[HYRAULIC 1]

COURSE: HYDRAULIC
COURSE CODE: CC303
PROGRAMME: DIPLOMA OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
EXPERIMENT 1: FLUID CHARACTERISTICS

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MEASUREMENT OF DENSITIES AND SPECIFIC GRAVITIES.
Introduction
The mass density or density of a material is its mass per unit volume. The symbol most often
used for density is . Mathematically; density is defined as mass divided by volume:

Where is the density, m is the mass, and V is the volume. In some cases, density is also
defined as its weight per unit volume, although this quantity is more properly called specific
weight.

Different materials usually have different densities, and density may be relevant to buoyancy,
purity and packaging. Osmium and iridium are the densest known elements at standard
conditions for temperature and pressure but certain chemical compounds may be denser.
Less dense fluids float on more dense fluids if they do not mix. This concept can be extended,
with some care, to less dense solids floating on more dense fluids. If the average density
(including any air below the waterline) of an object is less than water it will float in water and
if it is more than water it will sink in water.
Density is sometimes expressed by the dimensionless quantity "specific gravity" or "relative
density", the ratio of the density of the material to that of a standard material, usually water.
Thus a specific gravity less than one means that the substance floats in water.
The density of a material varies with temperature and pressure. This variation is typically
small for solids and liquids but much greater for gases. Increasing the pressure on an object

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decreases the volume of the object and thus increases its density. Increasing the temperature
of a substance (with a few exceptions) decreases its density by increasing its volume. In most
materials, heating the bottom of a fluid results in convection of the heat from the bottom to
the top, due to the decrease in the density of the heated fluid. This causes it to rise relative to
more dense unheated material.
The reciprocal of the density of a substance is occasionally called its specific volume, a term
sometimes used in thermodynamics. Density is a property in that increasing the amount of a
substance does not increase its density, rather it increases its mass
Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of a substance compared to the density (mass of the
same unit volume) of a reference substance. Apparent specific gravity is the ratio of the
weight of a volume of the substance to the weight of an equal volume of the reference

substance. The reference substance is nearly always water for liquids or air for gases.
Temperature and pressure must be specified for both the sample and the reference. Pressure is
nearly always 1 atm equal to 101.325 kPa. Temperatures for both sample and reference vary
from industry to industry. In British brewing practice the specific gravity as specified above
is multiplied by 1000. Specific gravity is commonly used in industry as a simple means of
obtaining information about the concentration of solutions of various materials such as
brines, hydrocarbons, sugar solutions (syrups, juices, honeys, brewerswort, must etc.) and
acids. No units for specific gravity and the formula are:

Gs = _ liquid (g)_
water (g)

where g = 9.81 m/s2 and water = 1000 kg/m3

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Objective:
To determine densities and specific gravity.

Apparatus:
1. Universal hydrometer
2. 4 off hydrometer jars

Procedure
1. Fill one hydrometer jar with sufficient water to float the hydrometer and check that the
scale marking corresponding to depth of immersion reads 1.00
2. Fill two hydrometer with the liquids to be tested with sufficient of the liquids to float the
hydrometer and note for each liquid the scale reading.

Data analysis:
Liquid

Scale Reading= Specific Gravity , s

Density ,p(Kg/m3)

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Water
Salt Water
Engine Oil
Kerosene

1
1.02
0.89
0.865

1000
1020
890
865

Conclusion:
Conclusions can be made based on the experiment carried out is specific gravities of liquids
is something different. Specific gravity of water is 1000kg/m set. In these experiments we
have used four different liquids. Liquid used to measure the densities and specific gravities is
Water, Salt Water, Engine Oil, Paints. Each liquid tested using hydrometer to measure
specific gravity of a liquid. Unlike density, which has units of mass per volume, specific
gravity is a pure number, i.e., it has no associated unit of measure. If the densities of the
substance of interest and the reference substance are known in the same units (e.g., both in
g/cm3 or lb/ft3), then the specific gravity of the substance is equal to its density divided by
that of the reference substance. Similarly, if the specific gravity of a substance is known and
the density of the reference substance is known in some particular units, then the density of
the substance of interest, in those units, is equal to the product of its specific gravity and the
density of the reference substance.

Discussion:
In these experiments we found that specific gravity correlated with the density. To determine
the density we need to get the specific gravity reading. Upon obtaining specific gravity of
each liquid we need to use the formula given s = density of liquid / density of water. Density

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of water was defined as fixed value 1000 kg/m3. Experiment epoch we find salt water has a
higher density value.

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COURSE: HYDRAULIC
COURSE CODE: CC303
PROGRAMME: DIPLOMA OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
EXPERIMENT 3: OSBORNE REYNOLDS EXPERIMENT

FLOW CHARACTERISTICS AND REYNOLDS NUMBER

INTRODUCTION
Laminar Flow denotes a steady condition where all stream line flow parallel paths .Under
this condition ,the dye will remain easily identifiable a solid core Re <2000.

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Turbulent Flow denotes an unsteady condition where stream lines interact causing shear
plane collapse and mixing of the fluid .Under this condition the dye will become dispersed s
mixing occurs 2000 <Re<4000.

As the flow rate is increased,the transition from laminar to turbulent flow is a gradual
process.This zone of change is defined as transitional flow .This will appear as a wandering
dye stream prior to dispersion as turbulence occurs Re >4000
Reynolds Number , Re the internationally recognized criterion denoting fluid condition
Re = VD/v
V= Flow Velocity (m/s)
d= Pipe Diameter (m)
v= Kinematic Viscosity (m/s)
Reynolds numbers frequently arise when performing dimensional analysis of fluid dynamics
problems, and as such can be used to determine dynamic similitude between different
experimental cases.
They are also used to characterize different flow regimes, such as laminar or turbulent flow:
laminar flow occurs at low Reynolds numbers, where viscous forces are dominant, and is
characterized by smooth, constant fluid motion; turbulent flow occurs at high Reynolds
numbers

and

is

dominated

by

inertial

chaotic eddies, vortices and other flow instabilities.

forces,

which

tend

to

produce

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OBJECTIVE
To observe laminar, transitional and turbulent pipe flow.

APPARATUS

Reynolds number apparatus.

Hydraulic bench.

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Stop watch

PROCEDURE
1. Turn on the water supply and party open the discharge valve at the base of apparatus.
2. Adjust the water supply until the level in the constant head is just above the overflow
pipe and is maintained at this level by a small flow down the overflow pipe.
3. Open and adjust the dye injector valve to obtain a fine filament of dye in the down the
glass tube. If the dye is dispersed in the tube, reduce the water flow rate by closing he
discharge valve and adjusting the supply as necessary to maintain the constant head. A
laminar flow condition should be achieved in which the filament of dye passes down
complete length of the tube without disturbance.
4. Slowly increase the flow rate by opening the discharge valve until disturbance the dye
filament .This can be regarded as the starting points of transition to turbulent flow
.Increase the water supply as required to maintaining the constant head conditions.
5. Measure the flow rate by timing the collection of known quantity of water from the
discharge pipe.
6. Further increase the flow rate as described above until the disturbances such the dye
filament becomes rapidly diffused.

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DATA ANALYSIS
Pipe Diameter

= 0.012 meter

Water Temperature = 20c

Kinematic Viscoity = 0.8 X 10 ^-6 m/s

Dye

Volume

Times (s)

Discharge,

Velocity ,

Re

Type of

Condition
1.
2.

(m)
0.0005
0.0005

40
12

Q ( m/s)
12.5X10^-6
29.41X10^-

V (m/s)
0.111
0.260

1665
3990

Flow
Laminar
Transitional

0.0005

6
125X10^-6

1.105

16575

Turbulent

3.

CONCLUSION
As the water flow rate increase, the Reynolds number calculated also increase and the red dye line change
from thin thread to swirling in shape. Laminar flow occurs when the Reynolds number

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calculated is below than 2300; transitional flow occurs when Reynolds number calculated is
between 2300 and 4000 while turbulent flow occurs when Reynolds number calculated is
above 4000.It is proved that the Reynolds equation is dimensionless, no units left after the
calculation

DISCUSSION

Laminar flow- highly ordered fluid motion with smooth streamlines.

Transition flow -a flow that contains both laminar and turbulent regions.

Turbulent flow -a highly disordered fluid motion characterized by velocity and

fluctuations and eddies.

According to the Reynolds`s experiment, laminar flow will occur when a thin filament of dye
injected into laminar flow appears as a single line. There is no dispersion of dye throughout
the flow, except the slow dispersion due to molecular motion. While for turbulent flow, if a
dye filament injected into a turbulent flow, it disperse quickly throughout the flow field, the
lines of dye breaks into myriad entangled threads of dye. In this experiment we have to firstly
is to observe the characteristic of the flow of the fluid in the pipe, which may be laminar or
turbulent flow by measuring the Reynolds number and the behavior of the flow, secondly to
calculate the range for the laminar and turbulent flow and lastly to prove the Reynolds

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number is dimensionless by using the Reynolds number formula. After complete preparing
and setup the equipment we run this experiment. But firstly we have to calculate the area
of bell mounted glass tube, the viscosity of water and the density of water. The density of
water is 1000 kg/m, the area of glass tube is 2.0110-4 m
, while the viscosity of water is 1.0 10kg/ms, this is done for easy step by step calculation. We
observe that the red dye line change with the increasing of water flow rate. The shape change

from thin threads to slightly swirling which still contains smooth thin thread sand then fully
swirling. We can say that this change is from laminar flow to transitional flow and then to
turbulent flow and its not occurs suddenly.

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COURSE: HYDRAULIC
COURSE CODE: CC303
PROGRAMME: DIPLOMA OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

[HYRAULIC 1]

EXPERIMENT 2: BERNOUILLIS DEMONSTRATION

INTRODUCTION
Bernoulli's Principle is a physical principle formulated that states that "as the speed of a
moving fluid (liquid or gas) increases, the pressure within the fluid decreases. Bernoulli's
principle is named after the Swiss scientist Daniel Bernoulli who published his principle in
his book Hydrodynamica in 1738. Bernoullis Principle can be demonstrated by the
Bernoulli equation. The Bernoulli equation is an approximate relation between pressure,
velocity, and elevation. While the Continuity equation relates the speed of a fluid that moving
through a pipe to the cross sectional area of the pipe. It says that as a radius of the pipe
decreases the speed of fluid flow must increase and vice-versa. However, Bernoullis
Principle can only be applied under certain conditions. The conditions to which Bernoullis

equation applies are the fluid must be frictionless (in viscid) and of constant density; the flow
must be steady, and the relation holds in general for single streamlines. In general, frictional
effects are always important very close to solid wall (boundary layers) and directly
downstream of bodies (wakes). Thus, the Bernoulli approximation is typically useful in flow
regions outside of boundary layers and wakes, where the fluid motion is governed by the
combined effects of pressure and gravity forces. Bernoulli's principle can be explained in
terms of the law of conservation of energy. As a fluid moves from a wider pipe into a
narrower pipe or a constriction, a corresponding volume must move a greater distance
forward in the narrower pipe and thus have a greater speed. At the same time, the work done
by corresponding volumes in the wider and narrower pipes will be expressed by the product

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of the pressure and the volume. Since the speed is greater in the narrower pipe, the kinetic
energy of that volume is greater. Then, by the law of conservation of energy, this increase in
kinetic energy must be balanced by a decrease in the pressure-volume product, or, since the
volumes are equal, by a decrease in pressure. The Bernoulli equation: kinetic energy +
potential energy + flow energy = constant

OBJECTIVE:
i.

To investigate the validity of the Bernoulli equation when applied to the steady flow

ii.

in a tapered duct.
To measure flow rates and both static and total pressure heads in a rigid
convergent/divergent tube of known geometry for a range of steady flow rates.

APPARATUS:
Hydraulic bench

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Bernoullis apparatus test equipment

Stopwatch

Summary of Theory
The Bernoulli equation represents the conversation of mechanical energy for a steady
incompressible, frictionless flow:
P1 + V1 + z1 = P2 + V2 + z2
g

2g

g 2g

where : = static pressure detected at a side

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V = fluid velocity
z = vertical elevation of the fluid

If the tube is horizontal, the difference in height can be disregarded,

Z1 = Z2

Hence,
P1 + V1 = P2 + V2
g

2g

g 2g

With the arm field apparatus, the static pressure head P, is measured using a manometer
directly from a side hole pressure tapping.

The manometer actually measures the static pressure head, h, in meter which is related to
using the relationship.
h=P
g

this allow the Bernoulli equation to be written in a revised form

V1 + h1 = V2 + h2
2g

2g

The velocity related portion of the total pressure head is called the kinetic pressure head

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PROCEDURE

1) Ensure that the rig outflow tube is positioned above the volumetric tank, in order to
facilitate timed volume collections. Gradually open the bench value to fill the test rig
with water.
2) Check that all manometer tubing is free from air-bubble. If needed flush the airbubbles by slowly closing the exit value and draining the water (and the air-bubbles)
through the manometer tubing.
3) Adjust both (inlet and outlet) valves so that you get the maximum difference in levels
between tapping point #7 and #8.
4) Take reading from manometer #1 to manometers #6 when the levels have steadied.
Ensure that the total pressure probe is reacted from the test section.
5) Gently push/slide the hypodermic tube (total pressure head probe), connected to
manometer #8, so that its end reaches the cross section of each manometer from the
Venturi tube.

6) Wait for some time for the level in manometer tube #8 to stabilize (it make some time
for it to reach steady state).
7) Wait for some time and note down the readings from manometer #8. The reading
shown by manometer #8 is the sum of the pressure and velocity heads, because the
hypodermic tube is held against the flow of fluid forcing it to a stop (zero velocity).
8) Record the time taken for the water to fill up the volumetric tank. Take at list 3
measurements and record the timings in order to calculated average flow rate.

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RESULT
Flow Rate Measurement
Trial
1
2
3

Volume, V (m)
Time, T (s)
0.003 m
33.57
0.003 m
34.56
0.003 m
37.23
Average flow rate = (Q1+Q2+Q3) / 3

Flow rate, Q (m/s)

8.94 X 105
8.94 X 10 5
8.94 X 105
8.56 X 10 5

Manometer reading
Tube

Tube

Area cross

Static

Velocity,

Kinetic

Total

no.

Diameter, d

section, A

head, h

V (m)

head, (m)

head, h*

1
2
3

(m)
0.0250
0.0139
0.0118

(m)
4.91 X 10 4
1.52 X 10 4
1.09 X 10 4

(m)
2.5
2.15
1.7

0.17
0.56
0.79

0.0015
0.016
0.032

(m)
2.5015
2.166
1.732

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4
5
6

0.0107
0.0100
0.0250

8.99 X 10 5
7.85 X 10 5
4.91 X 10 4

1.15
0.45
0.85

0.95
1.09
0.17

0.046
0.061
0.0015

1.196
0.511
0.8515

DISCUSSION
I carried out an experiment to test the Bernoulli's Equation. A venturi-meter along
with single limb manometers were used to determine the mass flow rate. I noticed a
decrease in the static pressure head at the throat of the venturi meter when a pitot tube
was introduced into the flow. The Reynolds number was 8940 at the throat. The total
pressure head at the throat was less than the static pressure head at the inlet.

CONCLUSION
The throat of the venturi-meter had a diameter of 10 mm. The mass flow rate
determined using the venturi-meter was 0.0785 kg/s with a flow velocity of 1.00 m/s,
while the mass flow rate calculated using the pitot tube was 0.0816 kg/s with a flow
velocity of 1.04 m/s.
If I assume the pitot tube had a diameter of 2 mm then the cross sectional area
after the introduction of the pitot tube would be
(0.25*pi*(0.01^2-0.002^2)) . Using this reduced area and the flow speed determined
using the pitot tube (1.04 m/s), I get a mass flow rate of 0.0784 kg/s which is much
closer to that determined using the venturi meter.

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In addition, if I use the solenoidal property of velocity and calculate the
velocity after the reduction in are caused by the pitot tube I get 1.04 m/s, which is
exactly what the pitot tube measured.
So I think that the decrease in static pressure head at the throat on the
introduction of the pitot tube was due to a decrease in cross-sectional area.
Is this reason valid because I don't think that a pitot tube should affect the static
pressure at all.