Nervous system

Physiological unit:

Activity 1

neuron (nerve cell) and its corresponding

nerve fibers.

Function of Nerve

Nervous system
Outstanding characteristics:
the nerve structures sensitivity to
environmental changes
its distinguishing property to transmit such
excitation from one portion of a cell to
another or even throughout all the cells of a
tissue/ organ.

Objective
To investigate the function of the nerve
fibers by subjecting the sciatic nerve of the
frog/toad to various stimuli and blocking
agent.
Classify nerve fiber (afferent/sensory or
efferent/motor) based on the character of
the results of impulses.

Kymograph
Gastrocnemius muscle-sciatic nerve

a device that
graphically
records motion or
pressure.

Procedure

Frogs gastrocnemius musclesciatic nerve preparation

A. Prepare frogs gastrocnemius musclesciatic nerve

B. Stimulate the sciatic nerve with various
forms of stimuli.
C. Determine the characteristics of stimulus
D. Perform chemical blocking of nerve
conduction
E. Determine afferent and efferent nerve
fibers

Forms of stimuli
Stimulus:
It is the change in the
environment which causes the
excitable tissue to respond.
Any condition in the environment
capable of altering the resting
membrane potential.

1. Mechanical stimulation

Idea:

Transmission of Nerve Impulses

Isolated muscles removed from the body

can be made to contract either:
Directly by electrical stimulation
Or indirectly through the activation of the
motor nerve.

The transmission of
a nerve impulse
along a neuron from
one end to the other
occurs as a result of
chemical changes
across the
membrane of the
neuron.

Pinch free end of nerve

2. Thermal stimulation
Touch free end of nerve with warm glass rod

3. Osmotic type of stimulation

Place NaCl crystals on free end of nerve

4. Chemical stimulation
Dip free end of nerve in 1 % HCl solution

5. Electrical stimulation
Apply a mild electrical shock

The following events characterize the

transmission of a nerve impulse
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Resting potential
Graded potential
Action potential
Repolarization
Hyperpolarization
Refractory period

1. Resting potential
3 Na+ ions are
transported out for
every 2 K+ ions
actively
transported in.

Unstimulated nerve
Polarized state - the inside is negative with respect
to the outside.
A certain amount of Na+ and K+ is always leaking
across the membrane through leakage channels, but
Na+/K+ pumps in the membrane actively restore the
ions to the appropriate side.
The negatively charged proteins and nucleic acids
which reside within the cell contribute to the overall
negative charge on the inside of the cell membrane
as compared to the outside.
about 70 millivolts

Neuron at Rest: Polarized Membrane

+++++++++

----------Inside of Neuron

Outside of
neuron is
positively
charged due to
positive sodium
ions
Inside of neuron
is negatively
charged due to
negative ions

2. Graded potential
occurs when the stimulus causes Na+ or
K+ gated channels to open.

a local event that does not travel far from its

origin.
occur in cell bodies and dendrites.
Examples of stimuli that cause graded potential:
Light, heat, mechanical pressure, and
chemicals, such as neurotransmitters.

In neurons, stimuli can alter this potential

difference by opening sodium channels in
the membrane.
Example: If Na+ channels open, positive
sodium ions enter, and the membrane
depolarizes (becomes more positive).

Nerve Impulse
Stimulation of neuron, opens channels so
that sodium (Na+) goes in, depolarizing the
membrane

The adjacent section of membrane allows

Na+ to go in, depolarizing it

This wave of depolarization continues at a

rapid rate down the neuron, resulting in a
nerve impulse traveling to the brain in
milliseconds

3. Action potential

++++++++

---------Neuron

Unlike a graded potential, an action

potential is capable of traveling long
distances.
If a depolarizing graded potential is
sufficiently large, Na+ channels in the
trigger zone open.

Nerve Impulse
Polarized membrane
of resting neuron

++++++++

- - - -Neuron
-----0000

+++++

------

Nerve
impulse

Neuron

Sodium (Na) moves

inside to depolarize

Nerve impulse is wave

of depolarization
moving down neuron

All-or-Nothing Principle
If the stimulus is strong enough, Na+ gates
open, increasing the flow of Na+ even
more, causing an action potential, or
complete depolarization (from 70 to
about +30 millivolts).
neighboring Na+ gates are stimulated
farther down the axon, to open.
the action potential travels down the length
of the axon.

4. Repolarization

Once an action potential has been elicited

at any point on the membrane of a normal
fiber,
the depolarization process travels over
the entire membrane if conditions are
right,
or it does not travel at all if conditions are
not right.

Depolarization and Repolarization

In response to the inflow of Na+, K+ channels

open, this time allowing K+ on the inside to rush
out of the cell.
The movement of K+ out of the cell causes
repolarization by restoring the original
membrane polarization.
K+ are on the outside and the Na+ are on the
inside (Unlike the resting potential)
Soon after the K+ gates open, the Na+ gates
close.
Based on: Starr, C., Biology: Concepts and Connections, Brooks/Cole

5. Hyperpolarization
By the time the K+ channels close, more
K+ have moved out of the cell than is
actually necessary to establish the original
polarized potential.
Thus, the membrane becomes
hyperpolarized (about 80 millivolts).

6. Refractory period
Repolarized membrane has Na+ and K+ on
the wrong sides of the membrane.
The axon will not respond to a new stimulus.
To reestablish the original distribution of
these ions, the Na+ and K+ are returned to
their resting potential location by Na+/K+
pumps in the cell membrane.
Once these ions are completely returned to
their resting potential location, the neuron is
ready for another stimulus.

Figure 1
Events that characterize the transmission of a nerve impulse.

Simple Muscle Twitch

The impulse will
continue to move
down the axon until
it reaches the
synapse.

The skeletal muscle contractile

response to a single stimulus
of sufficient strength and
duration.

Phases
A. Latent period (o.o1 second):
It is the time that elapses between the application of the
stimulus and the beginning of the muscle.
Causes:
The time of propagation of the impulse in the nerve.
The time of transmission of the impulse through the
motor end plate.
The time of spread of the action potential in the muscle.
The time of development of mechanical response in the
muscle.

B. Contraction period (0.04 second):

It is the period of contraction and performance
of the work.

C. Relaxation period(0.05 second):

It is the period of muscle relaxation and return
to its original length

Mechanical stimulation
Ex. Mechanical pressure
Produces a graded potential on nerve.
Pinching the free end of the nerve would
interfere the action potential by not allowing
the wave of depolarization to pass the point of
pressure/damage.
Deep presssure may block nerve impulse
transmission by preventing local blood supply
from reaching the nerve fibers.

Osmotic type of stimulation

Dipping the nerve in NaCl crystals

produce graded potential.

Thermal stimulation

Subjecting the free end of the sciatic nerve

to warm glass rod will cause action
potential to speed up.
Conduction velocity is faster at a higher
temperature, than at lower temperature.
Myelinated nerve can conduct faster
impulse at increased temperature.

Chemical stimulation

Dipping the free end of nerve into 1% HCl

as a stimulus produced a graded potential.

Electrical stimulus
Electrical stimulation is most commonly
used because:
it is similar to the natural stimulants inside
the body
its intensity and duration can be controlled
they dont cause tissue damage.

Characteristics of stimuli
1. Subthresold (sub minimal) stimulus: producing
no response.
2. Threshold (minimal): it is the minimum voltage
needed to elicit a response if applied for a
specific time.
3. Sub maximal (supra minimal): producing a
stronger contraction.
4. Maximal stimulus: producing a maximal
contraction. At this voltage, all the motor units
are recruited
5. Supramaximal stimulus: producing no further
increase in the amplitude of the contraction.

Effect of stimuli of increasing voltages to elicit an action potential. Note development

of acute subthreshold potentials when the stimuli are below the threshold value
required for eliciting an action potential.

Chemical blocking of nerve

impulses
Ether is a nerve-blocking agent .
It can stop the action potential from
forming because the sodium channels
would be blocked and the wave of
depolarization would not propagate.