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restoration
of lakes in Denmark
LakePromo
Management and
restoration
of lakes in Denmark
LakePromo
Mette Bramm & Inge Christensen
Preface
This report concerns the management and restoration
of lakes in Denmark. Chapter 1 describes the state and
development of Danish lakes and provides a status of
past and present lake management and restoration
efforts. Methods of restoration and loading reducing
initiatives to be applied in lake catchments are presented. The next two chapters of the report deal with
administrative issues such as structure, legislation and
bodies involved in Danish lake management, and a status is presented of the ongoing implementation of the
EU Water Framework Directive.
Chapters 4-6 focus on various aspects of lake restoration such as project funding and the actual restoration
process, and a detailed description is given of the most
frequently applied restoration measures in Denmark
using the restoration project undertaken by the County
of Aarhus of Lake Stubbe as an example.
Contents
Preface
1. Background
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
15
21
25
27
31
43
47
1. Background
During the 20th century the anthropogenic nutrient
input, mainly coming from agriculture and sewage, to
most Danish lakes was much higher than the natural
input. The result was that many lakes became so rich in
nutrients that they shifted from a clearwater to a turbid
state (figure 1).
Figure 1. Illustration of the shift from a clearwater to a turbid state. The figure furthermore shows the different structure of the ecosystem in a clearwater lake and a turbid (eutrophic) lake, respectively (Source: Aarhus County).
1. Background
Various kinds of interventions into existing lakes also
called lake restoration may be used to precipitate the
process towards improved water quality and to disrupt
the ecosystem resilience. For this purpose numerous
methods have been developed and many lake restoration projects undertaken in Danish lakes over the
past two decades. Thus, attempts have been made to
disrupt the chemical resilience by either removing the
large phosphorus pools of the sediment or by improving
the sediments retention capacity. To break biological
resilience fish stock manipulations are the most frequently used method (Sndergaard et al., 1998).
Oligotrophic
Mesotrophic
Eutrophic
Hypereutrophic
Definition
3 17.7
307 - 1630
0.3 4.5
10.9 95.6
361 - 1387
3 - 11
16 - 386
393 - 6100
3 - 78
Hypereutrophic lakes
are characterised by
extremely high nutrient
concentrations, turbid,
green water and high
biological productivity.
Plants are either abundant or absent, and the
densities of fish and
other small animals/invertebrates are high.
750 - 1200
100 - 150
5.4 28.3
1.5 8.1
0.8 7
0.4 0.5
1. Background
Today, there are approximately 120,000 Danish lakes
larger than 0.01 ha (100 m). However, most lakes are
small or can be characterised as ponds. Only 2 %, corresponding to 2,762 lakes, measure more than 1 ha,
and only 6 lakes are larger than 1,000 ha. Denmarks
largest lake is Lake Arres with an area of approx.
4000 ha. In total, Danish lakes cover an area of 58,000
ha, which corresponds to 1.4 % of the total Danish land
area (Sndergaard et al., 1999b).
About half the Danish lakes exhibit phosphorus concentrations exceeding 150 g P/l, and in 65 % of the
lakes summer Secchi depth is lower than 1 m (Jeppesen & Sndergaard, 1997). Thus, Danish lakes are
generally highly nutrient-rich (eutrophic) and turbid. In
many lakes phosphorus is the most important limiting
nutrient for phytoplankton growth, in other lakes phosphorus and nitrogen are equally important or change
in relative importance with the season (Sand-Jensen,
increased
P loading
reduced recreational
quality & possibly
restricted bathing
due to toxic algae
increased
algae biomass
turbid water
possibly obnoxious
smells & fauna death
due to toxic algae
fewer submerged
macrophytes
increased
sedimentation
increased oxygen
demand, possibly
anoxic conditions
increased
P release
negative effect on
aquatic organisms
increase in
planktivorous
fish
decrease in
piscivorous
fish
fewer
invertebrates
Figure 1.2.1. Biological (green), physico-chemical (blue) and recreational (red) consequences of eutrophication.
more fish
eating birds
1. Background
Consequences of eutrophication
Phosphorus
Wastewater
Atmosphere
Fish farming
3,9%
0,5%
6,4%
Rainwater
9,2%
Scattered
dwellings
14,2%
Open land
65,8%
Nitrogen
Wastewater
2,6%
Atmosphere
Fish farming
0,1%
18,9%
Rainwater
1,5%
Scattered
dwellings
3,9%
Open land
73,1%
Focus on eutrophication
Sewage pollution from urban areas was easily recognisable and efficient removal of both organic substances
and phosphorus was initiated in the 1970s. The use of
fertilizers and imported animal feedstuff, which increased markedly from around 1960 to the mid-1980s,
resulted in a dramatic increase in the nutrient loading
of the aquatic environment. Political awareness of the
problem increased, a contributory factor being several
episodes of oxygen depletion and fish kills in inner Danish waters during the 1980s. In autumn 1986, oxygen
depletion caused death of lobsters in the Kattegat,
10
1. Background
which proved beyond doubt that conditions were poor.
The effects of the oxygen depletion were covered intensively by the media, which led to a severe pressure
on the Danish politicians. Focus was put on the aquatic
environment, and the first of three Action Plans on the
Aquatic Environment was launched (Grant et al., 2002).
Lake restoration
Lake restoration was first put on the agenda in the
mid-1970s when the Danish Environmental Protection
Agency received a number of enquiries concerning the
potential restoration of lakes with deteriorated environmental quality. In spring 1977 the agency decided
to set up a working group to elaborate a report on the
potentials of lake restoration (Danish Environmental
Protection Agency, 1979). However, lake restoration
did not become a serious possibility until 1984 when
Dr Erik Jeppesen was asked to form a lake group at the
Freshwater Laboratory in Silkeborg (now the National
Environmental Research Institute, NERI) (Jeppesen,
1998). The first large-scale lake restoration project was
completed during 1986-1988 in Lake Vng in Central
Jutland (Jeppesen et al., 1989), and although lake
restoration has thus been applied since the end of the
1980s, most projects have been undertaken during the
past 10-12 years.
1.3 History and current scope of lake management and restoration in Denmark
Lake management
In Denmark, there is a relatively long tradition for
monitoring lakes and other aquatic areas. This owes
to the introduction of the Environmental Protection
Act in 1974 that allocated to the Danish counties the
responsibility for monitoring the environment, but only
with the implementation of Action Plan I in 1987 was
monitoring of the aquatic environment systematised. A
national lake monitoring programme was launched to
trace the effects of the measures introduced by Action
Plan I to reduce the nutrient input. To cover the additional costs incurred in complying with the supplementary monitoring, the Danish Parliament has since 1988
annually allocated approx. 13 million to the counties,
the amount being supplemented by funds for research
and operation (Andersen et al., 2005). Since 1988,
the national lake monitoring programme has been the
joint responsibility of county and state authorities. The
counties are responsible for sampling, preliminary data
analysis and reporting at the local level, while the National Environmental Research Institute (NERI) collect
11
1. Background
Parameters
Small lakes
(0.1-5 ha)
Ponds
(0.01-0.1 ha)
Intensive programme
23 lakes
Extensive programme I
204 lakes
Extensive programme II
414 lakes
Heavy metals
Physico-chemical parameters
19 (every year)
7 (every 3
19 (every year)
year)
Phytoplankton
19 (every year)
Zooplankton
19 (every year)
Submerged macrophytes
1 (every year)
Sediment analyses
Loading and threats (GIS)
rd
year)
5 (every 6
th
Biological parameters
Reeds
Bottom animals
1 (every 3
rd
1 (every 3
rd
year)
year)
1 (every 3
rd
1 (every 6
th
year)
year)
Fish
Birds
1 (every year)
Amphibians
1 (every year)
1 (every year)
Table 1.3.1. The number of intensive and extensive lakes included in the NOVANA programme (2004-2009). The number of extensive
lakes will be reduced during the period 2007-2009 when focus will be shifted to environmental hazardous substances. The table gives a
survey of parameters, frequency (years) and number of samplings per year (according to Svendsen et al., 2005).
should be reduced to a level corresponding to an equilibrium phosphorus concentration below 50-100 g P/l in
shallow lakes and desirably <20-50 g P/l in deep lakes
to obtain lasting effects (Sndergaard et al., 1999b).
Physico-chemical methods have been far less frequently applied in Danish restoration projects (table
1.4.1 and figure 1.4.1). The three most commonly used
methods are oxidation of bottom water/sediment (e.g.
Lake Hald (Rasmussen, 1998)), sediment removal (e.g.
12
1. Background
Number
of lakes
*Stocking of piscivorous
fish fry
~ 46
*Removal of planktivores
~ 43
Transplantation/protection
of submerged macrophytes
~7
~ 10
Sediment removal
~8
~4
Restoration methods
Biological
Physicochemical
Table 1.4.1. Survey of the most frequently applied methods in Danish lake restoration projects. Most restored lakes are shallow but differ
widely in size (<1-850 ha) and nutrient level (~ 50-800 g P/l) (Sndergaard et al., 1998). The survey is based on October 2005 data and
includes county restoration projects. *A detailed description of the fish manipulation method is given in Chapter 6, section 6.1.
30
27
25
20
15
18
14
10
8
4
0
Only fish removal
Fish removal +
stocking
Only stocking
Only sediment
Only oxygen
Only aluminium/iron
Figure 1.4.1. Survey of the most commonly applied lake restoration methods based on number of projects undertaken. Green and blue
columns represent, respectively, biological and physico-chemical measures. The figure illustrates that fish removal combined with pike
stocking is the most frequently used method in Denmark. The survey is based on October 2005 data and comprises all restoration projects
with county involvement.
An important prerequisite for successful lake restoration is that the external nutrient input to the lake
is reduced to an equilibrium level of 50-100 g P/l.
Table 1.4.2 gives a survey of loading-reducing measu-
13
1. Background
res currently applied in Danish lake catchments. It is
important to note that the measures aim to improve
the aquatic environment as a whole and not only the
environmental state of lakes. The measures reduce
loading from diffuse sources as well as point sources
within the catchment. The diffuse loading derives from
Measures applied
Comments
Diffuse sources
Action Plan I (1987-), II (1998-) and III (20042015) and Action Plan for Sustainable Development of Agriculture (1991-)
Four important environmental instruments aimed to reduce nutrient loading of the aquatic environment.
Evaluation of effects on the environment (in accordance with the EU directive of EIA - Environmental Impact assessment
Reduces the input of organic substances (nutrients) and the risk of acidification.
Point sources
Improved sewage treatment at plants with a
capacity >1000 individuals (biological treatment,
phosphorus and nitrogen removal)
The tax decreases with increasing quality of the water discharge to promote effective treatment.
Applies to dwellings in open country that are not connected with the sewage system. The designation demands biological treatment.
Reduces the amount of phosphorus in the water discharge from fish farms
and improves the fodders quality (low phosphorus levels).
14
responsible for the environmental tasks earlier managed by the counties. Figures 2.1.1 and 2.1.2 depict the
administrative structure before and after the structural
reform and the degree of authority attachment to and
co-operation respective to the lake area.
Figure 2.1.1. The administrative structure before the structural reform to be effected by January 1, 2007. The various
authorities involved in lake management activities as well as the
interface between them are shown. Governmental institutions
are represented by the Danish Environmental Protection Agency,
the Danish Forest and Nature Agency, the National Environmental Research Institute and the Danish Fisheries Research
Institute.
interest groups
lake
municipality
DIFRES
DEPA
NERI
county
DFNA
Figure 2.1.2. The administrative structure after structural reform to be effected by January 1, 2007. The various authorities
involved in lake management activities as well as the interface
between them are shown. The red arrows and boxes depict the
expectedly most significant changes. The counties will be dissolved, and the governmental institutes are now represented
by the Danish Environmental Protection Agency, the Danish
Forest and Nature Agency, the National Environmental Research
Institute, the Danish Fisheries Research Institute and the new
governmental environment centres.
interestgroups
large
municipality
lake
DIFRES
Center of
Environment
NERI
DEPA
DFNA
15
Chapter 3 provides a detailed description of the organisations involved in lake management activities and
A1
A2
Bathing lake
C1
> 05 m
C2
> 0.5 m
2-3 m
16
> 1-3 m
The responsibility of implementing the Water Framework Directive lies with the Danish Ministry of
Environment which has decided to combine its implementation with parts of the Habitats and Bird Protection Directives. The Water Framework Directives strict
demands for protection of aquatic ecosystems contribute to the protection of biological diversity through
the preservation of nature types, which is the primary
goal of the Habitats Directive. Thus, the Habitats Direc-
17
Function
Danish implementation of the EU Water Framework, Habitats and Bird Protection Directives
Scientific investigations
Removal of non-predatory fish
Stocking of piscivorous fish
Fishery in general
Permission for lake restoration must be obtained
from land owners
tive comprises several characteristic Danish lake types such as Lobelia lakes as well as lake-associated plant and
animal species.
Table 2.2.1. Significant acts regulating Danish lake management and lake restoration activities and their functions. The Danish wording of
the Acts is found at the website of the Danish Forest and Nature Agency: www.skovognatur.dk/Lovgivning/Love/).
2.3 Current state of the national implementation of the Water Framework Directive
groundwater and the completion of a survey of the impacts on aquatic ecosystems (the Danish Environmental Protection Agency & the Danish Forest and Nature
Agency, 2004).
Present status
The administrative framework of the Environmental Objectives Act is the water districts. Before the structural
reform there were 13 water districts whose boundaries
generally followed those of the present counties. After
the structural reform, which will become effective as
from January 1 2007, the number of water districts will
be reduced to 3, and the responsibility for these will be
transferred to the regional environment centres. Before
2009 the counties/environment centres must draw up
a water plan for each district to ensure cohesion of
planning activities. By the end of 2006 at the latest,
the general objectives of the Water Framework Directive should be transformed into specific environmental
objectives for each individual water district.
18
National challenges in connection with the implementation of the Water Framework Directive
The objectives of the Danish Action Plans on the Aquatic Environment are not based on legislation. However,
with the implementation of the EU Water Framework
Directive all member states are obliged to follow common guidelines for preserving and improving aquatic
ecosystems and to elaborate water plans. The so far
three Danish Action Plans form a solid basis for this
work (see Chapter 1) and the Water Framework Directive has consequently been implemented in the most
recent Action Plan III. To demonstrate the effects of
Action Plan III, the lake monitoring programme NOVANA was initiated in 2004, fulfilling also the Directives
requirement of control monitoring of aquatic areas
(including lakes).
19
20
Key players
Local level
Regional level
Responsibilities
271 municipalities
13 counties
Research
Responsible for the national monitoring program, technical advisory
services, storing data
Restorations
Communication/education
Advising politicians, administrators and agencies
Research
Restorations
Communication/education
Universities
Research
Education
National level
Funding
EU regulations and directives dealing with the environment
Recreational users
Scouts associations
Danish Society for Nature Conservation
Landowners
Environmental NGOs
International
level
EU
Table 3.1.1. Before the structural reform. Players in lake management and lake restoration in Denmark and their roles.
21
Responsibilities
Local level
98 municipalities
Regional level
7 governmental environment
centers (replaces the counties)
5 regions
National level
Private level
Voluntary level
International level
Table 3.1.2. After the structural reform. Players in lake management and lake restoration in Denmark and their roles. The roles are qualified guesses, as the structural reform has not yet been implemented.
22
Working groups are often formed comprising the relevant actors within the various aspects of lake management and restoration to secure a participatory planning
process and an exchange of know-how and ideas for
new initiatives, methods etc. One example is a group of
representatives from NERI, DFNA (Danish Forest and
Nature Agency), GEUS (Geological Survey of Denmark
and Greenland) and the counties. This group was
23
Links
Universities
Aalborg University
University of Aarhus
University of Southern Denmark
University of Copenhagen Roskilde University
http://www.aau.dk
http://www.au.dk
http://www.sdu.dk
http://www.ku.dk
http://www.ruc.dk
Research institutes
DIFRES
NERI
http://www.dfu.min.dk
http://www.dmu.dk
Consultancy companies
Bio/consult
Carl Bro
Hedeselskabet
Fiskekologisk Laboratorium
Rambll
DHI
Cowi
Niras
http://www.bioconsult.dk
http://www.carlbro.com
http://www.hedeselskabet.dk
http://www.foel.dk (in preparation)
http://www.ramboll.dk
http://www.dhi.dk
http://www.cowi.dk
http://www.niras.dk
Freshwater Symposium
Project Lake Fure
http://www.ferskvandsbiologi.dk
http://www.kbhamt.dk
National conferences
http://www.davi.dk
http://www.dmu.dk
Lakepromo
http://webd.savonia-amk.fi/projektit/markkinointi/
lakepromo/uk/index_uk.html
http://www.eurolimpacs.ucl.ac.uk
International projects
Eurolimpacs
Table 3.2.1. Overview of the research and educational institutions in Denmark as well as international co-operations in 2005. Most links
refer to Danish web pages - some are, however, also in English.
24
Foundation means
The largest and most well-known Danish foundation is
Aage V. Jensens Fonde, which comprises two separate
foundations, the Danish Aage V. Jensens Fond established in 1977 and the international Aage V. Jensen
Charity Foundation established in 1980. The avowed
objectives of the Foundations are to contribute to conserving nature and protecting wildlife. While the Danish
Foundation sponsors primarily projects in Denmark
and Greenland, the international and somewhat larger
foundation domiciled in Liechtenstein operates on the
international level with nature conservation and wildlife
protection. The income from the capital of the Foundations is used to sponsor many different nature projects,
including research projects and educational work, and
the acquisition and management of nature areas. The
Foundations own a number of nature areas in Denmark,
including the Vejlerne nature reserve, Lille Vildmose
and ble.
25
skovognatur.dk/Emne/Naturbeskyttelse/Naturpleje/LIFE/.
LIFE-Nature - supports projects designed to implement the Birds and Habitats directives, and in
particular the implementation of the European Unions Natura 2000 Network that aims to manage and
conserve natural habitats and the wild fauna and
flora and nature types of European Union interest.
LIFE-Environment supports the demonstration
and development of innovative and integrated
techniques and methods for the protection and
enhancement of the environment.
LIFE-Third countries supports the development
of environmental management capacities in third
countries with a coastline bordering the Mediterranean or the Baltic, excepting the Central and
Eastern European countries that have signed association agreements with the EU.
26
Phase 1. Initiative
phase 3 3 phase 2
phase
phase 4
phase 5
course of restoration
phase 1
Most frequently, the Danish counties take the initiative to undertake biomanipulation in a lake as their
monitoring activities have supplied them with detailed
knowledge of the lakes environmental state. The desire
initiative
external
P reduction
prestudies
permissions,
exemptions
To obtain permanent effects of biomanipulation in shallow lakes, the external phosphorus input must be lowe-
funding
dialogue
actionplans
implementation
effect
assessment
monitoring
Figure 5. Illustrates the course of restoration from the iniative to the subsequent effect assessment and monitoring
27
objections may be raised by societies and organisations. Generally, the need for dialogue increases with the
number of private individuals and/or interest organisations involved. Usually agreement between all parties
is given high priority; however, if this is not possible
land owner objections must be accepted and fishing in
his/her part of the lake must be avoided (an example
being Lake Stubbe, cf. Chapter 6, section 6.3).
Chapter 2, section 2.2, describes the exemptions and
permits needed with regard to the actual undertaking
of lake restoration, and Chapter 4 treats the funding
of restoration projects. It should be added, however,
that stocking of piscivores requires approval from The
Danish Veterinary and Food Administration, as stocking
implies a risk of transfer of infectious fish diseases.
Phase 3. Planning
This phase tends to be the most time-consuming
aspect of the lake restoration process. In fact, many
restoration projects never go beyond this planning
stage. It may appear, for instance, that funding or
permissions were more difficult to obtain than anticipated. Resistance from land owners is another issue and
Mass removal of planktivorous fish by electrofishing as part of a restoration project in Lake Poulstrup in 2003. The lake is situated in the
conservation area Dall Heath and is a popular recreational area.
Photo: County of North Jutland.
28
the county (or the consultancy company) may elaborate a detailed project plan. The plan should contain a
detailed description of the timing of project activities,
how they will be performed and by whom as well as a
description of the project background and its expected
outcome.
Phase 4. Implementation
Correctly done, fish removal is fast and intensive (maximum 1-2 years), whereas the stocking of predators
may endure for several years. During the removal process, progress will be discussed and possible adjustments of tools and methods may be made to ensure
optimum efficiency.
Usually, the actual fish removal will be conducted
by the county and/or private consultancy companies, these often being assisted by the municipalities
and/or local citizens and organisations; fish removal
is a large-scale, time-consuming task and all efforts
are appreciated. Furthermore, participation by local
citizens ensures their feeling of joint responsibility. The
counties may call for tenders on the project from consultancy firms. The stocking of pike fry lasts one day,
depending on lake size. It is undertaken in May, usually
by the counties.
When the various permits and approvals have been obtained, funding has been secured and agreement exists
between all project partners on the project content,
29
But when is a restoration project a success? How significant must the effects be and for how long should they
endure? How do you distinguish between the effects
of simultaneous interventions such as reduction of
loading, fish removal and pike stocking? What can you
learn from unsuccessful restorations? If repetition is
necessary, is it then restoration or maintenance of the
desired state?
The first criterion of success is enhanced water transparency as an immediate response to reduced nonpredatory fish abundance, implying improved growth
conditions for the large-sized zooplankton preying on
the phytoplankton. This criterion is often met straight
away, even in less successful restorations, but frequently the positive effect does not last. Other success
criteria are the establishment of a healthy population
of predatory fish, a zooplankton community composed
30
During summer, pelagial trawling in deep lakes is a valuable supplement to gillnets and pound nets, because
fish will concentrate in the oxygen rich waters above
the thermocline. In addition, shoals of particularly large
bream can be located with echo sounders and, thereby,
caught with high level of efficiency.
Methods
31
Results
enhanced recruitment of planktivores, increased fecundity of the remaining adults and high survival and density
of the planktivorous fry themselves are central problems
of mass removal of planktivores (Jeppesen & Sammalkorpi, 2002). Release of pike fry (0+, 20-50 mm) in large
densities (>0.1 individual/m2) has been used to control
small individuals of planktivores in the short-term and to
strengthen the piscivorous fish stock in the long-term.
Method
Only a few fish farms produce pike fry for stocking.
However, it can be done with a fairly good survival rate
and at a reasonable cost (approx. 0.13 per individual).
The 0+ pikes are transported to their destination in well
aerated water containers. The stocking is done from
boat using small jugs and are spread carefully along the
edge of the reed to avoid stress and cannibalism. The
stocking of pike fry must be ended before the native
pike fry become bigger than the stocked ones to avoid
further cannibalism. Likewise, stocking must coincide
with the hatching of the planktivorous fish fry as these
are the primary food source for the pike fry. Today in
Denmark, it is recommended to stock before May 25.
The result of the mass removal of planktivorous fish in Lake Klokkeholm Mlle in 2003.
Photo: County of North Jutland.
32
Results
Stocking of pike fry has been used in many Danish
lakes (Berg et al., 1997; Sndergaard et al., 1997; Skov
et al., 2003a,b) but the stocking densities and methods
(time etc.) have differed widely, making it difficult to
estimate whether effects are completely absent or, if
negligible, relate to the scale of intervention. Experiences are therefore mixed, but the most recent collection of data on pike stocking experiments indicates
that the effect is overall poor (C. Skov, DIFRES, personal communication). At best, stocking only affects
the water quality the first year, possible reasons being
high mortality caused by cannibalism, the size of the
0+ pikes, time of stocking, risk of predation from perch
and birds, lack of hiding places and other stressful
physical factors. Also the frys choice of food items can
constitute a problem, as fry do not commence to prey
until they reach a length of 100-120 mm (Grnkjr et
al., 2004, http://www.fiskepleje.dk/, Skov et al., 2002,
Skov et al., 2003). The effect on the structure of the
lake ecosystem is likely to increase if stocking of 0+
pike is continued until a healthy piscivorous fish stock
is achieved together with more stable clearwater conditions with increased coverage of submerged macrophytes (Sndergaard et al., 2000).
Perch.
Photo: County of North Jutland.
Stocking of perch
A strong stock of piscivorous perch is a precondition
of the regulation of the planktivorous fish stock, and
stocking is therefore a possible method in lakes where
the native perch stock is small or the number of large
piscivorous perch is low. Few attempts have been done
in Denmark, and they have been based purely upon
perch from other lakes. DIFRES has been able to farm
perch with success, which gives opportunities for future stocking. The farmed perch did not originate from
a native Danish strain as they turned out to be quite
resistant to stress in relation to farming and transportation (H. Paulsen, DIFRES, personal communication;
Overton & Paulsen, 2005). Stocking of marked perch is
experimentally conducted in two Put-and-Take lakes in
order to follow their growth and survival (L. Overton,
DIFRES, personal communication).
In some lakes there is a tendency towards accumulation of small individuals of planktivorous fish in certain
areas and certain periods of the year, for example in
inlets and outlets of lakes during winter from where
they can be collected in high amounts by electrofishing
(up to several tons). The effect of this removal is not
yet known, but is it believed that mass removal of small
planktivorous fish has a positive effect on the water
quality of the lake. The method is currently being used
in Lake Stubbe (see section 6.3).
33
Spawning nests
Use of ultrasound
According to the theory, ultrasound destroys the vacuoles and other structural organelles in the cells of phytoplankton causing these to die and sink to the bottom
of the lake. A transducer (20-30 watts) is placed under
the surface creating an effect upon phytoplankton
within 10-150 m from the transducer. The ultrasound
is allegedly not harmful to humans, animals or plants.
The method has been used in the two Put-and-Take
lakes. However, there is not yet any documentation of
the effect.
34
Figure 6.3.1. Map over Denmark showing Lake Stubbe and its
catchment area.
35
72
73
75
76
78
84
91
97
12
19
19
98
01
02
19
10
10
Phytoplankton
X
X
04
10
12
Zooplankton
Sediment
03
05
Fish stock
Submerged macrophytes
00
7
X
Table 6.3.1. Review of the investigations conducted in Lake Stubbe in 1972-2005. X = one investigation conducted per year. Figures =
indicate the number of investigations conducted in a given year.
200
1,5
150
1
100
0,5
50
0
1984
1991
1997
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
100
80
1,5
60
1
40
0,5
20
a (g/l)
chlorophyll
250
0
1984
1991
1997
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
Figure 6.3.2. Top: Long-term changes in total amount of phosphorus (columns) and total amount of nitrogen (curves) in Lake Stubbe in
1984-2005. Bottom: Long-term changes in Secchi depth (columns) and chlorophyll a (curve) in the same period. All values are summer
means (May-September) (rhus Amt, 2005).
Initiative
The monitoring of the environmental state of Lake
Stubbe started in 1972 with monitoring of the water
chemistry. Since then the type and number of investigations have increased considerably (Table 6.3.1) forming the basis for a long and valuable series of chemical and biological data. The results of the investigations
are presented in several Danish reports (rhus Amt,
1980, 1982, 1986, 1993a, 1993b, 1998, 1999a,b).
36
Preliminary investigations
In that way, the external phosphorus loading was reduced to what was believed to be an acceptable level,
at which the lake in a steady state (without internal
loading) would be expected to have an annual mean
phosphorus concentration of 50-100 g P/l - a level
37
Model calculations showed that the equilibrium concentration in Lake Stubbe should be approx. 40 g P/l.
The actual summer mean, however, was 100 g P/l in
1997. The difference is ascribed to the increased phosphorous release from the internal phosphorus pool in
the sediment during summer. The phosphorus concentration decreased further in the following years reaching a level of 80 g P/l in the summer of 2000 before
the mass removal of planktivorous fish started.
Financing
The project in Lake Stubbe obtained funding from the
state nature management funds applied by the County
of Aarhus to cover the costs of the technical consultancy assistance, i.e. the mass removal of planktivorous fish. The County of Aarhus and the Municipality
of Ebeltoft contributed staff in the implementation
phase and planning phase. Furthermore, the County
of Aarhus is responsible for the subsequent monitoring
of the environmental state of Lake Stubbe. Table 6.3.2
shows the budget for the practical part of the project
and also for the monitoring.
Permissions
Prior to the implementation of the fish manipulation in
Lake Stubbe, the following permissions were necessary:
Exemption from the Nature Protection Act, according to the acts section 3.
Permission (according to the Fisheries Act) from
the Danish Directorate of Fisheries to remove fish
using different equipments and to stock pike fry.
Permissions from the landowners of the lake.
Dialogue
In 1999 the County of Aarhus and the Municipality
of Ebeltof gave an official meeting inviting the public, landowners, NGOs and other interest groups. The
meeting had wide support and many local people
participated. The landowners and the townsmen put
special emphasis on the importance of the imperturbability of the surroundings in connection to the project.
Focus was also put on the recreational use of the lake,
AA
EUR
EK
EUR
BC
EUR
Total
EUR
18,331
18,331
140,421
154,265
6,007
6,007
29,603
29,603
Maintenance of equipment
2,521
2,521
Disposal of fish
6,705
6,705
13,844
10,951
10,951
Reporting
10,908
10,908
Discount
-18,357
-18,357
18,630
19,636
1,006
27,000
1,006
27,000
13,844
225,720
267,570
Table 6.3.2. Estimate of the total costs of the restoration project in Lake Stubbe in 1998-2005 (excluding staff hours) and also the monitoring of the environmental state of the lake during and after the project. AA = the County of Aarhus, EK = the Municipality of Ebeltoft, BC =
Bio/consult (consultancy company).
38
2001
J
M A M
2002
S O N D
M A M
2003
S O N D
M A M
2004
S O N D
M A M
2005
S O N D
M A M
S O N D
Fishinvestigation
Seine
Electrofishing
Pelagic drag net
Gillnet
Other net
Stocking 0+ pike
Figure 6.3.3. Course of the practical activities during the restoration project in Lake Stubbe in 2000-2005.
Action plan
Based on the preliminary investigations and inputs
from locals, the County of Aarhus worked out an
action plan for the project, which in the first place
was planned to run over two years (2000-2002). The
aim was to remove at least 80 % of the planktivorous
fish biomass. Drag seine was planned be the primary
fishing tool due to its effectiveness in shallow lakes and
because it makes it possible to set free the by-catch of
piscivorous fish. The use of electrofishing on the banks
and in the inlets and outlets and fishing by drag net
and gillnet, particularly aiming at bream and roach,
39
Implementation
Requirements / Applied
tools
Days
Gillnet
258
Electrofishing
Seine
59
78
Pelagic
drag net
1
Other tools
Total
22
418
Catches
8,271
61
78
94
8,505
2,057
799
719
14
118
3,707
34
14
63
19
35
Table 6.3.3. Review of number of days, number of catches, resource requirements and mean catch of each applied tool in relation to time
spend at the mass removal of planktivorous fish in Lake Stubbe during 2000-2005. Other tools comprises fishing with pound net, fry drag
net etc.
40
Roach
Bream
Ruff
Perch
Accumulated catch
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
o n d j f m a m j j a s o n d j f m a m j j a s o n d j f ma m j j a s o n d j f m a m j j a s o n d j f ma m j j a s o n d
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
41
100
80
Ruffe
60
Bream
40
Roach
20
0
1998
2000
2001
2002
Figure 6.3.5. Calculated biomass for the most important species of planktivorous fish in Lake Stubbe. The biomass is calculated on
the basis of partly CPUE-values derived from the fish investigations in 1998, 2000, 2001 and 2002 and partly empirical results (rhus,
1999a,b?). The fish investigations were carried out according to the
guidance Fish investigations in lakes (in Danish) (Miljstyrelsen,
1990).
winter of 2005 Secchi depths of up to 4 m were observed, contrary to Secchi depths of approx. 1.5 to 2 m
during the winters before 2003 (H. Skovgaard, personal
communication).
Conclusion
Apparently the restoration project did not result in
marked and enduring improvements of the environmental state in Lake Stubbe, although brief and less
marked positive effects on the distribution of the submerged macrophytes, the Secchi depth during wither
and the piscivorous fish stock were observed. The
project was therefore not able to cause a fulfilment of
the environmental objectives for the lake demanding
a summer mean Secchi depth of minimum 2 m and a
summer mean phosphorus concentration of less than
0.040 mg P/l. These environmental objectives are set
to ensure growing conditions for a deep growing and
well-developed submerged vegetation.
Future monitoring
Today, the external loading of nitrogen and phosphorus
to Lake Stubbe is presumed to be sufficiently low for the
lake to obtain good ecological status within a number of
years. In future, Lake Stubbe will be part of the national lake monitoring programme NOVANA because it is
designated to a Natura 2000 habitat site, according to the
Water Framework and Habitats Directives. Lake Stubbe
will probably be monitored every 3rd year including
measurements of physical, chemical and biological parameters. According to the Water Framework Directive, a
water plan (i.e. action plan) for the lake must be drawn up
42
Type/area
Strengths
Weaknesses
Opportunities
Threats
Cut-off and
treatment
of sewage
- Identifiable sources
- If treatment: only to a
limit concentration
- Reduced fertilization
Diffuse N
and P loading
- Effective technological
measures
Restoration
- Uncertainty regarding
the duration of effects
- Only applicable at low
external nutrient loading
- Some restoration
methods are relatively
expensive
- Cultivation-free zones
along lakes/streams
- Exemption of soil from
agricultural cultivation,
e.g. according to identification of risk areas
-Interventions may be
continuously adjusted to
the observed effects
- Accumulation of large
phosphorus pools in the
sediment increases the
risk of a shift from a
clear-water to a turbid
state
Table 7.1. Types and aspects to be considered in connection with restoration of eutrophicated lakes, here arranged according to the SWOT
method (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threats).
43
44
Furthermore, there is a need to shed light on the relationships existing between the external nutrient input
and the (possibly lake-specific) conditions deciding
lake restoration interventions. Within this context the
role of nitrogen should be further explored. Normally,
phosphorus is regarded the decisive substance for lake
environmental state, but recent investigations suggest
that nitrogen may play an important role for the occur-
45
The structural reform of Danish municipal and country structure, to be implemented by January 1 2007,
implies that the counties will be dissolved and their
responsibilities delegated to municipal and national
46
References
Amsinck, S.L., Johansson, L.S., Bjerring, R., Jeppesen, E., Sndergaard, M., Jensen, J.P., Jensen, K.,
Bradshaw, E., Anderson, N.J., Bennike, O., Nielsen,
A.B., Rasmussen, P., Ryves, D., Stavngaard, B., Brodersen, K., McGowan, S., Odgaard, B.V. & Wolin, J.
2003. Vandrammedirektivet og danske ser. Del 2:
Palokologiske undersgelser. Danmarks Miljundersgelser. 120 pp. Faglig rapport fra DMU nr. 476.
http.//faglige-rapporter.dmu.dk. (In Danish).
Jeppesen, E., Kronvang, B., Erlandsen, M. & Kristensen, P. 1992. Ferskvandskosystemer. In: Fenger, J.
& Torp, U. (eds.): Drivhuseffekt og klimandringer
- hvad kan det betyde for Danmark. Miljministeriet.
185-197 pp. (In Danish).
47
References
Jeppesen, E., Mortensen, E., Sortkjr, O., Kristensen, P., Bidstrup, J., Timmermann, M., Jensen., J.P.,
Hansen, A.M., Sndergaard, M., Mller, J.P., Jensen,
H.J., Riemann, B., Lindegaard, C., Bosselmann., S.,
Christoffersen, K., Dall, E. & Andersen, J.M. 1989.
Restaurering af ser ved indgreb i fiskebestanden.
Del 2: Undersgelser i Frederiksborg Slotss, Vng
S og Sbygrd S. Danmarks Miljundersgelser.
(In Danish).
Miljstyrelsen. 1979. Srestaurering Teknisk redegrelse med eksempler. Miljprojekter Nr. 17. (In
Danish).
Miljministeriet & Ministeriet for fdevarer, Landbrug
og Fiskeri. 2004. Vandmiljplan III, 2004. Hftet
findes i PDF-udgave p www.vmp3.dk. (In Danish).
Overton, L. & Paulsen, H. 2005. Ongrowing of Perch
(Perca fluviatilis) Juveniles. Danmarks Fiskeriundersgelser & Bornholms Lakseklkkeri, 3730 Nex,
ISBN: 87-90968-85-9.
Skov, C., Jacobsen, L. & Berg, S. 2003b. Post-stocking survival of 0+year pike in ponds as a function of
water transparency, habitat complexity, prey availability and size heterogeneity. Journal of Fish Biology
62: 311-322.
48
References
Skov- og Naturstyrelsen & Miljstyrelsen. 2005. 3.
UDKAST - Projektbeskrivelse. Planlgning efter
Vandramme- og Natura2000 -direktiverne. Version
1.03. (In Danish).
rhus Amt. 1998. Vandlb og Kilder. Vandmiljovervgning, 1997. Natur og Milj, rhus Amt. (In
Danish).
49
Title
Management and restoration of lakes in Denmark
Subtitle
LakePromo
Publisher
County of North Jutland
Niels Bohrs Vej 30
DK - 9220 Aalborg
DENMARK
Publication year
2006
Authors
Mette Bramm & Inge Christensen
County of North Jutland
Layout
Tommy Skov
Maps
Copyright : National Survey and Cadastre
Print
The printing office of the County of North Jutland
ISBN
87-7775-622-3
Number printed
50 copies
Front page photos
View over Lake Hrby; stocking of an adult pike in Lake Poulstrup; the result of
mass removal of planktivorous fish in Lake Klokkeholm Mlle; view over Lake Hannerup; sampling of water in Lake Poulstrup; mass removal of planktivorous fish by
drag net in Lake Poulstrup. Photos: County of North Jutland.