Group 1 Summary

Karl Popper argued that the scientific method that has been applied in the natural sciences
were just the same as what has to be used in social sciences. According to him, the scientific
method which was used in both have certain factors that deviate one from another which caused
problems between the two. These factors include the goal of both sciences, the logic of the
scientific method, the objects used in scientific inquiry, and the value of objectivity (which was
the main problem because natural sciences claim that it is more objective). He argued that the
method used in social sciences was no less than the method in natural sciencesthat the
differences were insignificant and social science should be accepted the same way the natural
sciences was. Natural sciences create theories which were usually gained through trial-and-error
and verified by systematic criticisms while, according to Popper, the social sciences theories
tend to be diverse because it has many perspectives or point of view, and it depends on the
situation (not all societies are the same). The last argumentthe objectivitywas debunked by
Popper by saying that it has nothing to do with the biases and impartiality of an individual but
rather the cooperation between scientists. Brian Fay, on the other hand, argues that social
sciences theories were not timeless but rather dynamic or ever changing. Social sciences,
according to him, also have different subdivisions which made it very diverse. One theory might
be applied to one division but cannot be applied to another. Pragmatism by Patrick Baert
denounced Richard Rortys neo-pragmatism wherein Rorty claims that the past was the key to
the future. Rorty argued that history was closed and tend to be fixed and cited Marxs
Communist Manifesto as an example. Baert, on the other hand, argued that Marxs said The
future is not closed but made by people. The grammar of social sciences, by Hans Zetterberg,
focuses on the use of Emic and Etic tools in conducting social science researchwherein emic

sentences refers to the peoples interpretation of things and events in the world he lives in while
etic sentences refers to an observers more comprehensive interpretation.

Group 2 Summary
The Social Sciences Causation and Methods?
According to Hempel and Oppenheim (1948), Causation in social sciences is plural instead
of singular (or Unitarian) because it had a diverse research design. First reason was the different
situations and events made the social sciences diverse and, thus, must have flexibility. Second
would be the level or value of credibility of the individuals or groups included in the research.
Third would be the different properties or nature of arguments and problems being solved in the
research. Fourth, there were many criteria to which the researcher must base in choosing the
methods. In conclusion, the plurality of the social sciences causation was due to the mode of
social realitywhich randomly changes over time. One could not set the causality to be
unitarian or pluralist simply because it was not too significant.
Mixed method research refers to using of both qualitative and quantitative research methods.
Though composed of two combinations, mixed method research was divided into two
qualitative-dominant mixed research method or quantitative-dominant mixed research method.
Though mixed method research was not considered as a distinct social scientific method yet, it
had helped a lot of social science research.

Group 3 Summary
There were many approaches to philosophy in terms of its relation to social sciences. Marx
Sociology left philosophy out because he believes that philosophy was limited and should not be
applied. Philosophy was merely an interpretation which composes numerous theories while
social sciences were both theory and practice. According to Marx, practice was more valuable
than theory. According to Hegel, philosophers fail to see that history was a result of human
activity not through spiritual and ethical terms but through social materials and events (i.e. tea
was a social material since it has greatly formed and altered the history), thus, technology
which is a product of human developmentcan be called a social material. Philosophy only
interpreted (which in this case failed) the history, social science was to change it.
Interpretive social science versus the natives point of view by Todd Jones refers to the
discrepancy between the researcher and the researched. According to Jones, researchers often fail
to be naturalistic due to different factors that hinder the perfect interpretation of the
information that was given by the researched. Some of the reasons were differences in languages,
differences in culture, and generally the differences in perspectives. Though he pointed out that
the fault was to be given to the researcher, he also said that the researched often fail too. Not all
people, specifically the indigenous, due to lack of education and literacy, express what they mean
to. In my point of view, Jones was trying to say that researchers need to consider the nonverbal
communication besides the verbal.
Harold Kincaids Formal Rationality and its pernicious effects on the Social Sciences implies
that Formal Rationality was detrimental to Social Sciences because it fails to show or rejects the
social reality. Formal rationality was more of empirical rather than logical to the society.

Group 4 Summary
Julian Reiss Do we need mechanisms? verifies the need for social sciences to use the
mechanisms in interpreting social phenomenon. Mechanism is defined as the structure or
process in which the phenomenon has undergone in order to take place. This is crucial to create a
system that will either prevent (if the phenomenon was detrimental) or recreate (if it was
benefiting), make correct predictions, and accurate definitions. However, mechanisms do not
always create effective results, but then again, there are other alternative social tools that will
help in ones social research.
Diego Rios Mechanistic Model in Social Sciences points out that the Mechanistic Model was
better than Traditional Model. Traditional model involves preset methods and generalization of
variables (often used in quantitative research methods) while mechanistic model was more
flexible and depends on the situation and more subjective and shows the social reality.
Advantages of Mechanistic model include feeling that we understand thoroughly an event; it
tend to be more stable; describes not only in a superficial level but also in its underlying
structure by isolating basic rules of organization; and it is thrifty and simple, postulating very
few elements for large scale, complex phenomena.
Arthur Stinchcombe believes that mechanisms in social sciences should be theorized. These
mechanisms are easily verifiable due to its practical nature. It does not need complexity to
interpret large scale phenomenon. Unlike the other proponents of social sciences, it does not
result to uncertainty.

Group 5 Summary
Beyond Paradigm: Resisting the Assimilation of Phronetic Social Science by Sanford Schram
discussed about the nature of politics in the point of view of the Perestroika movement.
According to Schram, Perestroika was more of a revolutionary movement in a sense that it aims
to transform the political science from unitary to pluralist. The conventional political science
focused on the preset theories and aims to expand it for knowledge sake. Perestorika, on the
other hand, believes that political science, being branch of social science, is diverse and
situational in nature. Theories in political science shouldve been flexible and adaptable. Instead
of focusing on developing a single theory/paradigm, political science should become relative and
consider other political truths and perspectives.
Macro-quantitative social science research analyzes a strategic interaction (samples respond
to other samples behavior) in macro-levellarge scale or aggregate. It is the same as analyzing a
collective action by a certain species like ants. The result of the action, for example, will be the
colony of the ants. The aim is to detect the diversity of the reactions and behaviors of the ants
while building the colony, making it qualitative also. In a specific society, the action of the
government might not be considered the will of the many. Macro-quantitative social science
research aims to determine the decisions of the people of the society, finding patterns and
commonalities, and then creating conclusions based on the results.
Lawrence Sherman discussed the issue of evidence misled policy in political science. In
forensics, evidence is used to justify the criminal; in political science (social science) evidence
are facts that support a statement, conclusion, or belief. In social sciences, evidence-misleading
methods were both quantitative and qualitative. Each could cause unsystematic way of gathering

information misleading the evidence or facts that would have substantiated the statements. The
only way to prevent misleading is to conduct a systematic review. It will lessen publication and
researcher bias towards the topic.
Group 6 summary
Social sciences aims to develop the society and generally aim for social change. Developing
the society includes solving social problems, improving economic productivity and growth,
educational competitiveness, internationalization, and globalization. Social sciences methods and
theories were not merely made, studied, and researched for knowledge sake only; they existed to
be practiced and applied to the real world and to develop the social truth.
Clinical Approach to Social Sciences by Robert Sevigny argued that the role of social science
is to heal the society of its sickness. The sickness pointed out by Sevigny refers to the social
problems that occur in different societies, groups, and even individuals. Sevigny also said that
the barrier that kept the social sciences from conducting its purpose was the negligence of the
dominant factions in societies to recognize it (social sciences); and that social science is only
limited to small groups and individuals. These dominant factions refer to powerful sectors of
society such as the government, the media, and religion itself. Sevigny also incurred knowledge
about the difference in the perspectives of individuals and societies they live in. In typical cases,
people the society they live in differently than what is popular to the mass (a bit ironic).
Individuals become neutral in a sense that they conform to what was popular (which was
actually under the interest of these dominant factions) and leave out they own personal
opinion.

According to Tom Wengraf, et al, before, social sciences was merely an abstract and detached
from reality body of science, and only in 1990s did the social scientists studied social sciences
for the purpose of human and sociopolitical development. Emancipations and empowerments,
such as the fight against racial discrimination and feminism in the 21st century, created a trend
for the social scientists to put into practice the theories and methodologiespraxis (theory and
practice combined).
Group 7 Summary
Western social sciences greatly affected the eastern countries especially during the
colonization. This was a critique of how irrelevant the concepts and theories of western social
sciences to the eastern countriesbecause of differences in culture, ethnography, beliefs,
geography, etc. First problem exist in the western point of reference. It was popular during the
18th to 19th Century for the westerners to write about the eastern hostile countries. However, the
social theories and conclusions they formulated were not accurate and irrelevant to the
easterners point of view. This is because they (westerners) were using their perspective as the
point of reference of their social study. One could say that their works did not accurately
represent the reality in the eastern countries.
This problem did not only occur in social sciences. Other disciplines, except for
technological innovations, have negatively affected the eastern countries. Third world problems
in the status quo were believed to be derived from the irrelevant applicability of western studies,
ideas, on the easterners different contexts and situations. One example would be the
industrialization process in the eastern countries. Industrialization in the west was applicable
because as early as 1500s, they have already developed political, social, and economic

innovations. In the east, an agricultural developing countrys abrupt shift into industrialization
and urbanization might cause its destruction economically and socially. In conclusion, the
easterners should support local social scientists because their (easterners) interests were also the
interests of these local social scientistsaiming for social development.
Group 8 Summary
According to Niches Social Construction, knowledge is not obtained through objective
means but is constructed through social discourse; all knowledge is a series of social artifacts
higher governmental revenue; the context dictates the degree to which a given form of
understanding prevails across time; the ways in which we portray human beings open some
avenues of understanding and closes others. The types of history (Nietzsche) were Monumental
history, Antiquarian history, And Critical history. History is necessary to, and should be
cultivated for, the purposes of life. In terms of moral judgment, adopting a social constructionist
epistemology precludes possibility of a universal moral foundation. In adopting social
construction, universal trans-historical facts and laws are forsaken. Historiographic problem of
presentism was that historiography favors bias.There can be no final decision on what counts to
be sexist or racist because the criteria for these types of decisions continue to change. In
conclusion, (1)the social constructionist takes a normative view of morality as an artifact of
history and culture, thereby presenting moral judgements as de-ontologized and valid only as
local interpretations; (2) social construction is not a theory, but an understanding about a theory's
use and abuse; (3) marginalized sectors must move away from psychology in order to develop
and be recognized.

Group 9 Summary
There have been numerous studies regarding the Feminist methodology. Many researchers
and social scientists attempted to create a specific methodology that will cater the feministic
aspects of society. Feminist methodology aims to represent the feminist aspects of societyto
make the gender and gender asymmetry, which was often neglected, a crucial part of social
science. It emphasizes personal experience against the traditional and conventional scientific
method. It also destroys the gap between the researcher and the researched. This unfixed
proportions of feminist methodology made it diverse and flexible, thus, there is no distinctive
methodology.
Liane Davis A Feminist Approach to Social Work Research contrasts the female and male
approach to research method. According to Davis, there are two social method voicesthe
female voice and the male voice. Male voice focuses on autonomy and danger of connection
with others which results to assurance. Female voice, on the other hand, focuses on relationships
and the danger of separation from others, which results to uncertainty.
Anne Oakleys Gender, Methodology, and peoples ways of knowing: Some problems with
Feminism and Paradigm Debate in Social Sciences emphasize the concept of duality of social
sciences (qualitative and quantitative) and the non-competence of feminist method. It was noncompetent because, according to Oakley, feminist methodology does not aim to be the best
research technique but rather represent the social reality in the perspective of women. The
feminist methodology has a political goalwhich is to improve the conditions of society. Mode
of collection of data was qualitative rather than quantitativeparticipant observation, semistructured interviews.

Group 10
Self-fulfilling prophecy and Rosenthal effect were some of the most detrimental factors in
conducting a research. Social sciences vulnerability to these is the reason for the questioning of
its credibility and objectivity. Self-fulfilling prophecy was defined the notion that a false but
widely believed prediction could become true simply because enough people believed in it. It is
detrimental simply because it does not imply reality but rather illusion. A false knowledge that is
believed by many could produce negative effects. It promotes conformity to the part of the, for
example, readers or by judging a persons intelligence through his/her grades in school.
Rosenthal effect was the theory that involves an experimenter and his/her expectations.
Krishna Prakash Guptas Society as a factory: Maoist approach to Social Science applies the
social science theories to Chinese society in order to promote nationalism under the leadership of
Mao Tse Tung. There were two dilemmas in social sciences which were (1) dominance of natural
sciences in terms of popular objectivity and (2) to prove the positive effect of social science to
society. In general, Gupta proves that to make a social science research theory useful, one must
apply it for the development of the society just like what Mao did in China.
Brigit Jentschs The Interpreter Effect: Rendering Interpreters Visible in Cross-Cultural
Research and Methodology is about the discrepancy among the interpreter, the interviewer, and
the interviewed during interviews in field work. Gaps between language, careless assessment of
the interviewer, incompetence of the interpreter, etc. were the worst problems of fieldwork and
experiments. Interpreter effect refers to the miscommunication and wrong information from the
interviewerwho serves as the bridge between the interviewed and interviewer. Wrong

information destroys the essence and the purpose of the study, which is to provide information
that will improve the conditions of society.
Group 11
Participatory research was useful in studying human action and essential in social science
research. It involves actual observation of the culture and the people one is studying by living
with them in specific span of time. Social structures, such as language, are the medium of
motivated human action. They pre-exist for individuals; enable persons to become persons and to
act (meaningfully and intentionally), yet at the same time limit the ways we can act. Thus, action
is social for they presuppose human capacities in the skills and forms of thought we acquire, and
presuppose society that in acting we use and we express social structures.
Ethical Challenges for the Social Sciences on the Threshold of the 21st Century by Hebe
Vessuri discussed about continuous transformation of social sciences through the 21st Century.
He argued that social sciences was ever changing through time (old theories might be debunked
and replaced by new ones). He elaborates on the notion that the moral economies of science
derive both their forms and their emotional force from the cultures in which they are embedded.
Natural science and social science have been arguing ever since the old times annoyance
resulting from the possibility of there being interpretations and analyses of society and science
produced autonomously by social scientists caused the gap between the two.