GDandTfor 6sigma Design

PDHonline Course M347 (5 PDH)
Geometric Dimensioning & Tolerancing

(GD&T) and Design For Six Sigma (DFSS)
Instructor: Robert P. Jackson, PE
2012
PDH Online | PDH Center

5272 Meadow Estates Drive
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TABLEOFCONTENTS
PARTI
INTRODUCTION
DESIGNFORSIXSIGMA(DFSS)
DFSSTOOLS
IDENTIFY0RDEFINE
IMPORTANCEOFSIXSIGMAGOALS
MEASUREANDANALZSE
11
DESIGN
12
APPLICATIONSOFTWARE
12
DESIGNTOOPTIMIZE
13
VALIDATE
14
GEOMETRICDIMENSIONINGANDTOLERANCING(GD&T)
14
GD&TSTANDARDS
15
BENEFITS
16
RULES
17
SYMBOLS
18
MODIFYINGTOLERANCESSYMBOLS
19
GD&TEXAMPLES
19
FEATURECONTROLFRAME
23
READINGBASICSYMBOLS
25
28
TOLERANCEALLOCATION
28
STATISTICALALLOCATION
30
EXAMPLES
32
PARTII
PARTIII
DFSS&GD&T
RobertP.JacksonPage2of39
LISTOFFIGURES
Figure1
FocusforSixSigma(DFSS)
Figure2
ReliabilityGoalSetting
Figure3
ProcessCapabilityBetween3Sigmaand6Sigma
10
Figure4
DFSSProcess
14
Figure5
ToleranceClasses
19
Figure6
SplineAssembly
20
Figure7
HandleUsingGD&T
20
Figure8
LinearDimensioning
21
Figure9
Collar(GD&T)
22
Figure10
CollarinEnglishOnly
23
Figure11
FeatureControlFrame
23
Figure12
Flatness,Runout,Perpendicularity
26
Figure13
MMC,LMC
26
Figure14
BasicDimension
27
Figure15
StepsforEvaluatingGapAllocation
31
Figure16
GELowerDrawer
32
Figure17
LoopDiagram
33
Figure18
MotorAssembly
36
Figure19
RefrigeratorDoorTrim
36
Figure20
RefrigeratorDoorTrimEnlargement
37
LISTOFTABLES
Table1
DifferencesBetweenSixSigmaandDFSS
Table2
SixSigmavsDPMO&RTY
Table3
DFSSTools
Table4
GD&TCharacteristics
24
Table5
ModifyingToleranceSymbols
25
Table6
StandardDeviationvsProcess
29
Table7
StandardDeviationvsProcess
29
Table8
ToleranceAllocationSpreadsheet
30
Table9
DimensionsandMeanValues
32
CONCLUSIONS:
38
REFERENCES:
39
GeometricDimensioning&Tolerancing(GD&T)andDesignForSixSigma(DFSS)
RobertP.Jackson,P.E.
INTRODUCTION:
Thiscourseisbasicallyintendedtoaddresstwodistinct,butrelated,areasofengineeringdesign:1.)DESIGNFOR
SIXSIGMA(DFSS)and2.)GEOMETRICDIMENSIONINGANDTOLERANCING(GD&T).Bothconceptshavebeen
viableapproachestodesignanddetailingforsomeyearsandbothareextremelyvaluableandusefultoolsforthe
practicingengineer.DFSSisastatisticalmethodofdesignthatcanserveasapredictivetooltogreatlyimprove
qualitycontrol,ifusedproperlyandconsistently.GD&Tisawellacceptedmethodologyofdetailingthe
characteristics,dimensionsandtolerancesofacomponentorassemblyofcomponents.TheGD&Tmethodologyis
prescribedbyASME/ANSIStandardsY14.5M1994andY14.52009.ThiscourseusesthetenantsofDFSSAND
GD&Ttofullydefineamechanicalcomponent,orassemblyofcomponents,sothatnomorethan3.4defectsper
onemillionpartswillresultwheninuse.DFSSandGD&Tareusuallytaughtasseparatesubjectsbutcertainly
complementeachotherasfarasdesigntools.Itismuchmoredifficulttoachievesixsigma(6)resultswithout
usingtheGD&Tapproach.ByusingstandardlineardimensioninginsteadofGD&T,hugeerrorscanbemadethat
leaveroomfordoubtwhendesigningtoolsanddiesforfabrication.Thiswillbecomeapparentasweaddress
GD&T.Forthisreason,Iamstructuringthecoursetoinclude,andintegrate,bothmethodologies.Iwouldliketo
statethatthetreatmentofDFSSandGD&Twillbesomewhatgeneralandnotindepthasfarasmathematical
modeling,whichsometimesaccompaniescoursesofthisnature.Thereareexcellenttextsavailableonboth
subjectsbutnonethatIhavefoundintegratingbothdisciplines.Thecombinationofthesetwoisdefinitelya
logicalpresentationforbluecollar,goaloriented,workingengineersandengineeringmanagers.
Thecourseisdividedintofourdistinctdivisions;i.e.1.)DFSSSurvey,2.)GD&TSurvey,3.)Problemsolvingthat
showshowDFSSandGD&TinteractandcomplimenteachotherAND4.)TeachableQUIZ.PleasenotethatIhave
chosentoconstructtheQuizattheendofthecoursetobealearningexperience.Severalofthequestionshave
descriptiveinformationimportanttounderstandingthebasictenantsofSixSigmaandGD&T.Thisdescriptive
informationmaynotbeinthebodyofthetextitself.
Ihopetoachieveaninterestthatwillprovideimpetusforengineersandengineeringmanagerstoadoptboth
disciplinesfortheircompanies.IwouldalsostatethatbyusingDFSS,GD&TANDthetenantsofReliability
EngineeringandReliabilityTesting,aproductcanbedesignedandmanufacturedtosatisfythemostcriticalend
user,foreitherconsumerorcommercialproducts.
PARTI
DESIGNFORSIXSIGMA(DFSS):
DFSSistheapplicationofSixSigmaprinciplestothedesignofcomponents,subassemblies,completedproducts
andtheirmanufacturingandsupportprocesses.SixSigma,bydefinition,focusesontheproductionphaseofa
product.DFSSfocusesontheresearch,designanddevelopmentphaseofaprojectandistrulyadesigntoolthat
canandshouldbeusedbythedesignengineertomeetconsumerexpectationsanddemands.ThegoalofDFSSis
toimplementtheSixSigmamethodologiesasearlyintheproductorservicelifecycleaspossible,thereby
guaranteeingthemaximumreturnoninvestment(ROI).Themethodsusedtoinsurerigorinbothprocessesare
somewhatdifferent.SixSigmausestheDMAICapproach(Define,Measure,Analyze,Improve,Control).DFSSuses
DMADV(Define,Measure,Analyze,DesignandVerify).PleasenotethatDFSSstrivestomeetthesamegoalsasSix
Sigma,thatbeingnomorethan3.4defectspermillion.Inthisrespect,theendresultsarethesame.Thetable
belowwillgiveaverybriefdescriptionofthedifferencesbetweenthetwotechnologies.
DIFFERENCESBETWEENSIXSIGMAANDDFSS
SIXSIGMA
DFSS
DMAIC:Define,Measure,Analyze,Improve,Control
DMADV:Define,Measure,Analyze,Design,Validate
DMADOV:Define,Measure,Analyze,Design,
OptimizeandValidate
Looksatexistingprocessesandfixesproblems.
Focusesontheupfrontdesignoftheproductand
MoreReactive
processes.
Moreproactive.
Dollarbenefitsobtainedfrom6canbequantifiedquickly.
Benefitsaremoredifficulttoquantifyandtendto
bemorelongterm.Itcantakesixtotwelvemonths
afterlaunchofthenewproductbeforeyouwill
obtainproperaccountingontheimpact.
Productperformanceaccomplishedbybuildandtest.
Productperformancemodeledandsimulated.
PerformanceandproducibilityproblemsfixedafterDesignedforrobustperformanceandproducibility.
Productinuse.
Qualitytested
Qualitydesignedintotheproduct.
Table1:DifferencesBetween6&DFSS
WithDFSSyouaredesigningqualityintothecomponentorproductfromtheverystartandhopefullyeliminating
wastebyminimizingmanufacturingvariationbeforeithappens.Thisapproachallowsforcorrectingproblemsup
frontandcansignificantlyreducethecostsofredesignandtesting.Itisalsoagreatwaytomeetcustomer
demandsbyestablishingmeasurablegoals.DFSSattemptstopredicthowthedesignsunderconsiderationwill
behaveandhowtocorrectformanufacturingvariationpriortothefirstproductionrun.
AgraphicalrepresentationofthedifferencebetweenDFSSandSixSigmamaybeseenasfollows,relativeto
productcosts.
Figure1FocusforDFSSvsSixSigma[3]
Again,youcanseethatwewanttoimplementDFSSattheresearch,designanddevelopmentstagesandearly
enoughintheprojectsothatwemayintroducethecomponentorsubassemblywithminimalmanufacturing
variation.Thisisthepointwherecostsareattheirlowestandchangesaredoableinconsiderablylesstimeand
withconsiderablylessexpenditureofcapitalorhumanresources.
DFSSTOOLS:
InlookingatthetoolsusedwithDFSS,thefollowing,Table3,representstheentireprocess,brokendownbymajor
actionitems.PleasekeepinmindthatwepickandchoosethebestapproachtoIdentify,Design,Optimizeand
Validate.Allstepsalongthewaymaynotbeneededandwouldrepresentconsiderableduplicationofeffort.WE
WISHTOPRODUCEAMAUNFACTUREDPRODUCTTHATWILLEXHIBITNOMORETHAN3.4DEFECTSPERMILLION
OPPORTUNITIESANDWITHTHEMAXIMUMROLLEDTHORUGHPUTYIELD.Thetablebelowwilldemonstrate
ourobjectives.
CAPABILITY
DEFECTSPERMILLIONOPPORTUNITIES
ROLLEDTHROUGHPUTYEILD
308,537
69.1%
66,807
93.3%
6,210
99.4%
233
99.97%
3.4
99.99966%
TABLE2SIXSIGMAVSDPMOANDRTY
TABLE3DFSSTOOLS[3]
Letusquicklylookateachactionitemanddefinetheactivityrequiredbeforeadvancingontothenextphaseof
theDFSSprocess.
IDENTIFYORDEFINE:
Themostcriticalpartoftheprocessistheveryfirstphase,IDENTIFY.Thisisthestepthatbasicallyasksthe
customer,whatdoyouwantthenthatanswer,usuallygiveningeneralities,isquantifiedintoengineering
specifications.Iwantitthisbig,thiscolor,thisweight,thesefeatures,etcbecomesanengineeringspecification
ANDengineeringdrawingthatcanbeinterpretedbyamodelshop,atoolanddiemakerandqualitycontrol
inspectors.TheprocessfordoingjustthisiscalledQualityFunctionalDeploymentorQFD.QFDisaprocessthat
detailsandranksthemostdesirablefeaturesdeemedimportantbytheconsumers.Welldefinedand
unambiguousrequirementsareabsolutelynecessaryandwilllessentheprobabilityoffalsestartsanddetours
inthedevelopmentprocess.Wewishtominimizetheinconsistenciesbetweenarticulationoffunctional
requirementsandthedefinitionofsystemrequirementsandparametertargetvalues.Amatrixoffeaturesis
developedandratedfordesirabilitysoengineeringcantranslatethosefeaturesintohardspecifications.The
followingsketchwillindicateonepossibleapproachfordoingjustthat.
Figure2ReliabilityGoalSetting[20]
Thisinitialphase;i.e.QFD,allowsforproductionoftheDesignGuidancemodelandultimatelyletsuskickthe
tiresoftheveryfirstprototype.Wegobacktomarketing,showthemthedrawingsand/orprototypefortheir
approval.Revisionsaremadebasedupontheirdesiresandneeds.Wemaywishtoreconvenethefocusgroupof
potentialuserstogettheirimpressionsandverifythattheirneedsanddemandswillbeultimatelymetbyparts
fromthefirstproductionrun.Nextintheprocessis1.)DesignConfirmation,2.)PrePilot,3.)Pilotandfinally,4.)
Thefirstproductionofthecomponentorassembly.TheIdentifyphaseisalsowheretheprojectteamisselected
andchargedwiththeresponsibilityforengineeringthecomponent.Ateamleaderischosenaswellasallofthe
teammembers,fromCAD,modelshop,evaluationtesting,reliabilitytesting,etc.Itisrecommendedthat
representativesfromqualityandmanufacturingbeincludedsothatallcriticalfunctionscanhaveavoiceinthe
designofwhatwillbecomethefinalproduct.Iftheproductissimilartoanexistingdesign,benchmarkingwill
becomenecessarytoevaluatecurrentfieldfailurerates,manufacturingdifficulties,issueswithtooling,problems
withpackagingandshippingsothatthesemistakeswillnotoccurinthenewproduct.Benchmarkingcanidentify
partsthatdonotsurvivestatedreliabilitygoals.ThisisaverycriticalpartofIDENTIFY.Oneexcellenttoolforthis
exerciseisFAILUREMODEEFFECTANALYSISorFMEA.FMEAisatechniquethatallowsforcatalogingofeach
possiblefailuremodeofacomponentoranassemblyduringnormaluse.Ihighlightthewordnormalhere.The
IDENTIFYphaseselectstheinitialCRITICALTOQUALITYCHARACTERISTICS(CTQs)ofthecomponentsor
assemblies.TheseCTQsdefinethemostcriticaldimensions,featuresandspecificationsofpartsANDspecifiesthat
thoseitemsMUSTbecheckedonfirstpiecesamplespriortoanypilotorproductionrun.Generally,asamplesize
ofthirtypartsorassembliesisrequiredtogatherenoughCTQstatisticallysignificantdata.TheCTQsare
periodicallycheckedafterproductionisinitiatedtomakesurethereisnodepreciationofthemanufacturing
processes.AuditsaredefinitelyrecommendedtoinsurestrictcompliancewithqualitystandardsfortheseCTQs.
IMPORTANCEOFSIXSIGMA:
BeforeweleaveIDENTIFY,IwouldliketorestatetheimportanceofmeetingSixSigmagoals.Rightnow,most
manufacturingcompaniesareproducingtoathreeSigmastandard.ThreeSigmaproducesa93.32%longterm
yield.Reachingthesegoalsgivesusthefollowingmeaningof3Sigmagood.
20,000lostarticlesofmailperhour.
Unsafedrinkingwaterforapproximatelyfifteenminutesperday.
5,000incorrectsurgicaloperationsperweek.
Twoshortorlonglandingsatmostmajorairportseachday.
200,000wrongdrugprescriptionseachyear.
Noelectricityforalmostsevenhourseachmonth.
Evenifwelookattheprofileofa4companywefindthefollowingcharacteristics
1.) Profitableandgrowingbutwithadecreasingmarketshare.
2.)Marketpricesdecliningforcertainproductsorproductlines.
3.)Competitorsincreasing
4.)HasqualityassuranceprogrambutdeficiencieskeepslippingthroughtheQ.C.process.
5.)Spending1025%ofsalesdollarsonrepairingorreworkingproductbeforeitships.(Thisiscrucialanda
factthatwillsurfaceduringbenchmarking.)
6.)Unawarethatbestinclasscompanieshavesimilarprocessesthataregreaterthan110timesmoredefect
free.
7.)Believesthatazerodefectsgoalisneitherrealisticnorachievable.
8.)Has10timesthenumberofsuppliersrequiredtorunthebusiness.(Alsocritical.Tocarryasuppliercan
costupwardsto$10Kjusttomaintainthedatabase.)
9.)510%ofthefirmscustomersaredissatisfiedwithproduct,salesorserviceandwillnotrecommendthat
otherspurchaseproductsorservices.Thepossiblereasonforthiscanbeseeninthebellshapedcurvebelow.
Lookatthegraphic.ThiswilldemonstratethesavingsingoingfromthreeSigmatosixSigma.
FIGURE3PROCESSCAPABILITYBETWEEN3AND6
Ifwecanimproveourprocesscapability,wecaneliminatethewastethatoccursbelowthelowerspecification
limit(LSL)andabovethehigherspecificationlimit(HSL).Bothlimitsaredeterminedbythecustomerinthe
IDENTIFY(DEFINE)phaseofourDMAICprocess.Pleasenoticethatthelowerbellshapedcurverepresentsasix
sigmaCENTEREDprocessthatyieldsadefectratebelow4partspermillion(PPM).Thisisdefinitelywherewe
wishtobe.Criticaltotheeffortisthemannerinwhichthecomponentsareultimatelydefinedanddetailed.
ThisiswhereapplicationofGD&Tcomesin.Itiscriticalthatcomponentsbedefinedcompletelysothereareno
questionsastoform,fitandfunction.Ournextsectionwilladdresshowthisisaccomplishedandthosemethods
usedtobringaboutacompletedefinitionofthecomponentorproduct.
MEASUREANDANALYZE:
AsapartofIdentify,itisalwaysaverygoodpracticetobenchmarkexistingproductsiftheyaresimilartothe
productyouaremodifyingand/orlaunching.Benchmarkingisgenerallydefinedasfollows:Benchmarkingisthe
processofcontinuallysearchingforthebestmethods,practices,andprocessesandeitheradoptingoradapting
theirgoodfeaturesandimplementingthemtobecomethebestofthebest.[20]Iwouldaddtothisdefinition
theneedtobenchmarktheproposedproductdesignforcomponentsandsubassemblies.Thisprovidesa
comparisonoftheproposeddesignwithexistingcompetitivedesignsandcanhighlightareasofneeded
improvement.Thisprocessinvolvesthecustomerandobtainingreliableinformationonproductfieldfailures.
Understandingfieldfailuresandtheircauseiscriticalimprovingtheproductperformance.Thefollowingareasare
criticaltotheDFSSbenchmarkingprocess:
CompetitiveBenchmarking.(Comparisonsbetweencompetitionsproductsandyourproduct.)
ProductDesignBenchmarking(Determiningthesigmavalueofexistingandsimilarproductsnowbeing
producedbyyourcompany.)
ProcessBenchmarking(Determiningthesigmaoftheproductionprocesses.)
BestPracticesBenchmarking.(Aretherebettermethodstofabricateandassembleyourproducts?)
Customerscanbeagreataidinthebenchmarkingprocessandgiveusinformationthatotherwisemightbe
verydifficulttoobtain;i.e.fieldfailurerates.Thisapproachallowsforthefollowing:
1.) Tofindinformationthatwould,mostlikely,notsurfaceduringatypicalsalescall.
2.) Toencouragethecustomertothinkoutoftheboxandfocusonspecificbehaviorsandproductdesigns
thatwouldmaketheproductbestinclass.
3.) Toprovidedatatoengineeringthatwillpromoteneededchangesinproducts.Customershaveavested
interestinprovidingtheiraccountswiththebestandlongestlastingproducts.Theygenerallyknowtheir
competition.
4.) Tofindoutcustomerconcerns,otherthanprice.
5.) Todemonstratelongtermcommitmenttocontinuousproductimprovement.
6.) Toencouragecustomerstoprovidedatatosubstantiatetheirperceptions.
7.) Tobuildaccountcredibilitybycommittingtoactionswhichaddressproductdesigncomplaints.
8.) Toaddressissueswithproductperformanceandgainknowledgeoffieldperformance.
9.) Toproactivelydefinecustomerexpectationsbyallowingthemtodefinebestinclassproducts.
DESIGN:
Thedesignprocesstodayisaccomplished,generally,byusingcomputeraideddesign(CAD)andcomputer
modelingandsimulationtechniques.Computershavereplacedthedraftingtableandmanualmethodsfor
creatingadrawinganddesigningapart.Definitelyprogress!Withthisbeingthecase,therearemanyexcellent
softwarepackagesthatprovidesimulationformechanicalmotion,finiteelementanalysis,impactsimulation,fluid
dynamics,heattransferandotherdisciplines.Therearestatisticalpackageswhichcangreatlysimplifythe
applicationofSixSigmaandDFSSmethodologies.Softwaresuchasthesecangreatlyaidengineeringeffortsto
reachoptimumdesignsquicklyandaccuratelywithoutextendedbuild,test,fix,build,test,fixetc.Manyirritations
canbeomittedsavingmuchtimeandmoneyyetprovidingdesignswhichmeetcustomerexpectationsand
manufacturingcapabilities.IdefinitelyrecommendengineeringdepartmentsadoptCAD,CAMandsimulation
softwarepackagestospeedtheprocessfromboardtoassemblyline.Iwouldliketolistseveralexcellent
examplesofwhatpackagesareavailabletoaccomplishdesigncompletionandproducethespeedneededto
remaincompetitiveintodaysengineering/manufacturingenvironment.Pleasekeepinmindthattheserepresent
afractionofwhatisavailableandnewproductsareintroducedataveryrapidpace.
APPLICATIONSOFTWARE:
CAD:
MOTIONCONTROL:MiltibodyKineticsandDynamics
AutoDesk
ProE
ADAMS
SmartDraw
DADS
SolidWorks
AutoDesk,Inc
TurboCad
SimMechanics
TFlexPLM
IMPLICITFINITEELEMENTANALYSISLinearandNonlinear
MSC.Nastran,MSC.Marc
ADINA
ANYSS
ProMECHANICA
EXPLICITFINITEELEMENTANALYSIS:ImpactSimulation
LSDYNA
RADIOSS
ABAQUS:StandardandExplicit
AUTODESK
PAM=CRASH,PAMSTAMPNENSTRAN
GENERALCOMPUTATIONALFLUIDDYNAMICS
STARCD
CFX4,CFX5
PowerFLOW
FLUENT,FIDAP
PREPROCESSING:FEAandComputationalFluidDynamicsMeshGeneration
ICEMCFD
ANSA
FEMB
Gridgen
TrueGrid
MSCPartran
AltairHyperMesh
GridPro
Ideas
POSTPROCESSING:FEAandComputationalFluidDynamicsResultsVisualization
AltairHyperMesh
ICEMCFDVisual3.2.0(PVS)
FIELDVIEW
Ideas
EnSight
FEMB
MSC.Patran
STATISTICALPACKAGES:
MINITAB
JMP8
BMDP
SPLUS
XGOBI
SAS
SPSS
MATLAB
XLISPSTAT
ExplorN
MANET
MassiveDatasets
HEATTRANSFERPACKAGES:
BuildingPhysics
SAS
ThermalDesktop
RadCAD
ESARAD
ESTRAN
Therearemanysmallerorganizationswhichdonothavetheresourcestopurchase,trainemployeesandusethe
abovesoftware.Thatshouldnotbeagreatimpediment.Engineeringcontractservicescanandwillworkto
providetheneededsimulationsandanalysis.ApplicationofDFSSworksregardlessastowhoisperformingthe
process.Engineeringdepartmentsareafteranswersandapplicationofthesemethodscanstillsavedaysand
weeksoftimewhentimeiscritical.Iwouldaddtothemixtheneedtoperformnecessaryreliabilitytestingto
ensurethecomponentorfinishedproductcanmeetyourexpectationsforlongevityinthefieldunderall
conditionsofuse.Youwillsaveyourcompanymuchgriefifyoudesignforanacceptableproductlifeand
infrequentdowntimeorprematurereplacement.
DESIGNTOOPTIMIZE:
OptimizationofadesignoccursasaresultofreliabilitytestingANDfieldtestingpriortothefirstproductionrun.I
CANNOTOVEREMPHESIZETHENEEDFORRELIABILITYTESTINGSOTHATAPPROXIMATIONOFDESIGNLIFEMAY
BESEEN.Thisistheprocessinwhichweakcomponentsandassembliesareidentified,redesignedandretested
sothatallqualityandreliabilitygoalsaremet.Thistestingwillensuremaximumcustomersatisfactionand
minimizefieldfailures.Itwillalsoidentifythosecomponentswhichmustbeexaminedonaregularbasisinorder
toprovideforpreventativemaintenanceand/orreplacementofcriticalcomponentparts.Whenperforming
thesetests,itisadvisabletouseastatisticalsoftwarepackagetofacilitatethetimeconsuminganalysisthat,by
necessity,mustaccompanyastudyofthisnature.IhaveusedMINITABandExcelforthispurposealthoughI
muchpreferMINITABduetotheavailabilityofANOVA,ttail,DOEandmanyotheranalysistools.Also,MINITAB
allowsyoutoperformandexaminehistograms,boxplots,dotplots,stemandleafplots,scatterplots,timeseries
plotsandallowsyoutoconsidercontinuousANDdescretedata.AnothergreatfeatureofMINITABisregression
analysis.Regressionanalysisprovidestheformulationoftransferequationswhichcanshowcauseeffect
relationshipsresultingfromDOE(designofexperiments)testing.Also,regressionanalysiscanbeusedto
describethemathematicalrelationshipsbetweentheresponsevariable(Y)andthevitalXs.PLEASENOTE:The
Xsmustbecontinuousdataandnotdiscretedata.Thefollowingchartwillshowthebasicprocessinvolved
withtheestablishmentofreliabilitygoalsrelativetotheDMADVorDMADOVprocess.Theprocessinthischart
equatestothefollowingmajorcharacteristics:
GoalSetting=IdentifyMeasure=DevelopSystemModel(Benchmark)
Design=Design
ReliabilityImprovementTesting=Optimize Design=RedesignWhereNeededValidate=ProductionTesting
Figure4DFSSPROCESS[PDHonlineG238]
VALIDATE:
Thevalidationphaseoftheprocessbeginsafterthepilotrun.Pleasenotethat,inmostcompanies,thepilotrunis
consideredtoprovidesaleablegoods.Thisisthephasewhereallofthedesignhasbeenaccomplished,allofthe
approvalsgranted;i.e.UL,CSA,etcandtoolingisinplace.Thevalidationtestingoccursatthispointandcontinues
throughoutthelifeoftheproduct.AtGeneralElectric,wewouldbringproductsproducedonourassemblylinesin
onepermonthforalaboratoryaudit.Duringthefirstproductionrun,wewouldplaceaminimumofthirty(30)
productsintoourreliabilitylabforlifecycletesting.TheywouldbetestedtofailuretomakesurethattheMean
TimeToFailure(MTTF)andtheMeanTimeBetweenFailure(MTBF)exceededreliabilitypredictionsANDmetour
SixSigmagoalsof3.4PPM.Ofcourse,whentheproductwasretiredandnolongermanufactured,thetesting
stopped.PLEASENOTE:ITISIMPORTANTTORETAINTESTDATA,ESPECIALLYTHEAUDITDATA,FORTHELIFEOF
THEPRODUCT.
PARTII
GEOMETRICDIMENSIONINGANDTOLERANCING(GD&T):
GeometricDimensioning&Tolerancing(GD&T)isasetofguidelinesspecificallyfordimensioninganddetailingso
acomponentcanbecorrectlyinterpreted.TheGD&Tontheprintprovidestheguidelinesportrayedbythat
drawingfordimensionalinspection.Itisauniversallanguageusedbydesignengineeringtofaithfullycaptureand
transmitthedesignersintentthroughallactivitiesintheproductcycle.Ithasfoundthegreatestapplicationin
massproduction,whereinterchangeabilityofblindlyselectedpartsisessential.Justintimemanufacturing
increasesthedemandforpartsthatabsolutelymustfitatassembly.Acompanyismuchlesslikelytohavespare
partswaitinginthewarehouse;therefore,PARTSSIMPLYMUSTFITTOGETHERATASSEMBLY.Thereisnoother
waytoensurethattheallowablevariationofpartgeometryisadequatelydefined.
Dimensionalvariationswhichoccurineachcomponentpartofanassemblyaccumulatestatisticallyandpropagate
kinematically,causingtheoverallassemblydimensionstovaryaccordingtothenumberofcontributingsourcesof
variation.Theresultantcriticalclearancesandfits,whichaffectperformance,arethussubjecttovariationdueto
tolerancestackupofcomponentpartvariations.Therearethreemajorsourcesofvariationinassembliesas
follows:
1.
Dimensional(lengthsandangles)
2.
Geometricfeatures(ANSIY14.5)
3.
Kinematic(smallinternaladjustments)
Weareprimarilyinterestedinitemnumber2;i.e.geometricfeatures,andwillconcentrateonthisissueforPartII
ofthiscourse.
Understandingthecauseandeffectofdimensionalandgeometricvariationsisamajorconcerninthedesignand
manufactureofmechanicalproducts.Designersareessentiallyconcernedwiththefollowinggeometric
dimensionsandtolerances:
1.
Functionalityand/ortheabilitytobeassembled
2.
ToleranceAnalysis:consequencesofaproposedGD&Tscheme(Pleasenotethatthemethodof
manufacturingthepartplaysasignificantroleintheresultingtolerancesforeachcomponent.Thisis
discussedlaterinthecourse.)
3.
ToleranceAllocation:determininghowtodistributetheallowablevariationonthedimensionofinterest
amongalloftheindependentcontributors.
STANDARDS:
GD&ThasbeenadoptedbytheInternationalStandardsOrganization(ISO)andtheAmericanNationalStandards
Institute(ANSI)[6].Itincludesallofthesymbols,definitions,mathematicalformulas,andapplicationrules
necessarytoembodyaviableengineeringlanguagesothatpeopleeverywherecanread,write,understandand
applythemethodology.ThestandardmostcommonlyusedintheUnitesStatestodescribeGD&TisASMEY
14.5M2009althoughthefollowingstandardsareinplayonaninternationalbasis.
GD&Tstandards
GD&Tstandardsfortechnicaldrawings(2D)
ASMEY14.5M1994DimensioningandTolerancing
ASMEY14.5.1M1994MathematicalDefinitionofDimensioningandTolerancingPrinciples
ISO2861:1988ISOsystemoflimitsandfitsPart1:Basesoftolerances,deviationsandfits
ISO2862:1988ISOsystemoflimitsandfitsPart2:Tablesofstandardtolerancegradesandlimit
deviationsforholesandshafts
ISO1101:2005GeometricalProductSpecifications(GPS)GeometricaltolerancingTolerancingof
form,orientation,locationandrunout
ISO5458:1998GeometricProductSpecifications(GPS)GeometricaltolerancingPositional
tolerancing
ISO5459:1981TechnicaldrawingsGeometricaltolerancingDatumsanddatumsystemsfor
geometricaltolerances
GD&TstandardsforCADsystems(3D)
ASMEY14.412003
DigitalProductDefinitionDataPractices
ISO16792:2006TechnicalproductdocumentationDigitalproductdefinitiondatapractices
(Note:ISO16792:2006wasderivedfromASMEY14.412003bypermissionofASME.)
GD&Tstandardsfordataexchangeandintegration
ISO10303
IndustrialautomationsystemsandintegrationProductdatarepresentationandexchange
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
ISO1030347:1997Integratedgenericresource:Shapevariationtolerances
ISO/TS103031130:2006Applicationmodule:Derivedshapeelement
ISO/TS103031050:2006Applicationmodule:Dimensiontolerance
ISO/TS103031051:2006Applicationmodule:Geometrictolerance
ISO/TS103031052:2005Applicationmodule:Defaulttolerance
ISO/TS103031666:2006Applicationmodule:Extendedgeometrictolerance
ISO10303203:2007/8Applicationprotocol:Configurationcontrolled3Ddesignofmechanical
partsandassemblies
ISO10303210:2001Applicationprotocol:Electronicassembly,interconnection,andpackaging
design
ISO10303214:2003Applicationprotocol:Coredataforautomotivemechanicaldesignprocesses
ISO10303224:2006Applicationprotocol:Mechanicalproductdefinitionforprocessplanning
usingmachiningfeatures
ISO10303238:2007Applicationprotocol:Applicationinterpretedmodelforcomputerized
numericalcontrollers(STEPNC)
BENEFITS:
Ifproperlyused,GD&Thasthefollowingsignificantbenefits:
Clearlydefinestheintentofthepartandprovidesdescriptivegeometry,dimensions,orthographic
projectionsandtolerancing.Itisaprecisecommunicationtool.
OptimallyusesthepartsavailabletoleranceandallowsfortheuseofDFSSmethodology
Increasesthecorrelationbetweencustomerandsupplier
Providesthebasistocorrectlydeterminewhetherafabricatedpartisacceptableornotbyprovidingthe
basisforproduceability.
Theuseofmaterialconditionmodifiersallowsbonustoleranceswhichleadtogreateaseinassembly.
ExplicitlycontrolsALLaspectsofpartgeometry,particularlytheshape.
GD&Tisimportantforcalculatingtoleranceanalysisaccurately.
Manycompaniesstilluselineardimensioningtodetailtheircomponentpartsandassemblies.Anexampleof
lineardimensioningisshownbyFigure8.Thiscanbefullyacceptablebutthereareconsequencestothisprocess.
Theseareasfollows:
Thepartsfailinspectionbutarestillfunctional
Thepartspassinspectionbutdonotworkordonotworkasintended
Lackofcorrelationbetweencustomer/supplierwithdifficultyindeterminingwhythereareissues
Inabilitytomakepass/failanalysisduringinspection
ThebasicideabehindGD&Tistodeterminethedatumfeaturesofthepartorassemblyofparts.This,ofcourse,
involvesphysicalpositionsandrelationships.Thedatumsareselectedastheoriginsfordimensioningandthe
applicationoftolerancesortolerancezones.YouMUSTselectfunctionaldatums.Afunctionaldatumissimply
onethatusestheproductfeatureswhichphysicallylocatethepartrelativetothefinalproduct.Usinganyother
datumsystem;i.e.centerlines,willaddvariationinthefinaltolerancestackup.[18].Successfulapplicationof
GD&Tinvolvesconcurrentdesignandengineeringteamsconsistingofrepresentativesfromresponsiblefunctions;
i.e.engineering,qualitycontrol,reliabilitytesting,purchasing,etc.arechosenforthisprocess.
RULES:
Thefollowingrulesdetailthefundamentalsinaveryconciseandreadablemethod.Theserulesaretakenfrom
reference[1].
Alldimensionsmusthaveatolerance.Everyfeatureoneverymanufacturedpartissubjecttovariation;
therefore,thelimitsofallowablevariationmustbespecified.Plusandminustolerancesmaybeapplied
directlytodimensionsorappliedfromageneraltoleranceblockorgeneralnote.Forbasicdimensions,
geometrictolerancesareindirectlyappliedinarelatedFeatureControlFrame.Theonlyexceptionsarefor
dimensionsmarkedasminimum,maximum,stockorreference.
Dimensioningandtolerancingshallcompletelydefinethenominalgeometryandallowablevariation.
Measurementandscalingofthedrawingisnotallowedexceptincertaincases.
Engineeringdrawingsdefinetherequirementsoffinished(complete)parts.Everydimensionand
tolerancerequiredtodefinethefinishedpartshallbeshownonthedrawing.Ifadditionaldimensions
wouldbehelpful,butarenotrequired,theymaybemarkedasreference.
Dimensionsshouldbeappliedtofeaturesandarrangedinsuchawayastorepresentthefunctionofthe
features.
Descriptionsofmanufacturingmethodsshouldbeavoided.Thegeometryshouldbedescribedwithout
explicitlydefiningthemethodofmanufacture.
Ifcertainsizesarerequiredduringmanufacturingbutarenotrequiredinthefinalgeometry(dueto
shrinkageorothercauses)theyshouldbemarkedasnonmandatory.
Alldimensioningandtolerancingshouldbearrangedformaximumreadabilityandshouldbeappliedto
visiblelinesintrueprofiles.
Whengeometryisnormallycontrolledbygagesizesorbycode(e.g.stockmaterials),thedimension(s)
shallbeincludedwiththegageorcodenumberinparenthesesfollowingorbelowthedimension.
Anglesof90areassumedwhenlines(includingcenterlines)areshownatrightangles,butnoangular
dimensionisexplicitlyshown.(Thisalsoappliestootherorthogonalanglesof0,180,270,etc.)
Alldimensionsandtolerancesarevalidat20Cunlessotherwisestatedonthedrawing.
Unlessexplicitlystated,alldimensionsandtolerancesarevalidwhentheitemisinafreestate.
Dimensionsandtolerancesapplytothefulllength,width,anddepthofafeature.
Dimensionsandtolerancesonlyapplyatthelevelofthedrawingwheretheyarespecified.Itisnot
mandatorythattheyapplyatotherdrawinglevels,unlessthespecificationsarerepeatedonthehigher
leveldrawing(s).
SYMBOLS:
ItisimportanttonotethatASMEY14.5givesthefollowingdescriptiveinformationrelativetothegeometryused
todefinethepart.Wewilldiscussexamplesofhowthesegeometrictermsandsymbolsareusedtodescribeform,
fitandfunction.

SYMBOLDESCRIPTION
GEOMETRYDEFINED
Angularity
Orientation
Concentricity
Location
Cylindricity
Form
Flatness
Form
Parallelism
Orientation
Perpendicularity
Orientation
Position
Location
Profile
Profile
ProfileofaLine
Profile
Circularity
Form
Runout
Runout
Straightness
Form
Symmetry
Location
TotalRunout
Runout
Ifweuseagraphicmethodtodisplaytheorganizationofthegeometriccharacteristics,itwouldlooksomething
likethefollowing:
Figure5ToleranceClasses[26]
MODEFYINGTOLERANCESYMBOLS:
AnintegralpartoftheFeatureControlFrameisthemodifyingtolerancesymbols.ThesearedefinedbyY14.5and
representedlateroninthecourse.Thelistingforthesemodifiersisasfollows:
FreeState
LeastMaterialCondition(LMC)
MaximumMaterialCondition(MMC)
ProjectedToleranceZone
RegardlessofFeatureSize
TangentPlane
Unilateral
DG&TEXAMPLES:
LetustakeaquicklookatthetypeofdimensioningusedfordrawingsthatadoptGD&Tmethodology.Thethree
dimensionalmodelsANDthedrawingshowthebasicsofthepartsandtheapplicationofGD&T.Thedimensions
areinMM.Forthepartgiveninfigure6,pleasenotethatthedatumAisspecifiedasthecircumference,orthe
outersurface,ofthepart.Theeighteenserrationsorsplineshavearunouttoleranceof0.02MMsrelativeto
datumA.Asyoucanseefromthesolidmodel,therunoutiscriticalbecausethereisamatingparttothetotal
assembly.Theouterdiameteris60MMwithatoleranceof0.01MM.Theinternaldiameteris45MMwitha
toleranceof0.01MM.Theinternaldiameter,attheserrations,is40MMwithatoleranceof0.020MM.
Figure6SplineAssembly
ThedrawingbelowwillshowahandledimensionedusingGD&T.ThedatumsurfaceshavebeenselectedasA,
BandC.Thebasicdimensionsareincludedinrectangularblocks.Figures6and7areverybasicbuttheydo
representexamplesofappliedDG&T.
Figure7HandleUsingGD&T
ThepartshownbelowisanactualpartIhavebeenaskedtofabricate.Itisanexampleoflineardimensioning.
MyclientisaFortune500companyyetdoesnotuseGD&TasprotocolduringtheCADprocess.Idontwanttobe
overlycritical,butthereareseveralglaringomissionsrelativetothisdrawingandthenotesforthedrawing.
Thereisnospecificationforflatness.(Iknowhowthepartisusedanditmusthaveaflatnessofatleast0.060
inchesrelativetotopandbottomparallelsurfaces.)
Thereisnospecificationfortheperpendicularityofsides.(Itcouldbeaparallelogramoratrapezoidandstill
complywiththedrawingBUT,itwouldnotfittheconvectionfanplatformitisdesignedtomatewith!)
Thereisnospecificationfortheparallelismofsides.Theydoneedtobeparallelandwithinaspecific
tolerancezone.
Thematerialspecificationisveryincomplete.ThereneedstobeanASMEorASMspecificationforclarity.
Thenoteparttobeinspectedtosheetmetaltolerancesisreallybogus.Thedrawingshouldincludethe
requiredtoleranceforeachdimension.
Note4callsforsymmetryaboutthecenterlines.Acenterlineisverydifficulttomeasureanddoesnot
representasuitabledatum,especiallysincethereisnocallforparallelismorperpendicularity.Adatumisa
physicalentityacenterlineisNOT.(ThisdrivesQCinspectorscrazy!!!!!!)
Figure8ExampleofLinearDimensioning
Wehavealreadylookedattwofairlysimpledrawings,andtheirsolidmodels,butnowletusconsideramuchmore
complexpartthatisproperlydimensionedusingGD&T.Allofthedimensionsandtolerancesareincludedwithin
thefeaturecontrolframesandeverycriticaldimensionhasfeaturecontrolframesWITHtolerancesgiven.The
datums;i.e.AandB,havebeenselectedsoastoprovideabaselinefromwhichalldetailsaregiven.Thedatum
positionsAREphysicalfeaturesofthepart,notcenterlines.Thefeaturecontrolframescarryinformationon
diameter,position,maximummaterialcondition,perpendicularity,profile,parallelismandflatness.Also,each
dimensionisdulynotedwithatolerancecallout.Youmaythinkthisisabusydrawingbutalloftherequired
dataisgivenforfabricationandinspection.Thereisnoambiguityasfaraswhatshape,dimensionsandtolerances
arerequired.IcouldsubmitthisdrawingintheUnitedStates,China,NewZealand,Canada,Mexico,etcanda
companyorpersonunderstandingGD&Tcouldmakethepartwithnodifficulties.Asamatteroffact,Iwould
suspectallpartssubmittedbyindividualsforinspectionfromthesecountrieswouldproduceverysimilarproducts.
Thisisexactlywhatwewant.Wewilldiscussthesymbolsandtolerancemodifierslateroninthecourse.
Figure9Collar[2]
Idontwanttobelaborthepointbut,whatifwewantedtouseEnglishtodetailthispart?Nodimensions,no
tolerances,justgoodoldEnglish.Thisisaninterestingexerciseandwilldemonstratethehopelessfeelingyouget
whentryingtoputittowords.GivenbelowinFigure10iswhatwewouldhave.Asyoucansee,weincrease
theambiguityonethousandfoldandmakethedrawingbasicallyunreadable.Notesmighthelpbutthemeaningis
reallycloudedwithambiguity.
Figure10CollarinEnglishOnly[2]
FEATURECONTROLFRAME:
WenowwishtoconsidertheFeatureControlFrameandthelayoutofthatframe.Nexttoselectingthedatum
references,thefeaturecontrolframeisthemostdescriptivecharacteristicofanyonedrawingusingGD&Tand
carriesthebulkoftheinformationneededfordetailingthepart.Thelayoutisasfollows:
Figure11FeatureControlFrame[2]
Theplacementofthegeometriccharacteristics,tolerancevalues,modifyingsymbols,datumselectionandmaterial
conditionmodifiersisveryspecificandMUSTnotbeappliedinarandomfashion.Wealwaysapplythefeatures
lefttorightwithinthefeaturecontrolframeandinthefollowingorder:
1.
Geometriccharacteristics
2.
Tolerancemodifyingsymbols
3.
Tolerancevalue(s)
4.
Primarydatumreference
5.
Secondarydatumreference
6.
Tertiarydatumreference
7.
Datummaterialconditions
Thetablebelowwillsummarizetheapplicationoptionsandrulesforeachofthefourteen(14)typesofgeometric
characteristics.Pleasenotethecharacteristic,symbol,andthetypeoffeaturecontrolledisgiven.These
characteristicsareplacedinthefirstboxofthefeaturecontrolframe.
Table4GD&TCharacteristic[2]
Inadditiontogeometriccharacteristics,therearemodifyingtolerancesymbolsnecessaryforacomplete
descriptionofthepart.Theseareasfollows:
Table5ModifyingToleranceSymbols[2]
ThesearequiteimportantandsomewhatselfexplanatorybutIwouldliketoexplainthreethatarefrequently
confusedandoneverypertitenanttoDFSSandsixsigma.
MaximumMaterialCondition(MMC)Theconditioninwhichafeaturecontainsthemostamountof
materialeverywherewithinthestatedlimitsofsize.
LeastMaterialCondition(LMC)Theconditioninwhichthefeaturecontainstheleastamountofmaterial
everywherewithinthestatedlimitsofsize.
StatisticalToleranceThestatisticaltolerancesymboldenotesthatdimensionortolerancewhichwas
derivedorestablishedbyusingstatisticalmethodsand/orsixsigmacalculations.Generally,these
toleranceswereestablishedbymeasuringcomponentsduringthebenchmarkingprocess.Wewillbe
consideringthismodifierlaterwhenwemarryDFSSandGD&T.Anotherdeterminationofstatistical
tolerancingisderivedfromprocesscapabilitystudies;i.e.howgoodismyprocessandwhattolerances
resultfrominvestigatingthosetolerancesduringtheprocess.
READINGBASICSYMBOLS:
Nowanexplanationastohowtoreadthesebasicsymbols.Eachgeometrictoleranceclassisrepresentedbya
regionorzone;theshapeofthezonedependsuponthetolerancetypeandthefeaturebeingtoleranced.Thesize
dependsuponthetolerancevalue,materialconditionmodifiersandcertainrules;theposition/orientationofthe
zonedependsuponthetolerancetypeanddatumsselected.Figure12belowshowsthezonesfor
perpendicularity,flatnessandrunout.[26]
Figure12Flatness,RunoutandPerpendicularity[26]
Asyoucansee,thereisaboundary,zoneorregionthatdefinesthegeometriccharacteristic.Lookingatthe
featurecontrolframerelativetoflatness,thereisatoleranceof0.003incheswhichthepartmustconformto
relativetodatumD.This0.003representstwoparallelsurfaces0.003inchesapart.Theflatnessmustliewithin
thiszonetobewithinspecifications.ThepartmustalsobeperpendiculartodatumDwithin0.010inches.
Runoutisthesame.Therunoutofthepartontherightmustbewithin0.005inchesrelativetodatumsAand
B.Thisisazonewithsurfaces0.005inchesapart.
Wediscussed,briefly,MMC.Inordertoallowfortradeoffsbetweenfeaturesizeandcertaintypesofgeometric
tolerances,suchasposition,thestandardsusematerialmodifiers;i.e.MMC,LMC,etctoindicatewhatthe
geometrictoleranceiswhenthesizeisatitslargestorsmallestvalue.Whenthefeaturesizedeviatesfromthat
value,abonustoleranceisaddedtothegeometrictolerance;i.e.tradingpositionvariationforsizevariation;
whenamodifierisappliedtoadatumfeatureofsize,thegeometrictolerancezonesshift,whichisequivalenttoa
largerzone.Thisisshownwiththefigurebelow.
Figure13MMC,LMC[26]
Iwouldliketogobacknowandprovideseveralbulletsforfigure9.Thesefurtherexplaintheuseand
methodologyforGD&T.Alldimensionsareininches.
Thelargestinsidediametermeasures7.00incheswithatoleranceof0.02inches.Thepositionofthe
surfacerepresentsthemaximummaterialcondition.
Thesecondlargestinternaldiameteris5.50incheswithatoleranceof0.020inches.Itrepresentsan
MMCconditionandmustbeperpendiculartodatumAwithin0.01inches.
ThethicknessofthematerialatDatumAis0.250inches.
Theprofileofthesurfaceofthecollarhubmustbe0.020inchesrelativetoDatumAThismeansitmust
beinatolerancezoneof0.020inches.
Thediameterofthefive(5)holesonthepartmustbelocatedonaboltcircle(BC)andwithinadiameter
of4.50inches.Theymustbe0.515inchesindiameterandwithatoleranceof0.0050inches.TheBC
musthaveatoleranceof0.015inchesrelativetoDatumsAandBwhenthepartisintheMMC
Beforeweforget,theapplicationofabasicdimensiontoadrawing,usingGD&T,looksasfollows:
Figure14BasicDimensions[1]
Pleasenotethattherearenotolerancesappliedtothebasicdimension.TolerancesareusedonlyinFeature
ControlFrames.
IwouldliketoemphasizethattherearemanysourcesfortrainingandconsultationregardingGD&T.Severalare
givenbelowasfollows:
Yourlocaltechnicalcommunitycollege
DimensionalManagementSystems,LLC
TecEase,Inc.
GeometricLearningSystems,Inc.
AdvancedDimensionalManagement,LLC
InternationalInstituteofGD&T
EngineersEdge
JamesD.Meadows&Associates,Inc.
TheQCGroup
PARTIII
DFSSANDGD&T:
InthissectionwewillattempttoshowhowDFSSANDGD&Tareinterrelated.WewillfindthatGD&Tisa
methodologycriticaltoDFSSifrepeatabilityandpredictiveassemblyaretobeaccomplished.DFSSisinvolved
withTOLERANCEALLOCATION.Toleranceallocationisamethodwhichwillallocatetolerancestovarious
componentsandanassemblyofmatingcomponentssoastopredicttheoutcome.Inthisfashion,wecanusethe
tenantsofsixsigma;i.e.bellshapedcurve,USLandLSL,toaidourefforts.Westartwithdefinedgoalsforthe
assembly,decidehoweachpartistobemanufactured,andallocatewhattolerancesANDstandarddeviation
shouldbeappliedtoeachdimensionsothatthepartcanbeeconomicallyproducedandassemblyrequirements
aremet.OnemethodofobtaininginformationrelativetoUSL,LSLandstandarddeviationisStatisticalProcess
Control.ManycompanieshaveadoptedSPCintheirfabricationprocessestodetermineCpkforpurposesof
controllingtheoutcomeofanymanufacturingmethodwiththehopesofreducingoreliminatingunusable(scrap)
components.Ifproductiondataisnotavailable,youcanestimaterecommendedtolerancesandstandard
deviationfromexistingdatabasesrelativetoindividualmanufacturingmethods.Usingtheseconcepts,weassign
tolerances;i.e.GD&Ttodrawingsknowingthatgoodpracticewillallowustobewithingenerallyaccepted
dimensionaldeviations.Thepurposeoftoleranceanalysisistostudytheaccumulationofvariationsonthe
geometricattributesofinterest;i.e.dimension,location,orientation,etc.Theneedforthisarisesfromthefact
thattheanalyzeddimensionsarenotexplicityspecified.Themostcommoncaseistheanalysisofclearancesin
assemblies.Alldimensionsandtolerancesthataffecttheclearancearecontributors.Thistolerancechainiscalled
thestackpathandusuallydoesinvolvemultiplecomponentsandpossiblymultipleassemblies.Worstcase
analysisisdonetodeterminethemaximumorminimumvaluesresultingfromthelimitsspecifiedbythe
contributors.Statisticalanalysisisusedtodeterminethefrequencydistributionofthecontributors.Worstcase
designguarantees100%interchangeabilityofparts.
TOLERANCEALLOCATION:
Iwouldlikenowtopresentatablethatwillindicatethesecondbasicsteptotoleranceallocationandtolerance
analysis.ThefirststepisthestructuringofaLOOPdiagramtodefinethelayoutofthecomponentsandthe
assemblyofcomponents.Pleasenotethatthistableisjustapartialtableofwhatdataisavailablethroughout
theliterature.Thelistliterallygoesonandon,butthemostimportantpointisthatthedataforstandarddeviation
isavailableifyouhavenotdevelopeditthroughStatisticalProcessControl(SPC)relativetoyourindividual
processes.Thestandarddeviationsgivenbelowareprocessspecificrelativetotheindividualmanufacturing
method.Thesevaluesrepresentaverygoodstartingpointforthetoleranceanalysisthatistofollow.
PROCESS
STANDARDDEVIATION
PROCESS
STANDARDDEVIATION
(INCHES)
(INCHES)
N/CMILLING
0.00026
JBENDMILLING
0.000105
N/CSIDEMILLING
0.00069
JBSIDEMILLING
0.000254
N/CSIDEMILLING>6IN.
0.00093
JBBOREHOLES<0.13DIA
0.000048
N/CDRILLINGHOLES(LOCATION)
0.00076
0.000054
N/CDRILLINGHOLES(DIAMETER)
0.00056
JBBOREHOLES(LOCATION)
JBDRILLINGHOLES
(LOCATION)
N/CTAPPEDHOLES
0.0025
JBCOUNTERSINK
0.001821
N/CCOUNTERSINK(LOCATION)
0.00211
JBREAMING(DIAMETER)
0.000159
N/CENDMILLPARALLEL
0.0002
JBENDMILL>16SQIN
0.00009
0.000769
TURNINGID
0.000127
TREYPANID
0.000127
TURNINGOD
0.000132
GRINDINGLAP
0.000027
GRINDINGSURFACE
0.000029
GRINDINGOD
0.000029
Table6StandardDeviationvsProcess
Again,thetablebelowisapartialtablebutwilldemonstratewhatdataisavailablerelativetothemanufacturing
process.
PROCESS
STANDARDDEVIATION
PROCESS
STANDARDDEVIATION
(INCHES)
(INCHES)
ALUMINUMCASTING(INCHES)
STEELCASTING(INCHES)
CASTUPTO0.250
0.00083
CASTUPTO0.250
0.00059
CASTUPTO0.0500
0.001035
CASTUPTO0.500
0.00106
CASTUPTO1.000
0.001597
CASTUPTO1.000
0.001346
CASTUPTO2.000
0.002102
CASTUPTO2.000
0.002099
CASTUPTO3.000
0.00.2662
CASTUPTO3.250
0.003064
CASTUPTO11.00
0.008126
CASTOVER11.00
0.011711
CASTFLAT<2SQIN
0.001543
CASTFLAT<2SQIN
0.00152
CASTFLAT<4SQIN
0.002003
CASTFLAT<4SQIN
0.002059
CASTSTRAIGHTOVER10IN
0.00904
CASTSTRAIGHTOVER10IN
0.009289
Table7StandardDeviationvsProcess
Afterconstructingaloopdiagram,wewanttodevelopatoleranceallocationspreadsheetusingdatasimilarto
whathasbeengivenintables6and7.Thisisverycriticalandallowsustobookkeepthedataandcaptureallof
therelevantassumptions.Pleasekeepinmindthisisjustanexampleanddoesnotpertaintoanyrealpartor
assemblyofparts.Thetolerancesareappliedtothegeometriccharacteristicsoftheindividualpartssoarealistic
gapdimension,gaptoleranceandgapstandarddeviationmaybeassigned.
VARIABLENAME
NOMINAL
SENSITIVITY
STANDARD
PROCESS
TOLERANCE
(PLUSOR
MINUS)
(DIMENSION)
DIMENSION
DEVIATION
0.3595
0.0155
0.00286
CASTFLAT>6.00IN
0.032
0.002
0.00211
N/CCOUNTERSINK
0.06
VARIABLE
0.000029
GRINDINGSURFACE
0.4305
FIXED
0.000127
TURNING
0.1200
0.0075
0.00152
CAST<2.00SQIN
1.5030
0.007
0.00201
CASTUPTO2.000
0.1200
0.0100
0.000105
JBENDMILLING
0.4305
0.0015
0.00026
N/CENDMILLING
Table8ToleranceAllocationSpreadsheet
STATISTICALALLOCATION:
Thisspreadsheetandmethodisviableandusablesothatthetolerancesareallocatedinafashiontoguarantee
assembly.WewanttotakealookatSTATISTICALALLOCATION.Thisiswhereweassigntolerances,combined
withstandarddeviation,toproduceapredictiveoutcome.TheSTGD&Tmodifierwediscussedearlieris
specifiedonthedrawinganddoesresultfromusingthestatisticalapproachtotoleranceallocation.
Herearethestepsnecessary:
ProduceaLOOPdiagramshowingthedimensionsvsthegapsorseparationbetweenmatingparts.Of
coursetheobjecthereistodetermineifthereareinterferencepointsdesignedintotheoverall
assemblyofparts.(THISSHOULDBETHEVERYFIRSTSTEPINTHEPROCESSTOGETAVISUALIDEAOF
THEASSEMBLY)Pleasenotethatasignconventionisnecessarytoobtaintheproperresults;i.e.right
toleftisnegative()andlefttorightispositive(+).Eitherwayisfinebutyoumustkeepthestated
conventionduringthesolutiontotheproblem.NOCHANGING!!.
ConstructanAllocationSpreadsheetsimilartothesheetaboveoryourversionofwhatisneeded.
Layinthedimensions,tolerances(firstpass)andtheexpectedstandarddeviationrelativetothe
manufacturingprocess.
Calculatetheexpectedassemblyperformanceusingsixsigma;i.e.USLandLSLmethodology.
Reallocatethetolerancesdependinguponthesixsigmaanalysis.
Recalculatetheassemblyperformance.
Applythetolerances,usingGD&Ttechniquestoyourcomponentdrawing(s)andoverallassembly.
Afigureshowingthestepstothisprocessisasfollows:
Figure15StepsforEvaluatingGapAllocation
Incalculatingthemeanvalueofthegap,weusethefollowingformula:
d(g)=(i=1toi=N)=a(i)d(i)
where
d(g)=themeanvalueofthegap.Ifd(g)ispositive,themeangaphasclearance:ifnegative,themeangaphas
interference.
N=thenumberofindependentvariables(dimensions)inthestackup
a(i)=sensitivityfactorthatdefinesthedirectionandmagnitudeoftheithdimension.Inaonedimensional
stackup,thisvalueisessentially+1or1.Sometimes,inaonedimensionalstackup,thevaluemaybe+0.50or
0.50ifaradiusisthecontributingfactorforadiametercalloutonadrawing.
d(i)=themeanvalueoftheithdimensionintheloopdiagram.
Nowletustakeanexampleofgettingthisaccomplished.Wearegoingtolookatthestatisticaltolerancingofa
rangedrawer.Onafreestandingorslideinrange,thereisgenerallyalowerdrawerthatslidesinandout.The
drawerislocatedbelowtheovendoorandprovidesstorageforpots,pans,etc.Theproperfitisdefinitely
necessarytomaintainappearancesandeliminatedragorunnecessaryresistancewhenthedrawerisloadedwith
utensils.Thepicturewillshowthelocationofthelowerrangedrawerrelativetotheovencavity.
Figure16GELowerDrawer
PROBLEMEXAMPLES:
Wewillselectasoursignconventiondownispositive(+)andupisnegative().Thisisreallynotintuitive,unless
youhaverangeexperience,butwearechoosing,asthedimensiontocontrol,thegapbetweenthetopofthe
rangedrawerandthetrimpiecebetweentheovencavitydoorandthedrawer.Thiswecallgap.Itisvery
importanttomaintainthesamegapacrossthefrontoftherange.Varyinggapdimensionswillbepickedupbythe
consumerveryquickly.WewillhavecomponentdimensionslabeledA,B,C,D,E,Fandfinallygap.For
asixsigmadesign,wechoosetocontrolthegap.Also,whendoingthesecalculations,Ialwayshaveapart,orat
leastapictureofthepartavailableforobservation.Youcanreallygetlostwhendoingthesethings,soanyandall
visualaidsareveryhelpful.Iwillshowamotorassemblylateronthatwilldemonstratetheneedfordrawings,
parts,pictures,etc.
Table9DimensionsandMeanValues
Thecalculationsfollowtheloopdiagram.
Figure17LoopDiagramforOvenRangeDrawer[20]
Asanexplanation,themeanvaluesaredeterminedfromprocesscontroldata.Thesemaybecriticaltoquality
dimensionsonthedrawing.Asyoucansee,themeangapis0.050inchesandiswithinourplusorminus0.080
inchspecification.Now,thestandarddeviationofthedimensionisknownalso.Fromthis,wecancalculatethe
sigmagapdatausingtheformulagiven.
Asyoucansee,thestandarddeviationforthegapcanbenogreaterthan0.013inchestohaveasixsigmaproduct.
Now,letusexaminethestandarddeviationforthedrawerslidesusingtheverysamemethodology.
AsImentionedearlier,thesecalculationscangetquitecumbersomeanddetailed.Pleasetakealookatthe
followingmotorassemblyandyoucertainlywillunderstandwhatImean.
Figure18MotorAssembly[2]
Wewouldstartbydevelopingaloopdiagram.Allofthegapsandpertinentdimensionswouldbelaidontothe
diagramforaddedclarity.Nextcomestheallocationspreadsheetwithdimensions,tolerancesandprojected
standarddeviations.TheDFSScalculationswouldbegeneratedfromthisassemblydrawingandfromthediagram.
Iwouldliketogiveonemoreexample;thisonebeingrefrigeratordoortrim.Thistimewearechoosingasoursign
conventionrighttoleftas(+)andlefttorightasnegative().WehavedimensionsA,B,CandFwiththe
gapbetweenthetrimoffsetandthetrimbumpasthedimensionneedingtobecontrolled.Asketchofthedoor
trimassemblyisgivenabovetheloopdiagramforsomedegreeofclarity.Wewillusethefollowingdimensionsfor
ourcalculations:
T(A)=30.303inches
T(B)=0.700inches
T(C)=Tobefound
T(D)=0.030inches
Figure19RefrigeratorDoorTrim[20]
Thesketchbelowwillshowthedetailsoftheexactconfigurationwewishtoexamine.
Figure20RefrigeratorDoorTrimEnlargement[20]
Weseethat,fortheassemblytobesixsigma,wemusthaveadimensionT(c)of29.068butwithatoleranceof
0.062inches.
CONCLUSIONS:
We have dealt with two very important technical methodologies in this course: 1.) Design for Six Sigma and 2.)
Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing. Both represent practical approaches to the design and manufacturing of
mechanical components. Our goal, as engineers, is always to design products that meet customer needs AND
provide the safety required for normal and even some abnormal use. DFSS and GD&T are only two of the vehicles
that can help us realize these goals but they are very important to each design type and, when used, will save hours
of cut and try. I personally feel that DFSS is only achievable if GD&T is used to describe a component or an
assembly of components. That is the very reason that I have chosen to discuss both in this course. We have only
touched the surface of both technologies; so I do hope you will consider further investigation so that incorporation
of these techniques into your company and engineering department will result. It does take time, training and the
resolve to get it done. For complete success, every member of your design, reliability, quality control,
manufacturing and inspection team must be on board and willing to accept the challenge so that process
improvement can occur.
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PDHonline Course M347 (5 PDH)

Geometric Dimensioning & Tolerancing

Instructor: Robert P. Jackson, PE

PDH Online | PDH Center

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