1. What is the chemical element? Describe it's general characteristics.

What is an
atom made upof?
A chemical element is a material wich cannont be broken down or changed into
another substance using chemical means. Each element is a pure substance, made up
of only one type of atom. Elements can be thought as the basic chemical building
blocks of matter.
An atom consists of three main parts:
- Protons - they have a positive electrical charge.
- Neutrons - they have no electrical charge.
- Electrons - they have a negative electrical charge.
Protons and neutrons are found together in what is called the nucleus of the atom.
Electrons circle around the nucleus.
2. Name different chemical bonds and explain how they are formed.
IONIC - in this bonds, electrons are transferred from one atom to another. Such atoms
or aggregates of atoms are then called ions. The atom gaining electrons becomes
negatievly chraged, called anion. The atom wich loses electrones becomes positievly
charged, called cation. Since oppositely charged paricles attract each other, oppositely
charged ions can be held together by this attraction to form electrically neutral ionic
compounds. Such attractions are called ionic bonds.
COVALENT - in this type of bond, atoms share electrons in their outer energy level.
HYDROGEN - oppositely charged regions of polar molecules cn attract each other.
Such a bond between hydrogen and oxygen or nitrogen is called a hydrogen bond.
3. Which chemical elements make up the most protoplasmatic material?
Protoplasm is composed mainly of nucleic acids, proteins, lipids, carbohydrates and
inorganic salts. The chemical elemnets that in biggest part make up these
complexions are hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen and oxygen.
4. What is the function of the RNA? Name different types of RNA.
RNA is a nucleic acid. It consists of a long chain of nucleic units. There are three types
of RNA: mRNA (is the RNA that carries information for polypeptide and protein from
DNA to the ribosome), tRNA (this type of RNA carries amion acids attached to it to the
ribosome) and rRNA (with other proteins builds up the ribosomes).
5. Describe the structure and functions of the cell membrane.
The cell membrane is made up of a double layer of lipids and proteins and
components the cell's outher membrane. It surrounds the protoplasm of the cell and
helps maintain its shape and structure. It separates each cell from its environment.
The function is to regulate active transport. It also sends and recieves chemical and
electrical messages.
6. Where do anabolism and catabolism take place and what is characteristic of
these processes?

Anabolism represent synthesis from smaller molecules into larger ones, and
catabolism is quite opposite since it represent breaking down large molecules into
smaller ones. Anabolism is powered by catabolism, where large molecules are broken
down into smaller parts and then used up in respiration.

7. Describe the structure and functions of the cell nucleus.

The nucleus is a small sphere in the central portion of the cell. It's enclosed in a
double layer of nuclear membrane. Within the nuclear membrane is nucleoplasm wich
consists DNA. At numerous points these membranes are joined, forming the rims of

circular opening called nuclear pores, through wich large molecules can pass in and
out of the nucleus.
8. What is DNA? State it's functions.
DNA is a nucleic acid. It consist of a long chain of nucleotide units. The function of DNA
is to pass on the characteristics of one generation of cells to the next.
9. How is femur articulated with the lower leg? Describe this joint. What the bones
in the lower leg?
Femur is articulated with the tibia and with the fibula. This articulation forms the knee
wich is protected by the patella and it is enclosed in the tight membrane wich contains
a lubricating fluid called synovial fluid, wich helps preventing the friction.
The bones of the lower leg are: tibia (shin bone) and fibula (calf bone).
10. Which are the bones of the vertebral column? How many vertebrae occur in
each region?
The vertebral column consists of a series of 33 irregularly shaped bones, called
vertebrae. These 33 bones are divided into five categories depending on where they
are located in the backbone.

The first group is the cervical region, which contains 7 vertebrae, then there is the
thoracic group of 12 vertebrae, than the lumbar group of 5 vertebrae, than the sacral
of also 5 and at last the coccygeal group of 3-5 vertebrae.

11. What is synovial fluid? Where is it stored? State it's function.

Synovial fluid is the lubricating material wich prevents friction between two or more
surfaces in the articulation. It is stored in the synovial sac or bursa wich is situated
inside of articulation, between the skin and the bone.

12. What is ossification? Give details.

Ossification is the process of bone formation in wich connective tissues, such as

cartilage are turned to bony or osseus tissue, plus, bones are composed of a rich
supply of blood vessels and nerves. During fetal development, the bones of the fetus
are composed of cartilage tissue, which resembles osseous tissue but is more flexible
and less dense because of a lack of calcium salts in its intercellular spaces. As the
embryo develops, the process of depositing calcium salts in the soft, cartilaginous
bones occurs, and continues throughout the life of the individual after birth.

13. Name at least three types of bones; say where they are found and what do
they look like?

The bones of the body fall into four general categories: long bones, short bones, flat
bones, and irregular bones. Long bones are longer than they are wide and work as
levers. The bones of the upper and lower extremities (e.g. humerus, tibia, femur, ulna,
metacarpals, etc.) are of this type. Short bones are short, cube-shaped, and found in
the wrists and ankles. Flat bones have broad surfaces for protection of organs and
attachment of muscles (ex. ribs, cranial bones, bones of shoulder girdle). Irregular
bones are all others that do not fall into the previous categories. They have varied
shapes, sizes, and surfaces features and include the bones of the vertebrae and a few
in the skull.

14. Describe a long bone and its structure.

At each end of a long bone there is an expanded portion called an epiphysis wich
forms a jont with another bone. The shaft of the bone, wich is located between the
epiphyses is called the diaphysis. The bone is completely enclosed by a tough
covering called the periosteum. Within the periosteum lies a bony layer
called compact bone, which is solid, strong, and resistant to bending.

The compact bone in the diaphysis of a long bone forms a rigid tube with a hollow
chamber called the medullary cavity. This cavity is filled with a specialized type of
connective tissue called marrow.

15. What are bone processes and bone depressions? Name some of them and
explain their function.

Bone depressions are the hollow regions or the openings found in the bones. The
bone depressions attach the bone to the other bone. They serve as the route or
passageways for nerves and blood vessels. There are five types of bone depressions.
They are fossa, sinus, sulcus, fissure, and foramen.

Sinus: These are the depression of the bone that are found within bone. Sinuses are
hollow cavities in strucutre.

Foramen: These type of bony depressions act as the openings for nerves and blood
vessels. They are also found on the bone.

Sulcus: These type of bony depressions look like grooves or furrow in structure.

Bone processes are the enlarged parts of the human bones. They extend out from
each human bone. Tendons and muscles attach to them in the bones.

They are as follows: bone head, condyle, trochanter, tubercle and tuberosity.

Bone head is a bony process found on each bone. This bony process is round in
shape and it is a separated area from the bone body. Bone head is attached to
the bone body by a neck-like groove called bone neck.

Condyle - This bony process is rounded in shape. It looks like knuckle-like

structure in the bone joint.

Trochanter:- This bony process attach muscles to the femur bone. The
Trochanter is large in structure.

16. Name different types of joints. Give examples.

There are three types of joints classified by the amount of movement they allow:
immovable, slightly movable, and freely movable. Immovable joints are
synarthroses. In this type of joint, the bones are in very close contact and are
separated only by a thin layer of fibrous connective tissue. An example of a
synarthrosis is the suture in the skull between skull bones. Slightly movable joints
are called amphiarthroses. This type of joint is characterized by bones that are
connected by hyaline cartilage (fibro cartilage). The ribs that connect to the sternum
are an example of an amphiarthrosis joint. Most of the joints in the adult human body
are freely movable joints. This type of joint is called a diarthrosis joint. There are six
types of diarthroses joints:

17. Name the bones of the foot.

There are 7 tarsals or ankle bones, 5 metatarsals and 14 phalanges. Tarsal and
metatarsals are irregular bones while phalanges belong to the type of long bones.

18. How is the rib cage formed? Give details of the anterior and the posterior
articulation.

The rib cage is formed from 12 pairs of ribs, the sternum, the 12 rib cartilages, and the
thoracic part of vertebral column. We have several articulations forming the rib cage.

On the anterior side we have several types of joints. The first is one between the
sternum and the rib cartilages, then between the rib cartilages and the ribs itself, then
the joint between the 8th, 9th, 10th rib cartilage of the 7th rib.

On the posterior side we have the articulation between the head and the tubecule of
the rib with the appropriate side of the vertebra.

19. Give the three functions of the skeleton. Give examples.

Vital organs are protected by the skeletal system. The brain is protected by the
surrounding skull as the heart and lungs are encased by the sternum and rib cage.

Bodily movement is carried out by the interaction of the muscular and skeletal
systems.

Blood cells are produced by the marrow located in some bones. An average of 2.6
million red blood cells are produced each second by the bone marrow to replace those
worn out and destroyed by the liver.

Bones serve as a storage area for minerals such as calcium and phosphorus. When an
excess is present in the blood, buildup will occur within the bones. When the supply of
these minerals within the blood is low, it will be withdrawn from the bones to replenish
the supply.

20. Name the a) collar bone, b) shoulder blade. What do they make? Which bones
do they articulate with?

The clavicle, commonly called the collarbone, is a slender S-shaped bone that
connects the upper arm to the trunk of the body and holds the shoulder joint away
from the body to allow for greater freedom of movement. One end of the clavicle is
connected to the sternum and one end is connected to the scapula. The scapula is a
large, triangular, flat bone on the back side of the rib cage commonly called the
shoulder blade. It overlays the second through seventh rib and serves as an
attachment for several muscles. It has a shallow depression called the glenoid cavity
that the head of the humerus (upper arm bone) fits into. They form the shoulder
girdle(rameni pojas). The clavicule is articulated with the sternum at the front, and the
scapula is articulated with the humerus and the clavicule.

21. Which are the bones of the head?

The skull is the bony framework of the head. It is comprised of the eight cranial and
fourteen facial bones.

Cranial bones are: frontal, left and right parietal, occipital, left and right temporal,
sphenoid and the ethmoid bone.

Facial bones are: mandible, left and right maxilla, left and right palatine, left and right
zygomatic, left and right nasal, left and right lacrimal, vomer, left and right inferior
turbinate.

22. Which bones does the humerus articulate with?

Humerus articulates with several bones and form the arm. In the upper
region(proximal) it articulates with the shoulder blade(scapula). In the lower region, is
articulates with two bones of the forearm, with the ulna medially and with the radius
laterally and it forms elbow.

23. What are three regions of the hand? How many bones does each contain?

The regions of the hand are: the wrist or carpus, the palm or metacarpus and the
fingers.

The wrist or carpus contains eigth bones, the palm or metacarpus contains of five
bones and the fingers are made up of fourteen bones called phalanges.

24. Name the thighbone. Describe it. What part of a leg does it make?

The tighbone or the femur is the logest, largest, strongest bone in the body. On its
upper part we can see the head which articulates with the hip bone, than there is
collum which extends into the shaft of the bone, and with the condyles at the lower
part of the leg. With the lower part, the femur creates knee with patella and tibia and
fibula.

25. Name at least 5 different actions of muscles. Give examples.

Flexion

Extension - Increasing the angle between two bones: straightening out a limb -

Abduction - Movement away from the midline of the body - in the shoulder

Adduction - Movement toward the midline of the body

Rotation - Circular movement around an axis - in the wrist

Decreasing the angle between two bones: bending a limb - in the elbow

26. What is specific about the cardiac muscle?

Cardiac muscles are involuntary and found only in the heart. They are controlled by
the lower section of the brain called the medulla oblongata, which controls involuntary
action throughout the body. Cardiac muscle is striated in appearance but like a
smooth muscle in its action. Its movement cannot be consciously controlled. Located
at the walls of the heart, its main function is to propel blood into circulation.
Contraction of the cardiac tissue is caused by an impulse sent from the medulla
oblongata to the SA nerve located at the right atrium (link-circulatory).

27. Name the major muscles in the leg. How are calf muscles connected with the
heel bone?

The major muscles in the leg are: the quadriceps muscle and the sartorius muscle.
Then a group of muscles at the back of the knee called hamstring muscle. In the lower
part of the leg, there are the anterior tibial muscle, peroneal muscle. Calf muscles are
connected with the heel bone with the strong tendon called Achilles tendon.

28. Name the major muscles of the a) neck, b) shoulder, c) upper part of the back.

The major muscles of the neck are the sternocleidomastoid muscle and sternohyoid
muscle. These muscles allow the neck your head left and right. They work with the
platysma muscle to control how far you can move your head left and right.

A group of muscles all work together to move the whole shoulder area. This group
takes into account the trapezius-sound, deltoid-sound, infraspinatus-sound, teres
major-sound, and the rhomboid major-sound.

The major muscle of the upper part of the back is the trapezius muscle. The trapezius
is a good example of how some muscles are named by their shape. The trapezius
looks just like a trapezoid.

29. Name the major muscles in the arm. What is their function?

The major muscles in the arm are biceps in the front and the triceps at the back of the
upper arm. Their function is to bend the arm in the elbow. Muscles in the forearm are
numerous and their main function is to move the hand and the wrist, and they are
called flexors and extensors.

30. Name the major muscles of the a)chest, b)lower front part of the body,
c)lowest part of the back.

The major muscles of the chest are two pectoral muscles(big and small), which are
very strong, flattened muscles.

The muscles of the lower front part of the body create the front wall of the trunk of the
body. The main muscle of that region is the abdominal, which is also the very strong
muscle which bends the body.

Muscle of the lower back is the wide back muscle or the latissimus dorsi.

31. Where are the involuntary muscles found? What is the characteristic about of
their action?

The involuntary muscles are found in the internal organs(like heart and digestive
system), in the walls of arteries etc. Their main characteristic is that we have no
control of them. They are innervated by the autonomic system which is not under our
will.

32. Where are voluntary muscles found? What is characteristic about their action?

The voluntary muscles can be found in the arm, in the leg and the other parts of the
body which movements are voluntary. Their characteristic is that they are under
concious part of the brain. They are also called skeletal muscles.

33. What are functiones of the digestive system?

The functions of the digestive system are threefold:

It prepares food for absorption

It absorbs food into the bloodstream

It eliminates solid waste materials

34. What is a tooth made up of?

Teeth are covered by hard enamel, which gives them a white and smooth appearance.
The enamel is the hardest substance in the body. Beneath the enamel is the main
structure of the tooth, the dentin. It is yellowish and is composed of bony tissue which
is softer than enamel. Dentin is surrounded by a thin layer of modified bone called
cementum. In the innermost part of the tooth is the pulp, a soft, delicate layer, which
stores the nerves and blood vessels of the tooth. The teeth are embedded in pink
fleshy tissue known as gums, or gingiva.

35. What does the large intestine consist of?

The large intestine consists of the following sections: cecum, ascending colon,
transverse colon, descending colon, sigmoid colon, rectum, anal canal, and anus. The
last part of the large intestine is the rectum, which is where feces (waste material) are
stored before leaving the body through the anus.

36. What does the mouth consist of? Where are the two sets of teeth in man?

Mouth cavity is formed by the palatine bones and the palatine processes of the maxilla
on top, and the mandibule on the bottom.

At the opening of the mouth cavity are lips muscular structures which are covered
with thin membranous skin. Within the mouth cavity, teeth extend down from the
maxilary sockets and up from the mandibulary sockets to from the dental arcade.

The muscles and the skin of the cheeks cover the outer sides of the mouth cavity,
while the muscular structures of the tongue and sublingual mucose and the muscles,
cover the iner side of mouth cavity.

The two sets of teeth in are milk(temporary) and the permanent teeth.

37. The food you are eating has just left the stomach. Where is it now? What is
going on?

When the food leaves the stomach it is in a form of chyme and it passes into the
intestine. The intestine is composed of the small and large intestine. The small
intestine is divided into three regions: duodenum, jejunum and ilium. The food in the
intestine is in the semi-solid state and as such it is absorbed through the walls of the
intestine which are covered with the fingerlike projections called villi.

38. How many milk a)teeth, b)permanent teeth occur in man? State the functiones
of the different types of teeth.

There are 20 milk teeth which are replaced with the permanent teeth in the 7th year.
There are 32 permanent teeth, 16 in each jaw, which are devided into:

4 incisors(for biting), 2 canines, 4 premolars and 6 molars(2 of the molars are known
as the wisdom teeth) for chewing. Frontal teeth are used for biting and cutting food,
and premolars and molars are used for chewing, crushing food into bolus.

39. You are eating an apple. You have swollowed it and it has come into your
stomach. What is happening there?

The stomach is like a mixer, churning and mashing together all the small balls of food
that came down the esophagus into smaller and smaller pieces. It does this with help
from the strong muscles in the walls of the stomach and gastric juices that also come
from the stomach's walls. These juices contain enzymes - pepsin, renin and
hydrochloric acid. Pepsin splits the proteins into the amino acids, renin curdlesmilk
and prepares it for the further digestion. Hydrochloric acid kills bacteria and dissolves
some minerals. In that way food is changed into a liguid called chyme which than
passes into the intestine by the peristaltic movements of the stomach.

40. Describe the liver and state some of its actions.

The liver is the largest gland, and the largest solid organ in the body. The liver is dark
reddish brown in color and is divided into two main lobes (the much larger right and
the smaller left) which are further subdivided into approximately 100,000 small lobes,
or lobules. It is located beneath the diaphragm in the right upper quadrant of the
abdominal cavity.

Its actions are: processing digested food from the intestine ; manufacturing bile;
storing iron, vitamins and other essential chemicals; neutralizing and destroying drugs
and toxins; controlling levels of fats, amino acids and glucose in the blood .

41. You are given an apple. Describe what happens when you take a bite until the
moment it reaches the stomach.

First, when we take a bite, we start to chew and brake down that apple into the
smaller pieces so the greater surface is exposed to the saliva, which then facilitate
swallowing(makes it easier). A digestive enzyme (called amylase) in the saliva begins
to break down the carbohydrates (starches and sugars). Than the food passes
through the pharynx into the esophagus and then into the stomach.

42. Name the regions of the small intestine. What is villus? Briefly describe its
structure and functions.

The small intestine consists of 3 parts: the duodenum, the jejunum, and the ileum.

The inner wall of the small intestine is covered by millions of tiny fingerlike projections
called villi. The villi are covered with even tinier projections called microvilli. The
combination of villi and microvilli increase the surface area of the small intestine
greatly, allowing absorption of nutrients to occur. Undigested material travels next to
the large intestine.

43. Name all the part of the central nervous system.

The central nervous system consists of the brain and the spinal cord.

44. Explain the chemical transmission between neurons.

Neurons communicate with one another throught synapses, the process of synaptic
transmission is as follows: when an action potential reaches the axon terminal, it
opens voltage-gated calcium channels, allowing calcium ions to enter the terminal.
Calcium causes synaptic vesicles filled with neurotransmitter molecules to fuse with
the membrane, releasing their contents into the synaptic cleft.The neurotransmitters
diffuse across the synaptic cleft and activate receptors on the postsynaptic neuron.

45. What are meninges and what is their role?

The meninges is the system of membranes which envelops the central nervous
system.

The meninges consist of three layers: the dura mater, the arachnoid mater, and the
pia mater.

The primary function of the meninges and of the cerebrospinal fluid is to protect the
central nervous system.

46. What is the difference between the action potential and graded potential.
What causes them?

The action potential (also known as a nerve impulse) is a pulse-like wave of voltage
that travels along neuron cell membranes.

The resting voltage across the axonal membrane is typically 70 millivolts (mV), with
the inside being more negative than the outside, this is called graded potential and is
the transmembrane potential difference of a sensory receptor. As an action potential
passes through a point, this voltage rises to roughly +40 mV in one millisecond, then
returns to 70 mV.

The cause of these potentials are principal ions involved in, they are sodium and
potassium cations. Sodium ions enter the cell, and potassium ions leave, restoring
equilibrium.

47. How is autonomic nervous system divided? How does each part function?

The autonomic nervous system has two major divisions: the sympathetic nervous
system and the parasympathetic nervous system.

The sympathetic nervous system is our fight-or-flight system it prepares the body to
face a crisis. When we are excited, our sympathetic nervous system produces a
massive discharge through the body, preparing us for action: increased heart rate,
vasodilation, increased blood pressure, bronchodilation, increased metabolic rate,
release of glucose from the liver...

The parasympathetic nervous system is our body`s housekeeping system. It has a

major role in carrying out such processes as digestion, urination, glandular secretion,
and conservation of energy. The system is more active when we are calm and at rest.

Its effects tend to oppose those of the sympathetic system. It causes: decreased heart
rate, constriction of coronary vessels, and bronchoconstriction.
48. What is the general name for a nerve cell? Describe it and name the two types
of nerve fibres.

The general name of the nerve cell is neuron.

The nerve cell consists of:

The cell body, or soma (contains the nucleus surrounded by cytplasm).

The dendrites (numerous multi-branched extensions or processes that make contact

with other neurons convey impulses to the cell body).

The axon (Usually a long single process which acts as the neuron`s transmitter,
conducting impulses away from the cell body).

49. Name the largest part of the brain, its structure and name some functions.

The largest part of the brain is the cerebrum. The cerebrum is composed of the right
and left cerebral hemispheres. These are connected to each other by corpus callosum.
The brain consistes of the outer region, the cortex and the inner region. The first one
is gray matter, and the second is white matter. The cerebral cortex is responsible for
thought and memory. All concious actions are sensations of sight, hearing

50. What are the names and functions of the three types of neurons?

The three types of the neurons are the sensory, the motor and the connector or the
associative neuron.

The sensory neurons carry the impulses from the skin to the spinal cord or the brain.

The motor neurons carry impulses from the cell body(spinal cord, brain) to the specific
muscles or glands.

And the associative neurons carry impulses from the sensory to the motor neurons
and form the bulk of the spinal cord.

51.Which part of the brain controls breathing and heartbeat? Which one controles
reflexes?

The control center for breathing and heartbeat is the medula oblongata. It is enlarged
end of the spinal cord with the outer gray matter and the white inside. The spinal cord
controls reflexes.

52. Why are some parts of the CNS white and some gray?

The gray parts of the CNS are composed of the cell bodies, and the white parts are
composed of the axons which are surrounded with myelin which gaves it a white
colour.

53. What does blood consist of? What is its function?

Blood contains red blood cells (erythrocytes) and white blood cells (leukocytes), which
are suspended in a liquid called blood plasma.

Blood is the fluid of life, transporting oxygen from the lungs to body tissue and carbon
dioxide from body tissue to the lungs. Blood is the fluid of growth, transporting
nourishment from digestion and hormones from glands throughout the body. Blood is
the fluid of health, transporting disease fighting substances to the tissue and waste to
the kidneys.

54. What are the differences between arteries and vains?

Arteries are the vessels that carry the blood from the heart to the all parts of the body.
They have thick walls which are elastic and where we can find muscle fibres. That is
why the arteries extend during each heart beat. This is called pulse.

On the other hand vains are blood vessels which carry the blood into the heart, they
dont have so thick walls and they dont have the pulse. The arteries carry the blood
rich in oxigen while the vains carry blood rich in carbon-dioxide.

55. What type of blood do vains carry? What factors help blood to flow through
them?

The vains carry the blood which is full of waste products, such as carbon-dioxide into
the heart. Factors that help blood running through them are the valves which prevent
the backflow of the blood, than the gravitation and the movements of the body,
breathing.

56. Where does the right auricle receive blood from? What blood vessels is it
carried in? Where does it go next?

The right atrium receives the blood from the whole body through 2 main vains. They
are called superior vena cavae which conducts the blood from the head, upper limbs
and the smaller part of the trunk.We have inferior vena cavae which conductes the
blood from the rest of the body.
When the blood is in the right atrium it goes next to the right ventricle through the
tricuspid orifice. From there the blood goes through the pulmonary arterie to the lungs
where it is cleansed and reoxygenated.

57. Where do the pulmonary vains enter the heart? What type of blood do they
carry? Where does it come from? Where does it go?

Pulmonary vains enter the heart through left atrium. The blood which has been
cleansed of carbon dioxide and re-oxygenated goes through left atrium, passes into
the left ventricle and is pumped out into the aorta.

58. What is systemic circulation?

Once the blood has been cleansed and reoxygenated it comes to the left atrium of the
heart. Then it passes down into the left ventricle where is propelled through the aorta
thorugh the whole body. In that way, every cell in the body gets the fresh oxygen.
Than the blood is gathered through the both venae cavae into the right atrium.

59. What is the blood pressure. How many phases is each heartbeat composed of?

Blood pressure is the pressure of the flow of the blood in the arteries, which rises and
falls as the heart and the muscles of the body cope with the various demands. Each
heartbeat is composed of two phases- systole and diastole. The diastole is the
dilatation of the heart when its chambers are filling with blood. The systole is when
the heart is contracted and pumps the blood out.

60. Name all the parts of the respiratory system.

The respiratory system can be divided into an upper and lower respiratory tract.

The upper respiratory tract includes the following:nose, nasal cavity, mouth, pharynx,
larynx and trachea.
The lower respiratory tract includes the following: airways (bronchi and bronchioles),
air sacs (alveoli) and lungs.

61. Which phases does external respiration include? Describe its mechanical
aspect.

External respiration include two phases. They are inspiration and expiration.

Inspiration is an active process involving the diaphragm and the external intercostal
muscles. The ribs and sternum are moved by the external intercostal muscles. The
ribs swing up and out. The sternum swings up and forward. At the same time. the
diaphragm contracts, flattening down toward the abdomen. When the lungs are
expanded, the air within them has more space to fill, so the pressure within the lungs
decreases. As a result, the pressure in the lungs (intrapulmonary pressure) is less than
pressure of the air outside the body. Because the respiration tract is open to the
outside, air rushes into the lungs to reduce this pressure difference. Thus air is brought
into the lungs during inspiration.

At rest, expiration is usually a passive process involving the relaxation of the

inspiratory muscles and elastic recoil of the lung tissue. As the external intercostal
muscles relax, the ribs and sternum lower back into their resting position. This
increases the pressure in the thorax, so air is forced out of the lungs. Thus expiration
is accomplished. During forced breathing, expiration becomes a more active process.

62. How does the exchange of gases take place?

Gas exchange or respiration takes place at a respiratory surfacea boundary between

the external environment and the interior of the body. It is carried out in respiratory
systems. Gas exchange is the movement of oxygen into the body, and carbon dioxide
out of the body and is carried out by mechanisms of the heart and lungs.

63.What is external respiration?

External respiration is the process by which external air is drawn into the body in
order to supply the lungs with oxygen, and (used) air is expelled from the lungs in
order to remove carbon dioxide from to body.

64. What is internal respiration?

Internal respiration is the process by which the gases in the air that has already been
drawn into the lungs by external respiration are exchanged with gases in the
blood/tissues so that carbon dioxide (CO2) is removed from the blood and replaced
with oxygen (O2).

65. What is the purpose of respiration? Where does gas exchange take place?

The main purpose of respiration is to supply O2 to cells for their metabolic needs and
to remove CO2 from cells. Exchange takes place in respiratoy organs, the lungs.

66. How is urine formed? How it passes out of the body?

The blood full of the waste products goes to the kidneys, where it is filtered during its
course throuhg the renal tubules, where the waste product are sparated from the
water, glucose and other important chemicals. Than the waste products are
transported through the ureters into the urinaty bladder, and than it is eliminated
through urethra.

67. How do kidneys maintain homeostasis? Describe their structure.

The primary function of the kidneys is to maintain a stable internal environment

(homeostasis) for optimal cell and tissue metabolism. They do this by separating urea,
mineral salts, toxins, and other waste products from the blood.

The kidneys are a pair of bean shaped, brown organs about the size of a fist.
Kidneys are covered by the renal capsule, which is a tough capsule of fibrous
connective tissue. There is a concaved side of the kidney that has a depression where
a renal artery enters, and a renal vein and a ureter exit the kidney. There are three
major regions of the kidney, renal cortex, renal medulla and the renal pelvis.

68. What is the urinary system composed of?

The urinary system includes two kidneys, two ureters, the bladder, and the urethra.

69. Name some hormones secreted by the pituitary gland and explain their
functouns.

One hormone, the human growth hormone (HGH), promotes body growth by
accelerating protein synthesis. This hormone is also known as somatotropin

Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH). The function of TSH is to control secretions of

hormones from the thyroid gland.

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). This hormone controls the secretion of

hormones from the adrenal glands.

Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). In females, FSH stimulates the development of

a follicle, which contains the egg cell; in males, the hormone stimulates sperm
production.

Prolactin, also called lactogenic hormone (LH). This hormone promotes breast
development and milk secretion in females.

70. Explain the link between the endocrine and nervous system.

The endocrine system is an integrated system of small organs that involve the release
of extracellular signaling molecules known as hormones. Purely neurocrine signaling
between neurons belongs completely to the nervous system.

The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA or HTPA axis), also known as the limbichypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (LHPA axis), is a complex set of direct influences
and feedback interactions among the hypothalamus the pituitary gland , and the
adrenal glands.

71. You have found yourself in a dangerous situation. You have to act very quickly
to escape from it. What changes do you feel in your body and what substance are
they induced by?

First of all I can feel how I breathe faster. I can feel my blood pressure rising and my
heart beat increasing. The adrenal glands start to secrete the adrenalin which helps
body to act in an emergency situation. I can feel that I have more strength because
my heart is pumping blood faster and all of the muscles have more oxygen and energy
to act promptly.

72. Give an example an a)physical, b)chemical factor which can cause faster heart
beat.

Physical factors that can cause faster heart beating are: hard labour, stress, emotions,
fear strain, but all of these are connected with secreting the hormons and other
factors directly to the blood. On the other hand the most important chemical factor
which can cause faster beating is the adrenalin.

73. Describe the functions of the pancreas as an a) endocrine, b) exocrine gland.

The pancreas acting as an endocrine gland produces the hormon insulin and regulates
storage of the glycogen in the liver and sugar metabolism in the tissue. But except
being the endocrine gland pancreas is also exocrine gland which produce the
pancreatic juice which goes to the intestine and helps digesting the food.

74. What is the hormone of the thyroid called? What does in influence?

The thyroid gland produces hormones called thyroxin. It contains iodine and regulates
the metabolic rate of the body. Directly or indirectly this gland(its hormone) regulates
the proper functioning of many tissues and organs in general.

75. What does the adrenal cortex secrete? What is the effect ot these hormones?

The adrenalin cortex secretes many hormones, among which is cortin which is
responsible for the proper metabolism of the proteins and the carbohydrates.

76. What is characteristic of the endorine glands? What do they secrete?

The endocrine glands are very important for the proper activity of the whole body.
They produce chemical substances which are known as the hormones. They play very
important role in regulating principal body functions. The hormones are secreted
directly into the blood.

77. What is ovulation? Where is the ova produced?

The ovulatory phase, or ovulation, starts about 14 days after the follicular phase
started. The ovulatory phase is the midpoint of the menstrual cycle, with the next
menstrual period starting about 2 weeks later. In the ovulatory phase the rise of the
hormones (estrogen and luteinizing hormones) causes the dominant follicle to release
its egg from the ovary. The ova is produced in the ovary.

78. How does unborn baby receive nourishment?

The unborn baby receives nourishment by placenta. The baby is connected with the
placenta at the navel by an umbillical cord which allows the transport of the blood
which is rich in nutrittons and also returning the blood which contains the waste
products.

79. Where and how does fertilization occur?

Fertilization occur in the uterine tube. Once an egg has been released from the
ovaries, it will begin to travel down the fallopian (uterine) tubes towards the uterus. As
it advances towards the uterus, it begins to produce an enzyme that helps to attract
and guide any sperm that may have been ejaculated into the female reproductive
system during sex.

Although a man releases millions of sperm when he ejaculates during orgasm, only a
few hundred will be able to make it all the way from the cervix up into the uterus and
then into the correct fallopian tube. Just one sperm will then be able to make its way
through your eggs tough coating to fertilize the egg. If fertilization occurs in the
uterine tube, the fertilized egg begins to change immediately after. Soon the egg is
divided into a cluster of two, then four, then more cells, as it makes its way down the
uterine tube toward the uterus for implantation.

80. What happens when pregnancy is completed?

Whet pregnancy is completed, following labor or childbirth. childbirth is the

physiological process by which the fetus is expelled from the uterus. It occurs in three
stages: Opening or dilation of the cervix (about 10 cm);The second stage is called the
expulsion stage during which the baby must be pushed through and out of the
vagina;The third stage is the stage of separation and expulsion of the placenta; in this
final stage the placenta detaches itself from the uterine wall and is expelled.

81. What are the male reproductive cells called? Where are they produced?

Male reproductive cell is spermatozoon. Within the testes are coiled masses of tubes
called seminiferous tubules. These tubules are responsible for producing the sperm
cells through a process called spermatogenesis.

82. What are the regions and role of the uterus?

The main part of the uterus is called the body (corpus) of the uterus, while the
rounded region above the entrance of the fallopian tubes is the fundus and its narrow
outlet, which protrudes into the vagina, is the cervix.

The role is to house a developing fertilized egg.

83. What is coprus luteum? State its functions.

Once the ovary releases its egg, the empty follicle develops into a new structure
called the corpus luteum.

The corpus luteum secretes the hormones estrogen and progesterone. Progesterone
prepares the uterus for a fertilized egg to implant.

84. What is the male reproductive system composed of?

The male reproductive anatomy includes internal and external structures.

The external organs are: penis, scrotum, testiscles and the epididymis. The internal
organs are: vas deferens, ejaculatory ducts, urethra, seminal vesicles, prostate gland
and the bulbourethral glands.

85. What is the female reproductive system composed of ?

The female reproductive anatomy includes internal and external structures.

The main external structures of the female reproductive system include: labia majora,
labia minora, Bartholins glands and clitoris.

The internal reproductive organs are: vagina, uterus (womb), ovaries and Fallopian
(uterine) tubes.

86. Decsribe the structure and the role of the testicles.

The testes are oval organs about the size of large olives that lie in the scrotum. The
testes are responsible for making testosterone, the primary male sex hormone, and for
generating sperm. Within the testes are coiled masses of tubes called seminiferous
tubules. These tubules are responsible for producing the sperm cells through a process
called spermatogenesis.

87. What is the role of the female hormones during the pregnancy? Give details.

The placenta produces its own hormone as it develops in the uterus. This hormone is
called human chorionic gonadotropin HCG (or pregnancy hormone) and it stimulates
the corpus luteum to continue producing until the third month of pregnancy, when the
placenta itself takes over the endocrine function and releases estrogen and
progesterone.

88. Describe the menstrual cycle.

Females of reproductive age experience cycles of hormonal activity that repeat at

about one-month intervals. With every cycle, a womans body prepares for a potential
pregnancy, with or without the womans intention. The average menstrual cycle takes
about 28 days and occurs in phases: the follicular phase, the ovulatory phase
(ovulation), and the luteal phase.

There are four major hormones (chemicals that stimulate or regulate the activity of
cells or organs) involved in the menstrual cycle: follicle-stimulating hormone,
luteinizing hormone, estrogen, and progesterone.

89. Name the memebranes of the eye. Which of them is sensitive to light?

Membranes of the eye are: sclera, cornea, choroid and retina.

Retina is sensitive to light.

90. What are the regions of the ear? What do they consist of?

The ear consists of three basic parts - the outer ear, the middle ear, and the inner ear.

The outer ear consists of an earflap and an approximately 2-cm long ear canal.

The middle ear is an air-filled cavity that consists of an eardrum and three tiny,
interconnected bones - the hammer, anvil, and stirrup.

The inner ear consists of a cochlea, the semicircular canals, and the auditory nerve.

91. What is sweat? State its function. What does sweat depends on?

Sweat is composed of water in which the salts and other substances are dissolved. It is
produced by the sweat glands in the skin. Its function is to remove these waste
products from the body, and to regulate the body temperature. Some causes of
sweating are: heat, physical acitvity, stress, fever, medications, genetics, water intake.

92. You are trying a new perfume. Which sence is the most active, why?

In this situation, the most active sence is the sence of smell. Like the sense of taste,
it's a chemical sense. They are called chemical senses because they detect chemicals
in the environment. These chemicals float into the nose trough the nostrils and
dissolve in the mucus. Underneath the mucus, in the olfactory epithelium, specialized
receptor cells called olfactory receptor neurons detect the odor. The olfactory receptor
neurons transmit the information to the olfactory bulbs and from it the signal travels
to the limbic system structures and to the "Higher" centers where they modify
conscious thought.

93. Name at least three functiones of the skin.

Vitamin D production - UV sunlight & precursor molecule in skin make vitamin D.

Absorption & secretion The skin is involved in the absorption of water-soluble

molecules and excretion of water and sweat.

Protection The skin acts as a physical barrier.

94. You are at the concert. Which sence is the most active? How?

At the concert the most active sence is the sesnce of hearing. When the sound wave
reach the ear, the outer ear channels sound waves through the ear canal to the
eardrum of the middle ear.The eardrum is a very durable and tightly stretched
membrane that vibrates as the incoming pressure waves reach it. At the interface of
the outer and the middle ear the energy of the mechanical wave becomes converted
into vibrations of the inner bone structure of the ear. Being connected to the hammer,
the movements of the eardrum will set the hammer, anvil, and stirrup into motion at
the same frequency of the sound wave. The stirrup is connected to the inner ear; and
thus the vibrations of the stirrup are transmitted to the fluid of the inner ear and
create a compression wave within the fluid. The inner ear consists of a cochlea, the
semicircular canals, and the auditory nerve. The cochlea and the semicircular canals
are filled with a water-like fluid. In addition to being filled with fluid, the inner surface
of the cochlea is lined with over 20 000 hair-like nerve cells that perform one of the
most critical roles in our ability to hear. When the frequency of the compressional
wave matches the natural frequency of the nerve cell, that nerve cell will resonate
with a larger amplitude of vibration. This increased vibrational amplitude induces the

cell to release an electrical impulse that passes along the auditory nerve towards the
brain.
95. What is the eye adaption?

The eye adaption is when the pupil grows larger in the dark and smaller in the bright
light. By contractions and dilatations, the pupil controls the amount of the light that
enters the eyeball.

96. You have touched a burning cigarette by accident. You quickly pull your hand
back. How does hand know what to do?

The skin contains numerous sensory receptors which receive information from the
outside environment. When I touch a burning cigarette, the pain receptors in my skin
send the impulses into the brain, which process them, and the brain returns the
information to the muscles to move the arm.

97. What is eye accommodation?

Eye Accommodation is the focusing of light in the retina.

98. Someone tells you: Look at this! What does your eye do?

The eye tryes to focus on that specific point. This is done by three groups of muscles
inside the eye, which allow the movements of the eye. When the eye has found that
specific point, the eye pupil is contracting or dilatating in order to focus.