mass fly off perpendicular
to each other with a speed of 30 m/s each. What is the speed of the heavier
fragment?
Q.10 A man whose shoes have leather soles and heels are able to stand without slipping
on a wooden surface that makes an angle of 25o with the horizontal. What is the
minimum coefficient of static friction for leather on wood?
Q.11 A body weighing 20 kg just slides down a rough inclined plane that rises 5 cm
in every 13 cm along the plane. Find the angle of friction and the coefficient of
static friction.
Q.12 A block slides down an inclined plane of slope with constant velocity. It is then
projected up the same plane with an initial velocity vo. How far up the inclined
plane will it move before coming to rest?
Q.13 A 3 kg mass suspended by two ropes is shown in

the figure. Find the tension in the two ropes.
Q.14 The mass of block A is 50 kg and coefficient of

static friction is 0.3. Assuming the rope connected
with block A remains horizontal, find the
maximum mass of block B for which the block
A does not move.
60
63
cbse-i
Q.15 A 2 kg block is kept over a 4 kg block and both are placed on smooth horizontal
surface. The coefficient of friction between the blocks is 0.20. Find the acceleration
of the blocks if a horizontal force of 12 N is applied to
(i) the upper block,
(ii) the lower block.
F = 2N
2 Kg
4 Kg
Q.16 An aircraft is moving with a speed of 400 km/h in a turn of radius 2 km . Find
the angle made by wings with the horizontal to ensure the turn. Consider the
aerodynamic lift due to air on the aircraft to be perpendicular to the wings.
Q.17 What would be the effective length of day if the people at equator of earth feel
weightlessness?
64
cbse-i
Post Content
Student Worksheet 4
Q.1 A block of mass 0.1 kg is held against a wall by applying a horizontal force of
5 N on the block. If the coefficient of friction between the block and the wall is
0.5, what is the magnitude of the frictional force acting on the block?
Q.2 A smooth block is released at rest on a 450 incline and then slides a distance S.
If the time taken to slide on rough incline is 2 times as large as that to slide on
a smooth incline, find the coefficient of friction.
Q.3 Galileos problem: A bead slides on a frictionless rod
whose ends lie on a circle of radius R as shown in the
figure. If the bead starts at the top, find the time taken by
bead to slide. (This problem was first solved by Galileo
and he observed that time is independent of angle.)
Q.4 Rotor problem: Rotor is a large cylinder which rotates about its vertical axis.
People are made to stand on its floor touching its wall. At high rotational speeds
the floor of the rotor is moved away, the people do not slide down. Find the
minimum coefficient of friction for a 70 kg man for a rotor of radius 2 m and
time period of 2 s. What if the man is 100 kg?
Q.5 A helicopter of mass 2000 kg rises with vertical acceleration of 15 m/s2. The
total mass of the crew and passengers is 500 kg. Calculate the magnitude and
direction of the (take g = 10 m/s2)
(a) Force on the floor of the helicopter by the crew and the passengers.
(b) Action of the helicopter on the surrounding air.
(c) Force on the helicopter due to surrounding air.
Q.6 Assuming the length of a chain to be L and coefficient of static friction to be ,
compute the maximum length of the chain, which can be held outside a table
without slipping.
Q.7 A ball of mass 3 kg moving with a speed of 10 m/s due east collides with another
ball of mass 2 kg moving with speed of 20 m/s due north and stick together.
Determine the velocity of the combined system.
65
cbse-i
Q.8 Find the acceleration of blocks and tension in the string in each case, consider
all contacts to be smooth.
g
5 Kg
2K
2 Kg
30
1 Kg
5 Kg
2 Kg
(a)
(b)
1 Kg
5 Kg
5 Kg
53
37
1 Kg
(c)
(d)
Q.9 A block of mass m is kept on a rough inclined surface of angle of inclination

and coefficient of friction . Find the least and the greatest forces parallel to the
inclined surface to keep the block in equilibrium.
Q.10 Two blocks A and B of equal masses are released from an inclined plane of
inclination 45o at t = 0. Both the blocks are initially at rest. The coefficient of
kinetic friction between the block A and the inclined plane is 0.2 while it is 0.3
for block B. Initially the block A is
block A will catch up block B?
2 m behind the block B. When and where
Q.11 A hemispherical bowl of radius R = 0.1 m is rotating about its own axis ( vertical)
with an angular speed . A particle of mass 10 g on the frictionless inner surface
of the bowl is also rotating with same .
The particle is at height h from the bottom of the bowl.
(a) Obtain the relation between h and . What is the minimum value of
needed in order to have a non-zero value of h?
(b) It is desired to measure the acceleration due to gravity g using this setup by
measuring h accurately. Assuming that R and are known precisely, and
that least count in the measurement of h is 0.1 mm, what is the minimum
possible error g in the measured value of g?
66

Cbse Notes Law of Motion (Phy) PDF

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Исходное описание:

Оригинальное название

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Cbse Notes Law of Motion (Phy) PDF

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

CLASS

CENTRAL BOARD OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

Lesson Plan Matrix

Newtons First Law of Motion

Newtons Second Law of Motion

Newtons Third Law of Motion

Conservation of Linear Momentum

Applying Newtons Law

Equilibrium for Translatory Motion

Dynamics of Circular Motion

Newtons Laws in Non-Inertial Frames of Reference

Post content student worksheet 1

Post content student worksheet 2

Post content student worksheet 3

Post content student worksheet 4

Dr. Niti Nandini Chatnani

Ms. Neeta Rastogi

Ms. Sugandh Sharma, E O

Dr. Srijata Das, E O

Mr. Navin Maini, R O

Ms. Madhu Chanda, R O

Shri Al Hilal Ahmed, AEO

Ms. Anjali Chhabra, AEO

Mr. Sanjay Sachdeva, S O

Ms. Neelima Sharma,

Students would be able to:

state Newtons first law of motion.

state the law of conservation of linear momentum.

understand that this law is a consequence of the third law of motion.

understand the meaning of the term equilibrium and know its

recall the concept of the force of friction.

differentiate between static and kinetic friction

state the laws of friction and appreciate their empirical nature.

define the term coefficient of friction and write the mathematical

Differentiate between inertial and non inertial observers

Lesson plan matrix

Understand the meaning of force

Realize that unless there is a net

Define the term

Differentiate between inertia of rest

Observations with respect

Understand that mass is a measure

State the first law

Assimilate the concept

Define the term

Cite examples of first law of motion

State the second law of motion

Comprehend the concepts

Obtain the usual equation of force

Higher order thinking

Understand the relation between

State Newtons third law of motion

Understand the significance of the

Understand the concept and cause

Differentiate between static and

Finding the relations between the

Know the laws of friction

Identify the agency/cause

Define the term and obtain the

Scrutiny of daily life

Understand the role of static friction

Co-relating the concepts

Newtons Laws in Non-Inertial Frames of Reference

state the law of conservation of linear momentum.

understand that this law is a consequence of the third law of motion.

understand the meaning of the term equilibrium and know its

recall the concept of the force of friction.

differentiate between static and kinetic friction

state the laws of friction and appreciate their empirical nature.

define the term coefficient of friction and write the mathematical

Differentiate between inertial and non inertial observers

Understand the meaning of force

Realize that unless there is a net

Define the term

Differentiate between inertia of rest

Observations with respect

Understand that mass is a measure

State the first law

Assimilate the concept

Define the term

Cite examples of first law of motion

State the second law of motion

Comprehend the concepts

Obtain the usual equation of force

Higher order thinking

Understand the relation between

State Newtons third law of motion

Understand the significance of the

Understand the concept and cause

Differentiate between static and

Finding the relations between the

Know the laws of friction

Identify the agency/cause

Define the term and obtain the

Scrutiny of daily life

Understand the role of static friction

Co-relating the concepts

Recall the basic concepts of circular

Find the applications of centripetal

Correlate the theoretical

Appreciate the role of banking of

Comprehend the concepts

Differentiate between inertial and

Illustration 1. A ball of mass 1kg is dropped from a point 20 m above the

Illustration 3. A 1000 kg car developed a snag and is standing in the middle of a