CHAPTER 28 DIRECT SENSING (A2)

Learning outcomes:
a) show an understanding that an electric sensor consists of a sensing device and a
circuit that provides an output voltage
b) show an understanding of the change in resistance with light intensity of a lightdependent resistor (LDR)
c) sketch the temperature characteristic of a negative temperature coefficient
thermistor
d) show an understanding of the action of a piezo-electric transducer and its
application in a simple microphone
e) describe the structure of a metal-wire strain gauge
f) relate extension of a strain gauge to change in resistance of the gauge
g) show an understanding that the output from sensing devices can be registered as a
voltage
h) recall the main properties of the ideal operational amplifier (op-amp)
i) deduce, from the properties of an ideal operational amplifier, the use of an
operational amplifier
j) show an understanding of the effects of negative feedback on the gain of an
operational amplifier
k) recall the circuit diagrams for both the inverting and the non-inverting amplifier for
single signal input
l) show an understanding of the virtual earth approximation and derive an expression
for the gain of inverting amplifiers
m) recall and use expressions for the voltage gain of inverting and of non-inverting
amplifiers
n) show an understanding of the use of relays in electronic circuits
o) show an understanding of the use of light-emitting diodes (LEDs) as devices to
indicate the state of the output of electric circuits
p) show an understanding of the need for calibration where digital or analogue meters
are used as output devices

28-1

28.1 Sensing devices

When you approach an automated door, an electronic sensor detects
your presence and causes the door to open. Sensors are used in any
electronic system that responds to an external change.
Examples of such electronic systems: smoke alarm, sensors inside
incubator, triple sensor watch, robotic machines in vehicle assembly
plants, and etc.

A sensor supplies a signal to a processing unit, which can operate an

output device such as an indicator lamp or a relay. The processing unit
may receive signals from more than one sensor and it is programmed to
respond according to the signals it receives.

Sensing device

Processing unit

Output device

28-2

 An electronic sensor consists of a sensing device, which responds to an

external change by producing:
o a change of p.d. because it is in a potential divider and its
resistance changes (as in a thermistor or a light-dependent
resistor or a strain gauge);
o a p.d. directly as in piezo-electric transducer.
Using a potential divider
o consists of two resistors in series of resistances R1 and R2,
connected to a source of fixed p.d. Vs as shown in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1

Fig. 2

o Because the current through the resistors is equal to the source

p.d. divided by the total resistance of the two resistors,

o The p.d. across each resistor is equal to its resistance the current.
Therefore,
the p.d. across R1,

the p.d. across R2,

28-3

o One of the resistors is a sensing device such as thermistor.

o The other resistor is a fixed resistance.
o When
increases, the current decreases so the p.d. across
decreases.
o Therefore, p.d. across the sensing device increases.

A temperature sensor uses a thermistor as the sensing device, as shown

in Fig. 1.
o Thermistors that have a resistance that falls with increase of
temperature are said to have a negative temperature coefficient
and are referred to as NTC thermistors. Fig. 2 show how the
resistance of an NTC thermistor decreases as the temperature
increases. Notice that:
the variation of resistance with temperature is non-linear
the rate of change of resistance with temperature decreases
as the temperature increases
o In Fig. 1, when temperature of the thermistor increases, its
resistance decreases. As a result, the current in the circuit
increases so the p.d. across the fixed resistance
(=current resistance of the fixed resistance) must therefore
increase. The p.d. across the thermistor therefore decreases
because it is equal to the source p.d minus the p.d. across the fixed
resistor. Since the output p.d. in Fig. 1 is across the thermistor, the
output p.d. therefore decreases.
o Notice that if the output p.d. had been across the fixed resistor, the
output p.d. would have increased.

28-4

 A light sensor uses a light-dependent resistor (LDR) as the sensing

device. The resistance of an LDR decreases non-linearly when the
intensity of light incident on it increases. Typically, the resistance of an
LDR decreases from 1 M in darkness to about 100 in sunlight.
o Fig. 3 shows an LDR in a potential divider.

Fig. 3

Fig. 4

o When the light intensity is increased, the resistance of the LDR

decreases (Fig. 4) so the current in the circuit increases. As a
result, the p.d. across the fixed resistor increases. This means that
the p.d. across the LDR decreases and so the output p.d. decreases.
o When the light intensity is decreased, the current in the circuit
decreases so the p.d. across the fixed resistor decreases. Hence the
p.d. across the LDR increases so the output p.d. increases.

A transducer is any device that is designed to convert energy from one

form to another.
o A piezo-electric transducer generates a p.d. when it is squeezed.
o The piezo-electric material contains positive and negative ions,
which are held together by the electrostatic forces they exert on each
other.

28-5

Fig. 5 Tetrahedral silicate unit.

Fig. 6 Quartz complex structure made

up of a large number of repeated
tetrahedal silicate units

o In the normal unstressed state of the crystal, the centre of charge of

the positive ions coincides with the centre of charge of the negative
ions.
o When pressure is applied to the crystal, the crystal changes shape by
a small amount and the centres of the positive and the negative
charge no longer coincide. A voltage is generated across the crystal.
This is known as the piezo-electric effect.
o The magnitude of the voltage that is generated depends on the
magnitude of the pressure on the crystal, and its polarity depends on
whether the crystal is compressed or expanded.
o The greater the pressure is, the larger the p.d. that is generated. A
piezo-electric transducer can therefore be used directly as a pressure
sensor or a force sensor. Piezo-electric ceramics are used in pressure
sensors. Force sensors, microphones and gas lighters.
A piezo-electric rod, about 1 mm in diameter, of length 10 mm
squeezed by a force of 10 N between its ends, can generate a
p.d. in excess of 100 V.

28-6

Fig. 7 Piezo-electric effect in quartz

o A sound wave consists of a series of compressions and rarefactions. If

a sound wave is incident on a piezo-electric crystal, then a voltage
will be produced across the crystal that varies in a similar way to the
variation in pressure of the sound wave.
o To detect the voltages, opposite faces of the crystal are coated with a
metal and electrical connections are made to these metal films.
o Since the voltages generated are small, they are amplified. The
crystal and its amplifier may be used as a simple microphone for
converting sound signals into electrical signals.

Fig. 8 Microphone and its symbol

A strain gauge takes advantage of the change in resistance of a metal

wire as its length and cross-sectional area change.
o When stretched, a metal wire becomes narrower and longer; both
these changes increase the electrical resistance.
o When compressed, a metal wire becomes shorter and wider; as
long as it does not buckle, these changes decrease its electrical
resistance.

28-7

Fig. 9 Metal wire strain gauge (made by sealing a length of very fine wire in a small rectangle
of thin plastic)

o The resistance R of the wire in the strain gauge is given by the

equation:
where L is the length of the wire,
A is its area of cross-section
is its resistivity.
Suppose the wire is stretched so its length increases from
to , causing its resistance to increase from to
.
Therefore,
assuming the area of cross-section does not change
significantly.
Hence the increase of its resistance
, which means
that its increase of resistance is proportional to its change of
length .
As the strain on wires in the strain gauge is defined as
, it follows that the increase of resistance of
the strain gauge is directly proportional to the strain.
The strain gauge could be connected as the sensing device
in a circuit such as Fig. 10. The output p.d. could be
recorded using a data logger.
If the output p.d. is found to change over time, the strain
gauge must have been gradually stretched more if its
resistance increased or stretched less if its resistance
decreased.
28-8

Fig. 10

o Strain gauge is used by an engineer to study crack line of building.

By sticking a strain gauge over the crack the engineer can
measure the resistance many days or even years later and see if
there has been any movement.
Example 1:
MJ2010 P42 Q10(a)

(a)

State the name of an electrical sensing device that will respond to

changes in
(i) length,
strain gauge
(ii)

pressure.
transducer/piezo-electric/quartz crystal

Example 2:
ON09P41Q9(a)&(b)

A metal wire strain gauge is firmly fixed across a crack in a wall, as shown in
Fig. 9.1, so that the growth of the crack may be monitored.

28-9

(a)

Explain why, as the crack becomes wider, the resistance of the strain
gauge increases.
Solution:
The resistance of wire,
as crack widens, increases and
so resistance increases.

(b)

decreases

The strain gauge has an initial resistance of 143.0 and, after being
fixed in position across the crack for several weeks, the resistance is
found to be 146.2 .
The change in the area of cross-section of the strain gauge wire is
negligible.
Calculate the percentage increase in the width of the crack. Explain your
working.
Solution:

100

100

2.24
28.2 The ideal operational amplifier
Once the output of the sensing device is in the form of a voltage, it may
require further change (processing) before it is used to control an
output device. The basis of many circuits used for processing the sensor
voltage is the operational amplifier or op-amp.
An operational amplifier is an integrated circuit that contains about 20
transistors together with resistors and capacitors. It is referred to as an
integrated circuit because all the components are formed on a small
slice of a semiconductor into a circuit. The whole of the integrated
28-10

circuit is encapsulated. The symbol for an op-amp and some of its

connections are shown in Fig. 11. It is referred to as an operational
amplifier because the circuit can easily be made to carry out different
operations. These operations include:
o acting as a switch when a voltage reaches a certain level
o amplifying direct voltages
o amplifying alternating voltages
o comparing two voltages and giving an output that depends on the
result of the comparison.
The op-amp has two inputs,
o inverting input (-)
o non-inverting input (+)
For many applications, the positive and the negative power supplies are
6 V or 9V.

Fig. 11 An operational amplifier and its symbols.

Properties of an ideal op-amp

o Infinite input impedance (no current enters or leaves either of the
inputs).
Connecting the op-amp to the potential divider would
change the p.d across the components in the potential
divider.
If the op-amp connection (the input) has infinite resistance
(or, more strictly, for alternating voltages, infinite
impedance) then connecting it to the potential divider will
not affect the potential differences. The input impedance of
an op-amp may be as high as 1012 , but 1016 is typical.

28-11

o Zero output impedance (the whole of the output voltage is seen

across the load connected to the output).
If the output connection had some resistance, then the
voltage produced in the op-amp (the output voltage) would
be divided between the output and the resistor connected
to the output load.
Zero output resistance (or zero output impedance) means
that all of the output voltage will be seen across the resistor
connected to the output load.
i.e. if the op-amp has zero output resistance it is acting just
like an electrical battery with zero internal resistance.
o Infinite open-loop gain (this means that when there is only a very
small input voltage, the amplifier will saturate and the output will
have the same value as the supply voltage).
The voltage gain, or simply gain of an amplifier is a measure
of how many times the output voltage is greater than the
input voltage.

When there are no components connected between the

output and the input of the op-amp (no feedback loop), the
gain that is measured is said to be the open-loop gain. The
output of the op-amp cannot be greater than the supply
voltage (from energy conservation) and so, if a very small
voltage is applied to the input and the gain is infinite, then
the output will be at the supply voltage. The output cannot
be any greater, even for a larger input signal. The amplifier
is said to be saturated.

28-12

o Infinite bandwidth (all frequencies are amplified equally).

If an alternating voltage is applied to the input, then the
output will have the same frequency but larger amplitude.
The range of frequencies that are amplified by the same
amount (the input signals of different frequencies that all
have the same gain) is known as the bandwidth.
Note: the bandwidth of an op-amp is the range of

frequencies that will produce an output voltage without a

big attenuation.
o Infinite slew rate
When the input signal is changed, then the output signal will
also change.
The slew rate is a measure of the time delay between the
changes to the input and output. (or how fast the op-amp
can respond to changes in the input)
A high slew rate implies a short time delay. With an infinite
slew rate there is no delay.
The operational amplifier as a comparator
o When an op-amp is incorporated in an electrical circuit, it is
usually connected to a dual power supply so that the output
voltage can be either positive or negative. Such a power supply
can be represented as two sets of batteries, as shown in Fig. 12,

Fig. 12 The op-amp used as a comparator

28-13

o The link between the two batteries is referred to as the zero volt
line or earth and it provides the reference from which the
voltages on the inputs and the output are measured. The output
Vout of this circuit is given by

where

is the voltage at the non-inverting input,

is the voltage at the inverting input,
is the open-loop gain of the amplifier.

o Consider case 1, where,

non-inverting input,
is 0.95 V,
inverting input,
is 0.94 V,
10
supply voltages are 6 V
By substituting into the equation, the output voltage
10
0.95 0.94
1000 V.

From energy considerations, these answers are impossible since

the output voltage can never exceed the power supply voltage.
The amplifier is saturated and the output voltage will be +6 V.
o Consider case 2, where,
3.652 V
3.654 V
supply voltages are 6 V
10
3.652 3.654

200 V

o From energy considerations, these answers are impossible since

the output voltage can never exceed the power supply voltage.
The amplifier is saturated and the output voltage will be -6 V. So,
If

, the output is
28-14

 If
, the output is
the polarity of the output depends on which input is the
larger.
o The circuit of Fig. 12 is called a comparator because it compares
the voltages applied to the non-inverting and the inverting inputs
and then gives an output that depends on whether
or
.
Example 3:
ON07P4Q8

(a)

Fig. 8.1 shows a circuit incorporating an ideal operational amplifier (opamp).

The voltage applied to the inverting and the non-inverting inputs are
and respectively.
State the value of the output voltage
(i)
(ii)
(b)

-9 V
+9 V

when

,
.

The circuit of Fig. 8.2 is used to monitor the input voltage

28-15

At point A, a potential of 5.0 V is maintained. At point B, a potential of

3.0 V is maintained.
Complete Fig. 8.3 by indicating with a tick the light-emitting diodes
(LEDs) that are conducting for the input voltages
shown. Also, mark
with a cross (X) those LEDs that are not conducting.
+2.0
+4.0
+6.0

Red LED
X

Green LED
X
X

Fig. 8.3

(c)

The input voltage

in (b) is provided by a sensor circuit.
(i) Complete Fig. 8.4 to show a sensor circuit that will provide a
voltage output that increases as the temperature of the sensor
decreases. Show clearly the output connections from the circuit.

Output V

28-16

(ii)

Explain the operation of the sensor circuit.

as temperature decreases, thermistor resistance
p.d. across thermistor =
as

increases.

increases, output increases

When a circuit incorporating an op-amp is used as a comparator, it is

usual to connect each of the two inputs to a potential divider, as shown
in Fig. 13.
o One potential divider provides a fixed voltage at one input while
the other potential divider provides a voltage dependent on light
intensity.
o In Fig. 13, the resistors of resistance R will give rise to a constant
voltage of

at the inverting input.

o The LDR, of resistance

resistor of resistance F.

is connected in series with a fixed

Fig. 13 The op-amp used as a comparator to monitor illumination

o If
(that is, the LDR is in darkness), then
output is positive.

and the

o If
(that is, the LDR is in daylight), then
output is negative.

and the

o The output can be made to operate an output device such as LED.

28-17

o It can be seen that by suitable choice of the resistance F, the

comparator gives an output, either positive or negative, that is
dependent on light intensity. The light intensity at which the
circuit switches polarity can be varied if the resistor of resistance
F is replaced with a variable resistor.
o The LDR can be replaced by other sensors to provide alternative
sensing devices. For example, use of a thermistor can provide a
frost-warning device.
Example 4:
For the circuit shown below, the resistance of the thermistor T is 8 k at a
temperature of 15 C. What are
and , the potentials at the inverting and
non-inverting inputs? And what happens when the temperature falls so that
the resistance of T rises above 10 k?
Solution:
p.d. at A

5.0 V

p.d. at B

4.5 V

the op-amp acts as a comparator and, since

is larger than , the output
will be the highest voltage that the op-amp can produce, in this case +9 V.
The thermistor T is a negative temperature coefficient thermistor and so its
resistance rises sharply and eventually becomes larger than 10 k.
Suppose it becomes 12 k. Then,
p.d. at A
9 4.1 V
Now
smaller that
and the op-amp output voltage is the lowest it can
provide, near the negative supply voltage, in this case -9 V.
The switch from +9 V to 9 V is quite sudden because of the large open-loop
voltage gain.
The value of the temperature when the output voltage switches from +9V to 9V can be altered by adjusting the resistance of the resistor in series with the
thermistor.
28-18

 Operational amplifiers and feedback

o Feedback is a process whereby a fraction of the output of any
device is fed back to the input, so as to assist in the control of the
device.
Much of the movement of humans is controlled by feedback.
If a person wishes to pick up an object, for example, then the
person stretched out a hand while, at the same time, looking
at the hand and the object. The visual signal from the eye is
fed back to the brain to provide control for the hand. This
feedback is a continuous process refining the position of the
hand relative to the object.
o For an amplifier circuit, the basic arrangement is as shown in Fig.
14.

Fig. 14 An amplifier circuit with feedback

o A fraction of the output signal

is fed back and added to the
input signal
. The amplifier has open-loop gain
and it
amplifies whatever voltage there is at its input. So,
the amplifier input

and this gives

1
the overall voltage gain (or simply gain)
is given by

of the amplifier

28-19

o Note: if the fraction is negative, then 1

is greater than
unity and the overall gain of the amplifier circuit is less than the
open-loop gain of the operational amplifier itself.
o This is known as negative feedback.

Negative feedback seems, at first sight, to defeat the object

of an amplifier. However, the reduction in amplification is a
small price to pay for the benefits.
These benefits:
1) increased bandwidth (the range of frequencies for
which the gain is constant)
2) less distortion of the output (output signal is exactly
For higher frequency, the voltage gain is
the same as input signal)
small. This means that the amplification
signal of 10 Hz to 10 Hz is unstable. The
3) greater stability (the gain is more stable, not affected
lower frequency amplification is very
by changes in temperature, etc)
much higher than the high frequency.
4) the output resistance (impedance) can be low and the
input resistance (impedance) high.
o Negative feedback can be achieved by feeding part of the output of
the op-amp back to the inverting input, see Fig. 15.
5

Fig. 15 Negative feedback with an op-amp

28-20

28.3 Operational amplifier circuits

The inverting amplifier
o A circuit for an inverting amplifier incorporating an op-amp is
shown in Fig. 16.

Fig. 16 An inverting amplifier

o An input signal
is applied to the input resistor
.
o Negative feedback is applied by means of the resistor .
o The resistors
and act as a potential divider between the
input and the output of the op-amp.
o In order that the amplifier is not saturated, the two input voltages
must be almost the same.
o To understand how the inverting amplifier works, we need to
understand the concept of the virtual earth approximation.
In this approximation, the potential at the inverting input (-)
is very close to 0 V.
1) The op-amp multiplies the difference in potential
between the inverting and non-inverting inputs,
and , to produce the output voltage
. Because
the open-loop voltage gain is very high, the difference
between
and
must be almost zero.
2) The non-inverting input (+) is connected to the zero
volt line so
0. Thus
must be close to zero and
the inverting input (-) is almost at earth potential.
o Point P is known as a virtual earth. It cannot actually be 0 V but it
is very close to 0 V.
28-21

o The input impedance of the op-amp itself is very large and so

there is no current in either the non-inverting or the inverting
inputs. So all the current from, or to, the input signal to the circuit
must pass through the feedback resistor to the output, as shown
in Fig. 17.

Fig. 17 Feedback current

o Because the inverting input is at zero volts, a positive input gives

rise to a negative output and vice versa. This is why the
arrangement is given the name inverting amplifier.
o Referring to Fig. 17, since the input resistance of the op-amp is
infinite,
current in
current in
and
. .

. .

The potential at P is zero (virtual earth) and so

0 0
The overall voltage gain of the amplifier circuit is given by,
voltage gain
o The negative sign shows that when the input voltage is positive
then the output voltage is negative and when the input is positive
the output is negative.
o It the input voltage is alternating then there will be a phase
difference of 180 or rad between the input and the output
voltages.

28-22

 The non-inverting amplifier

o The circuit for a non-inverting amplifier incorporating an op-amp
is shown in Fig. 18.

Fig. 18 A non-inverting amplifier

o The input signal

is applied to the non-inverting input.
o Negative feedback is provided by means of the potential divider
consisting of resistors and .
o As long as the op-amp is not saturated, the potential difference
between the inverting (-) and non-inverting (+) is almost zero. So
.
o Since the non-inverting input (+) is connected to the input
voltage,
. Thus,
.
o The two resistors and form a potential divider. The total
voltage across and is
and the voltage across
alone is
.
o The current in the two resistors can be written as:

voltage gain

o The non-inverting amplifier produces an output voltage that is in

phase with the input voltage. When the input voltage is positive,
so is the output voltage.
28-23

Example 5:
MJ10P42Q9

(a)

Negative feedback may be used in amplifier circuits. State

(i)

what is meant by negative feedback.

Fraction of the output (signal) is added to the input (signal);
Out of phase by 180 between input and output voltages.

(ii)

two effects of negative feedback on an amplifier incorporating an

operational amplifier (op-amp)
Less distortion/increases bandwidth/gain is more stable/reduces
gain

(b)

Fig. 9.1 is a circuit for an amplifier that is used with a microphone.

The output potential difference
is 4.4 V when the potential at point
P is 62 mV. Determine,
(i) the gain of the amplifier
.

Gain
(ii)

71

the resistance of the resistor R.

1
1

(c)

71
71

1.7

10

The maximum potential produces by the microphone at point P on Fig.

9.1 is 95 mV.
The power supply for the operational amplifier may be either 5 V or
9 V.

28-24

State which power supply should be used. Justify your answer

quantitatively.
For the amplifier not to saturate,
Maximum output = 71 95 10
Power supply should be 9 V.

6.7 V

Example 6:
MJ09P4Q10

(a)

By reference to an amplifier, explain what is meant by negative feedback.

(part of) the output is added to/returned to /mixed with the input
and is out of phase with the input/fed to inverting input.

(b)

An amplifier circuit incorporating an ideal operational amplifier (opamp) is shown in Fig. 10.1.
The supply for the op-amp is 9.0 V.
The amplifier circuit is to have a gain of 25.
Calculate the resistance of resistor R.
25 1
5 k

(c)

State the value of the output

voltages
of
(i) -0.08 V
-2 V
(ii) +4.0 V
+9 V

of the amplifier in (b) for input

28.4 Output devices

Circuits incorporating op-amps produce an output voltage. This output
voltage can be used to operate warning lamps, digital meters, motors etc.
However, the output of an op-amp cannot exceed a current of more than
25 mA. Otherwise, the op-amp would be destroyed.
In fact, op-amps generally contain an output resistor so that, should the
output be shorted, the op-amp will not be damaged.
28-25

 The sensing circuit may be required to switch on or off an appliance that

requires a large current; e.g. an electric motor. The switching on or off of
a large current by means of a small current can be achieved using a
relay.
The relay
o It is an electromagnetic switch that uses a small current to switch
on or off a larger current.
o The symbol for a relay is shown in Fig. 19.

Fig. 19 A relay

o When a current passes through the coil of the electromagnet, the

iron armature is attracted on to the iron core of the electromagnet.
o The armature turns about the pivot and closes the gap between
the switch contacts.
o In this way, a small current can be used to switch on a much
greater current.
For example, when the ignition switch of a car is turned on,
a small current passes through the electromagnet coil so the
relay switch closes. This allows a much greater current to
pass through the starter motor.
o The connection of a relay to the output of an op-amp circuit is
shown in Fig. 20.

28-26

Fig. 20 The connection of a relay to an op-amp

The diode D1 conducts only when the output is positive with

respect to earth and thus the relay coil is energized only
when the output is positive.
When the current in the relay coil is switched off, an e.m.f. is
induced (back e.m.f.) across the terminal in the coil.
This e.m.f. could be large enough (because of a very rapid
fall in magnetic flux within the coil) to damage the op-amp.
A diode D2 is connected across the coil to protect the opamp from this back e.m.f.
When the output of the op-amp is positive, the diode
D2 is reverse-biased and will not conduct any current.
When the op-amp is switched off, the diode D2 is
forward-biased and will conduct current. The induced
voltage is the coil causes the bottom of the coil to be
more positive than the top of the coil. (D2 creates an
easy path for the current to circulate until the relays
inductance has lost all its energy, through wire and
diode.
Example 7:
MJ10P42Q10

(a)

State the name of an electrical sensing device that will respond to

changes in
(i)
(ii)

length,
strain gauge
pressure.
transducer/quartz crystal/piezo-electric
28-27

(b)

A relay is sometimes used as the output of a sensing circuit.

The output of a particular sensing circuit is either +2 V or -2 V.
On Fig. 10.1, draw symbols for a relay and any other necessary
component so that the external circuit is switched on only when the
output from the sensing circuit is +2 V.

The light-emitting diode (LED)

o The LED is a semiconductor device that is robust, reliable and
dissipates much less power than a filament lamp; commonly used
as indicators because they have a low power consumption.
o They are available in different colours including red, green, yellow
and amber.

Fig. 21 Symbol for a light-emitting diode (LED)

o The LED emits light only when it is forward-biased.

o A resistor is frequently connected in series with an LED so that,
when the LED is forward biased (the diode is conducting), the
current is not so large as to damage the LED.
o A typical maximum forward current for an LED is 20 mA.
Furthermore, the LED will be damaged if the reverse bias voltage
exceeds about 5 V.
28-28

Fig. 22 Circuit using two diodes to indicate whether the output from an op-amp is positive or
negative with respect to earth.

o When the output is positive with respect to earth, diode D1 will

conduct and emit light. Diode D2 will not conduct because it is
reverse biased.
o If the polarity of the output changes, then D2 will conduct and emit
light and D1 will not emit light.
o The state of the output can be seen by which diode is emitting
light. The diodes can be chosen so that they emit light of different
colours.
Example 8:
ON09P41Q10

The circuit of Fig. 10.1 may be used to indicate temperature change.

28-29

The resistance of the thermistor T at 16C is 2100 and at 18C, the resistance
is 1900. Each resistor P has a resistance of 2000.
Determine the change in the states of the light-emitting diodes R and G as the
temperature of the thermistor changes from 16C to 18C.
Solution:
At 16C,
1.00V,
0.98V (
)
So, at 16C, output is positive.
Diode R is on and diode G is off.
As temperature rises, diode R goes off and diode G goes on.

Example 9:
MJ08P4Q9

A block diagram for an electronic sensor is shown in Fig. 9.1.

(a)

Complete Fig. 9.1 by labeling the remaining boxes.

(b)

A device is to be built that will emit a red light when its input is at +2V.
When the input is at -2V, the light emitted is to be green.
(i)

On Fig. 9.2, draw a circuit diagram of the device.

(ii)

Explain briefly the action of this device.

correct polarity for diode to conduct identified
hence red LED conducts when input (+) or vice versa.
28-30

 Digital and analogue meters as output devices

o An LED may be used to indicate whether an output is positive or
negative. If the output is from a comparator, then LEDs can give
information as to, for example, whether a temperature is above or
below a set value. However, the LED does not give a value of the
temperature reading.
o Many sensors, for example, a thermistor or an LDR, are non-linear.
It was seen that the sensor could be connected into a potential
divider circuit so that the output of the potential divider varied
with some property, for example temperature or light intensity.
This variable voltage could be measured using an analogue or a
digital voltmeter.
o The reading on the voltmeter would vary with the property being
monitored. However, the reading on the voltmeter would not vary
linearly with change in the property. In order that the property
can be measured, a calibration curve is required.
o The reading on the voltmeter is recorded for known values of the
property X (i.e. the physical property that changes its resistance).
For example:
a thermistor can be used to measure temperature
an LDR can be used to measure light intensity
a strain gauge can be used to monitor strain
o A graph is then plotted showing the variation with the property X
of the voltmeter reading. The value of the property X can then be
read from the graph for any particular reading on the voltmeter.

Fig. 23 A calibration curve

28-31

Example 10:
MJ12P41Q10

A student designs an electronic sensor that is to be used to switch on a lamp

when the light intensity is low. Part of the circuit is shown in Fig. 10.1.

(a)

State the name of the component labeled X on Fig. 10.1.

[1]
light-dependent resistor (allow LDR)
(b) On Fig. 10.1, draw the symbols for
(i) two resistors to complete the circuit for the sensing device,
[2]
two resistors in series between +5V line and earth
midpoint connected to inverting input of op-amp
(ii) a relay to complete the circuit for the processing unit. [2]
relay coil between diode and earth
switch between lamp and earth
(c)(i)
State the purpose of the relay.
[1]
switch on/off mains supply using a low voltage/current
output
(ii)
Suggest why the diode is connected to the output of the
operational amplifier (op-amp) in the direction shown.
[2]
relay will switch on for one polarity of output (voltage)
switches on when output (voltage) is negative

28-32

Example 11:
MJ12P42Q9

An operational amplifier (op-amp) may be used as part of the processing unit

in an electronic sensor.
(a) State four properties of an ideal operational amplifier.
[4]
infinite input impedance/resistance
zero output impedance/resistance
infinite (open loop) gain
infinite bandwidth
infinite slew rate
(b) A comparator circuit incorporating an ideal op-amp is shown in Fig. 9.1.

The variation with time t of the input potential VIN is shown in Fig. 9.2.

On the axes of Fig. 9.2, draw a graph to show the variation with time of
the output potential VOUT.
[3]
square wave
180 phase change
amplitude 5.0V
28-33

(c)The output potential VOUT is to be displayed using two light-emitting

diodes (LEDs). A diode emitting red light is to indicate when V OUT is
positive and a diode emitting green light is to be used to indicate when
VOUT is negative.
Complete Fig. 9.3 to show the connections of the two LEDs to the output
of the op-amp. Label each LED with the colour of light that it emits.
[3]

correct symbol for LED

diodes connected correctly between
diodes identified correctly

and earth

Example 12:
ON13P43Q9

(a)

State three properties of an ideal operational amplifier (op-amp). [3]

(b)

An amplifier circuit is shown in Fig. 9.1.

(i) Calculate the gain of the amplifier circuit.

.
gain 1
.
10
(ii) The variation with time of the input potential

[2]

is shown in Fig. 9.2.

28-34

On the axes of Fig. 9.2, show the variation with time of the output
potential
.
[3]
straight line from (0, 0) toward
1.0V,
10V
horizontal line at
9.0V to
2.0V
correct +9.0V -9.0V (and correct shape to
0)
Example 13:
ON10P43Q10

(a)
(b)

State three properties of an ideal operational amplifier (op-amp). [3]

A circuit incorporating an ideal op-amp is to be used to indicate whether
a door is open or closed.
Resistors, each of resistance R, are connected to the inputs of the opamp, as shown in Fig. 10.1.

The switch S is attached to the door so that, when the door is open, the
switch is open.
The switch closed when the door is closed.
(i) Explain why the polarity of the output of the op-amp changes
when the switch closes.
[3]
with switch open,
is less (positive) than
output is positive
with switch closed,
is more (positive) than
so output is
negative
28-35

(ii)

A red light-emitting diode (LED) is to be used to indicate when the

door is open.
A green LED is to indicate when the door is closed.
On Fig. 10.1,
1.
draw symbols for LEDs to show how they are connected to
the output of the op-amp.
[1]
diodes connected correctly between output and earth
2.
identify the green LED with the letter G.
[1]
green identified correctly

Example 14:
ON11P42Q9

(a)

(b)

State two effects of negative feedback on the gain of an amplifier

incorporating an operational amplifier (op-amp).
[2]
reduced gain/increase stability/greater bandwidth or less distortion
An incomplete circuit diagram of a non-inverting amplifier using an
ideal op-amp is shown in Fig. 9.1.

(i)

(ii)

Complete the circuit diagram of Fig. 9.1. Label the input and the
output.
[2]
connected to midpoint between resistors.
clear and input to
clear
Calculate the resistance of resistor R so that the non-inverting
amplifier has a voltage gain of 15.
[2]
gain 1
15

(c)

1
860

On Fig. 9.2, draw a graph to show variation with input potential

the output potential VOUT.
You should consider input potentials in the range 0 to +1.0 V.

of

28-36

(d) The output of the amplifier circuit of Fig 9.1 may be connected to a relay.
State and explain one purpose of a relay.
[2]
relay can be used to switch a large current/voltage
output current of op-amp is a few mA/very small

28-37